MILITARY SYSTEM AND SCHOOLS IN RUSSIA AND OTHER STATES.
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VIII. MILITARY SYSTEM AND EDUCATION IN RUSSIA.
I. MILITARY SYSTEM.
The Emperor is commander-in-chief of all the forces, by sea and land,
assisted by the Staff-Office, the members of which are expert linguists,
as well as scientific experienced and military officers. The army is
under a Minister of War, assisted by a colleague and a military council.
The office of Master of Ordnance is generally filled by a grand prince.
The regular force, or army of occupation consists of about 783,000 men,
which can be easily swelled to at least 1,200,000, as the whole male
population are liable to serve when summoned. The army is mainly
recruited by conscription, which falls on the serfs and laboring
population, as the nobility, officials, clergy and merchants are
exempted. The term of service is twenty years for the guards, twenty-two
for the line, and twenty-five for the train and military servants. But
few pensions are granted to discharged or furloughed soldiers, although
veteran soldiers are frequently appointed to situations as doorkeepers,
watchmen, overseers, &c., in government establishments and public
institutions.
Promotion by seniority, imperial favor, and good conduct on the field.
Every officer must be educated and trained to his business, and serve
from the lowest to the highest rank. Non-commissioned officers,
musicians, assistant veterinary surgeons, head workmen in the military
workshops and factories must all be trained for their special duties.
A large portion of these classes are the sons of soldiers, who have been
surrendered by their parents to the government, who receive them at the
age of six or twelve, by special arrangement. They are termed
_cantonists_. Among the special military schools of a technological
character are, eleven for garrison artillery; three for armories; three
for powder mills; three for arsenals; one for riding masters; one for
fencing; one for accountants; one for topographical drawing, &c.
II. MILITARY SCHOOL FOR OFFICERS.
The officers of the Russian army obtain their first commission after
passing through the Military Schools or Cadet Corps, or if qualified in
scientific and other instruction, ascertained by open examination, by
serving as privates six months, and as sergeants or ensign two years.
Applicants for the Staff Corps, must have served as officers two years,
must be recommended by their superior, and have been two years in the
Staff School--and there pass an honorable examination in military
history and strategy. The following statistics are taken from the
_Kalender_ of the St. Petersburg Academy, for 1859.
I. Under a Commission or Board of Military Instruction, which reports
directly to the Emperor, there are
3 Military Schools of Special Application, viz.:
1 The Nicholas Academy of the Staff, with 22 and 250
teachers scholars.
1 The Nicholas Upper Engineer School, “ 50 “ 126 “
1 The Michael Artillery School, “ 32 “ 117 “
1 Page Corps, or College “ 41 “ 159 “
1 Ensign’s School of the Guards, “ 31 “ 206 “
22 Cadet Corps or Military Colleges, “ 723 “ 7440 “
-- --- -----
27 899 “ 8,298 “
The Cadet Corps, or Military Schools, receive their pupils young, and
impart a general as well as a scientific education, preparatory to
entering the Special Schools of Application either for Engineer, or
Artillery, and later in years and experience, the Staff School. These
Special Military Schools are not surpassed by any of the same class in
Europe.
II. Under the Ministry of War there are the following Scientific
Establishments and Schools.
22 Military Schools, with 326 and 10,000
teachers scholars.
3 Lower or Element. Artillery Schools, 22 “ 166 “
1 Topographers’ School, with 13 “ 140 “
1 Medico-Chirurgical Academy, with
Military Hospitals, 35 “ 978 “
3 Veterinary Schools, 1,020 “
12,304 “
The Military Schools are of an elementary and technological character,
and are intended to supersede a class of schools known as the
_Cantonist_ Schools.
The experience of the Crimean War demonstrated to the world, the wise
forecast of the Russian government in providing for the thorough
scientific and practical training of the officers of her great armies as
was confessed by the “_London Times_,” in the bitter disappointments of
the English people with their own officers.
THE IMPERIAL STAFF SCHOOL AT ST. PETERSBURG.
[Extracts from Governmental Regulations.]
I. GENERAL DIRECTIONS.
A Military Academy, the highest institution of its class, is founded in
St. Petersburg, to educate Officers for the service of the General
Staff, and to promote the diffusion of Military Science in general. Its
special functions are--
1. To prepare Officers for the special service of the General Staff.
2. To furnish to a certain number of Officers from the Artillery and
Chief Engineer School a course of Grand Tactics and Strategy, on the
same principles and to the same extent as it is furnished to the
Officers preparing for the Service of the General Staff.
3. To apply all the means indicated in these Regulations to the
diffusion of Military Science.
From forty to fifty Officers shall be educated in the Academy for the
special service of the General Staff, and about ten from the Artillery
and from the Chief Engineer School.
The Military Academy is under the immediate control of the Chief of the
Staff of His Imperial Majesty, and is under the direction of a President
appointed by the Emperor.
A Council, presided over by the President, considers and determines all
important questions relating to Studies and Economic Administration.
A Vice-President, appointed by the Emperor, is associated with the
President to assist him in the performance of his official duties.
The Officers receiving an education for the General Staff are placed
under the control of four Staff Officers appointed by the Emperor.
The subjects of Study and the Scientific Course are divided into two
Sections, the Theoretical and the Practical.
The number of Professors, Adjuncts, and Teachers is determined according
to circumstances by the Academic Council, with the approbation of the
Chief of the Staff of his Imperial Majesty.
The Salaries of the Officials for the internal service of the Academy
are fixed in the List annexed to these Statutes.
It is the most sacred duty of the whole Staff of the Academy, and in
particular of the Chiefs and Professors, never to lose sight of its
object; and while they devote themselves to extend the knowledge of the
student Officers, to impress upon them, by teaching and example, the
precepts of the purest morality, the true and exact performance of their
professional duties, an unconditional obedience to their superiors, and
an inviolable devotion to the throne and their country.
The Academy has a peculiar Seal.
II. ADMISSION TO STUDENTS.
Only Superior Officers can enter into the Academy, and these up to the
rank of Staff Captain if they serve in the Guards, Artillery, or
Engineers; up to the rank of Captain, if they belong to an Army
Regiment.
The Directors of the Noble Guard School, of the Page Corps, of the
First, Second, Pant, Moscow, and Finland Cadet Corps, have the right to
propose in the proper quarter, for admission into the Academy, the most
distinguished Officers who have left these military institutions.
The Officers proposed for admission into the Academy must be at least
eighteen years old, and be distinguished for capacity, industry,
diligence, morals, and good conduct.
Officers from the Regiments and Artillery Brigades must present
testimonials of blameless morals, conduct, and zeal for the Service from
the Chief of their Division. Officers from the Engineer Battalions must
present similar testimonials from the Chiefs of their Brigades.
Those who give testimonials are strictly responsible for their truth, as
are the Chiefs of the Military Schools for the capacity and
qualifications of the Officers they propose.
Admission into the Academy depends upon a strict examination in the
following subjects:--
_a._ Languages:
Russian, German, or French.
_b._ Mathematics:
Arithmetic, Algebra to Equations of the Second Degree, Plane and Solid
Geometry, and Plane Trigonometry.
_c._ Military Sciences:
The Principles of Intrenchment, Fortification, and Artillery.
_d._ Evolution:
Evolutions of a Battalion of Tirailleurs, of a Squadron, of a Whole
Line, of a Scattered Front (_Zerstreuten Fronte_,) and, lastly, the
Service of Outposts.
_e._ History:
General History of the World to the sixteenth century in its chief
epochs, particularly in reference to Russia; special Histories of the
European States in modern times.
_f._ Geography:
Universal Geography, and particularly that of the Russian Empire and
the neighboring States.
Besides this, a clear conception of Situation, Plans, and
Topographical Charts is required.
III. METHOD OF INSTRUCTION.
The Scientific Course is divided into two Sections,--The Theoretical and
the Practical. The Theoretical part of the higher Military Sciences is
expounded by the Professors, their Adjuncts, and the Teachers. Those
Officers who belong to the Practical Section exercise themselves under
the guidance of the Professors.
_a._ In Written Exercises on any proposed Military Subject.
_b._ In the composition of Military Descriptions (_Beschreibungen_,)
of every kind.
_c._ In the Art of taking Military Surveys of a Country, and of
judging the Tactical Nature of a Ground.
In each Section there are from twenty to twenty-five Officers destined
for the Service of the General Staff, and from four to five from the
Artillery and Chief Engineer School.
These Officers, according to their capacities and attainments in the
Military Sciences, enter either into the Theoretical Section or into
both the Theoretical and the Practical Section at the same time, and
remain in each a year.
The complete Academic Course in both Sections extends over two years.
The following subjects are taught:--
_a._ Russian literature, with particular reference to the composition
of Military Essays in a faultless style, and to the style of the
Military Chancery (writing department of the War Office.)
_b._ General ideas on Artillery, and more precise details on the same
subject as a Special Arm; its use in the open field and in sieges.
_c._ Petty Tactics in the employment of a single Division, with which
all Officers must be thoroughly familiar, as this is indispensable to
all. To this is joined the theory of the formation of columns, of their
use, of the effect of the fire of Infantry, and lastly, the explanation
of all evolutions with the three arms which are usually employed for
movement, deployment, or forming in order of battle.
_d._ The Elements of Topography and Geodesy, of Military Drawing, and
the art of measuring situations by the eye.
_e._ Military coup d’œil (_Scharfblick_,) and the art of judging the
tactical nature of ground.
_f._ Castrametation, or the art of encamping, and the theory of
positions.
_g._ Logistic, or all that relates to the details of marches, either
in presence of the enemy, or in the movement of troops from one place to
another.
_h._ Intrenchment and fortification, as far as regards the attack and
defense of intrenched camps and fortified places, and the effect of
intrenchments and fortifications on the operations of an active army.
_i._ Grand Tactics, embracing the various systems of the Order of
Battle; and the formation and employment of the Three Arms, and treating
of unexpected engagements or the sudden collision of two hostile
Divisions.
_k._ The Military Geography of Europe, particularly that of the
Russian Empire and the neighboring States.
_l._ Military Statistics, or knowledge of the land and sea Forces and
warlike means of all the European States.
_m._ Strategy in all its extent; with a criticism on the last wars,
and an indication of the events which demonstrate the influence of this
science on the success of a campaign.
_n._ A general view of military history in its most remarkable
periods, from the earliest times to Peter the Great, and a more complete
view of the Military History of modern times.
_o._ The literary History of the Military Sciences, with a criticism
on the best ancient and modern writers on the History of War; and a
special reference of those who may contribute to the further education
of the Officers after their departure from the Academy.
_p._ Duties of the General Staff Officer in times both of peace and
war.
_q._ The art of riding.
The officers of the Practical Division are employed on the same
Sciences; not, however, during the hours of lecture, but by practicing
under the direction of the Professors, and according to the regulations
of the Academic authorities.
The subjects they are employed upon are principally the following:--
_a._ Topographical and Tactical description of ground after
inspection.
_b._ Military Geography and Statistics.
_c._ Logistic.
_d._ Grand Tactics.
_e._ Strategy.
_f._ Military History.
_g._ Literature of the Military Sciences.
_h._ Designing plans of battles and manœuvres, as exercises in
Topography, Logistic, and Tactics.
_i._ Historic reports, and keeping the usual journal of the General
Staff.
_j._ All that belong to the survey of a country, and the practical
working of the Artillery and Siege operations.
Teachers are appointed for those officers who require to be perfected in
the French or German language.
All the sciences are taught in the Academy in the Russian language; and
an exposition in French or German is only allowed when dictated by
circumstances, and then a special permission must be first obtained from
the Chief of the Staff of his Imperial Majesty.
The Officers of the Practical Section are also required to use their
native tongue in their written exercises, except in one or two composed
in a foreign language by the direction of the authorities.
In summer, the Officers of the Theoretical Section repair to regiments
to which they are directed to learn the camp service. The Officers of
the Practical Section make surveys and reconnaissances, mark out camps
and proportionate intrenchments on a given ground. At the time of grand
manœuvres, they are associated with Officers of the General Staff, and
have the opportunity of witnessing the practical exercises of the
Artillery and Sappers, in order to be able to make a report as
eye-witnesses on the effect of Artillery and Siege operations.
IV. LOCAL REGULATIONS.
All Officers receiving an education in the Academy are entered on the
rolls of their Regiments, Artillery Brigades, and Sapper Battalions, as
supernumeraries and detached Officers, without, however, losing their
standing or right of promotion by seniority, their pay, servants’
rations, or any other advantages enjoyed by Officers present with their
troop.
Those Officers who enter the Academy from the Regiments of the Garrison
of St. Petersburg continue, while they belong to it, to perform the
front service of their Regiments; those who come from the Artillery and
Sapper Brigades, or from Regiments not stationed in St. Petersburg, are
attached for the front service to one of the Regiments of the Garrison
of St. Petersburg; the necessary arrangements are made by the
authorities of the Guard Corps.
The Officers of the Artillery and Chief Engineer School, having only to
attend the Course of Grand Tactics and Strategy, retain their posts
while studying in the Academy.
Four Staff Officers, appointed by the Emperor, have the immediate
control of the Officers preparing themselves for the service of the
General Staff; they are to exercise a vigilant supervision over them,
and to report on their conduct to the Vice-President; they are the organ
by which all orders reach the Officers, and they form a Court of the
First Instance in matters relating to the Service.
One day in the week is devoted to drill, and every day two officers
mount guard with the first division of the garrison of St. Petersburg.
The Officers are to devote exclusively to study the leisure hours at
their command after the performance of front and garrison duties; and
are to observe, in all respects, the Statutes of the Academy.
To facilitate, economically, the residence of the Officers in St.
Petersburg, they receive, with the exception of those belonging to the
Guard, besides their usual pay and an allowance for quarters according
to their rank, an annual allowance of 500 roubles, which is paid in the
Academy.
Officers ordered to survey a country, or to make a reconnaissance,
receive their traveling expenses from the Commissariat, according to the
distance to which they are sent, and in proportion to their rank: their
board expenses are not allowed.
V. REGULATIONS RESPECTING PROMOTION.
The course is terminated, and Students finish their career, in October
annually.
At the same time, Officers are removed from the Theoretical section to
the Practical, making place for candidates who wish to enter the former.
At their departure from the Academy the Officers receive from the
Academic Council testimonials of conduct and scientific attainments,
with a memorial of the rewards which they receive at leaving.
On leaving the Academy the Officers have to act as follows: those who
belonged to the Artillery, or Chief Engineer School, repair to their
highest Commanding Officer; the rest, who were educated for the service
of the General Staff, return to their Regiments, Artillery Brigades, or
Sapper Battalions, on whose rolls they remain as supernumeraries and
Officers reckoned as of the General Staff, until they are formally
transferred to the latter.
The rewards to which Officers can acquire a claim at leaving the Academy
are the following:--The most distinguished is promoted to the lowest
rank (on the Staff,) and receives a golden medal; he is only entitled to
this if all the teachers give him the full number balls, and unanimously
recognize him as most conspicuous for attainments. Besides this, he must
have written a satisfactory essay on a given theme, relating to some
important war, and have been blameless in moral conduct during his
residence in the Academy. The student who is recognized as second, both
in attainments and behavior, and has also obtained the full number of
balls, is rewarded with the great silver medal, and receives double pay
for a year. The student who obtains the third place in attainments and
behavior, and the full number of balls, receives the little silver
medal, and double pay for a year. Each medal bears the name of its
possessor. Besides this, the names of all those who obtain one of the
three above-mentioned rewards are engraved on marble tablets, which
adorn the walls of one of the halls of the Academic building.
Should any of the Students feel no inclination for the service of the
General Staff, even after a successful termination of the Theoretical
Course, he may always request to be dismissed to his Regiment, Artillery
Brigade, or Sapper Battalion.
Every Officer who at his departure from the Academy obtains a
testimonial of having accomplished the object of his admission, and in
consequence is provisionally destined for the service of the General
Staff, if he continues after his return to his Regiment to educate
himself for his vocation, and distinguishes himself by observance of a
strict discipline, by conduct and zeal for the service, is rewarded at
the end of a year by being completely transferred to the General Staff;
and if he belonged to the Young Guard, the Artillery, or a Sapper
Battalion, his right to promotion immediately commences; not so if he
belonged to Troops of the Line.
Every year, on the 1st of January, the Chief of the Regiment, Artillery
Brigade, or Sapper Battalion in command of an Officer reckoned as of the
General Staff, forwards his form and his conduct list to the
Quartermaster-General of the General Staff, who lays it before the Chief
of the General Staff. At the same time the above-mentioned papers are
communicated to the Chief in command of the Officer.
Besides this, the above-mentioned Chief makes a similar report on the
zeal for the service and moral conduct of the Officers twice a year,
namely, on the 1st of March and the 1st of September; and at the same
time reports exactly on the way in which he performs the service of the
front.
No Officer reckoned as of the General Staff is to be charged with the
duties of Paymaster service in his Regiment, or employed as
Quartermaster; and if any General wishes to select him for his Adjutant,
he must first communicate with the Quartermaster-General of the General
Staff.
If the General Staff is increased in time of war, or if any work on
which it is employed requires to be accelerated in time of peace, the
Chief of the General Staff commissions the Quartermaster-General to
select the requisite number out of the Officers who are reckoned as of
the General Staff. The latter then makes the selection, and announces
the names of the Officers selected to their highest Commanding Officer.
As soon as the object proposed is accomplished, these Officers return
back to their commands. Such a selection, however, can only fall upon
those who have spent at least two years with their commands after their
departure from the Academy. If in the meantime an Officer has become
Chief of a Battalion or Squadron, he shall not be transferred from this
post before the lapse of a year. As soon as any of these Officers, or,
in general, any Officer, who has left the Academy, reports himself at
his Corps, his Chief immediately announces his arrival to the
Quartermaster-General of the Staff.
To familiarize the Officers reckoned of the General Staff with the rules
of the Art of War while they remain with their commands, and to practice
them in the duties which belong to Officers of the General Staff, the
Quartermaster-General is directed to charge them with such duties as may
develop their talent, without, however, removing them for that purpose
from the service of the front. These commissions of the
Quartermaster-General are communicated through their superior Officers,
who are directed not only to watch over their performance of these
commissions, but also to assist them therein to the utmost of their
power.
[Errata for Part VI (Russia):
twenty years for the guards, twenty-two for the line,
_hyphen invisible_
[II. Under the Ministry of War there are the following ...]
_In the printed book, the last two lines of this table were out
of place. The “1,020 scholars” item was aligned with the overflow
of the “Medico-Chirurgical Academy” entry, and the total (12,304)
was aligned with “3 Veterinary Schools”._
The Military Schools are of an elementary and technological ...
_In this and the following paragraph, the first letter of each
line is invisible._
in the bitter disappointments of the English people
_hyphen in “dis-/appointments” invisible at line break_]
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