PAGE_Scotland in Pagan Times; The Iron Age

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SCOTLAND IN PAGAN TIMES

_Printed by R. & R. Clark_

FOR

DAVID DOUGLAS, EDINBURGH

LONDON HAMILTON, ADAMS, AND CO.

CAMBRIDGE MACMILLAN AND BOWES.

GLASGOW JAMES MACLEHOSE AND SONS.

ABERDEEN LEWIS SMITH AND SON.

[Illustration: THE BROCH OF CLICKAMIN, NEAR LERWICK, SHETLAND.]

SCOTLAND

PAGAN TIMES

=The Iron Age=

_THE RHIND LECTURES IN ARCHÆOLOGY

FOR 1881_

BY JOSEPH ANDERSON, LL.D.

KEEPER OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF THE

ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND

[Illustration: Ornament of Bronze Mirror.]

_EDINBURGH: DAVID DOUGLAS_

1883

_All rights reserved._

PREFATORY NOTE.

On the conclusion of my second series of Lectures on _Scotland in Early

Christian Times_, the Council of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland

having done me the honour of again appointing me to the Rhind

Lectureship for a term of two years, that I might deal with the

antiquities of the Pagan Period in Scotland, I have devoted the present

series of Lectures to the investigation of the remains of the Iron Age,

leaving those of the Bronze and Stone Ages to be dealt with in the

succeeding series.

I have to thank the Council for their permission to use such of the

Society’s woodcuts as might be suitable for the illustration of the

Lectures, and my thanks are also due to Mr. J. Romilly Allen for the use

of some of his drawings and measurements of Brochs, to Messrs. Chambers

for the view of the Broch of Mousa, and to Mr. Thomas S. Muir for the

use of his etching of the Broch of Clickamin, which forms the

frontispiece to the present volume.

J. A.

14 GILLESPIE CRESCENT, EDINBURGH,

_15th March 1883_.

CONTENTS.

LECTURE I.

CHRISTIAN AND PAGAN BURIAL—VIKING BURIALS.

Reasons for the division of the general subject into two Pages 1–65

sections, comprising Christian Times and Pagan

Times—Survival of Pagan customs in Christian

burial—Burial clothed, and with arms, ornaments, and

insignia of office—Burial with shoes on the feet—Burial

with holy-water vessels—Burial with incense vases of

clay—Viking burials—Graves in the sandhills at

Ballinaby, Islay—Their characteristics—Arms, implements,

and ornaments associated with them—Characteristics of

the art of these objects—Their art not Celtic—Phenomena

of the burials not Christian—Their unusual and

suggestive character—Determination of the typical

relations of the objects found in the graves—The sword,

spear, and shield are of the Viking types—The brooches

and silver ornaments are of Scandinavian

types—Comparison of their art with the art of the Celtic

school—No such groups of arms and ornaments associated

with Celtic burials—Their forms are those of the

Norwegian area—Typical character of the Norse burials of

the heathen Viking time—Burials, burnt or unburnt, with

grave-goods—Identity of their characteristics with those

of the Islay burials—Determination of the area of this

type of burial in Scotland—Other burials of the same

type in Islay, in Mull, in Tiree, in Barra, in Sangay,

in St. Kilda, in Sutherland, in Caithness, in Orkney, in

Shetland—Character of the art of the Norse brooches of

the Viking time—Their number in Scotland exceeds that of

the Celtic brooches—This excess an archæological result

of the difference between Paganism and Christianity—The

range of the Viking burials in Scotland establishes an

archæological area coincident with the area colonised by

the Norwegians—Viking graves in Eigg—A Viking cemetery

in Westray, Orkney—Ship-burial in Scotland—Testimony of

the earlier Sagas—Evidence of the grave-mounds—A

ship-burial, burnt, at Möklebust—Ship-burials, unburnt,

at Tune and Gökstad

LECTURE II.

NORTHERN BURIALS AND HOARDS.

Modified types of the intruded Paganism of the northern Pages 66–111

area—Burials with urns of steatite in Orkney and

Shetland—Their relation to Norwegian burials in the

Pagan Period of the Viking time—Deposits of objects not

associated with burials—Hoard of silver ornaments found

at Skaill, Orkney—Dated by Kufic and Anglo-Saxon coins

found in it—Typical characteristics of its

brooches—Special features of their

ornament—Characteristics of its neck and arm

rings—Difference in character from the Norries Law

hoard—No other hoard of similar character found in

Scotland—Similar hoards found in Norway, Sweden, and

Denmark—Character of the objects found in them—Question

of their Oriental origin—The hoard of silver ornaments

found at Cuerdale—Character of its brooches—Some of them

distinctively Celtic—Determination of the typical

relations of the Skaill brooches—Their form Celtic—Their

art partly Celtic and partly Scandinavian—Its affinities

with the art of the Scandinavian Pagan times—A figure

like that of the god Thor represented on one of the

Skaill brooches—Thor’s hammer—Thor’s face as represented

on monuments—The mixed art of these brooches implies a

mixed race—They are probably products of the area in

which they were found—Dress of the period—Hood found in

a moss in Orkney—Relations of the neck and arm rings of

silver to ornaments in gold found in Orkney and the

Western Isles—Their special forms and ornamentation are

peculiar to the area of the Scandinavian colonies in

Scotland

LECTURE III.

THE CELTIC ART OF THE PAGAN PERIOD.

Bronze headpiece, with horns, found at Torrs, Pages

Kirkcudbrightshire—Bronze headpiece, with horns, found 112–173

in the Thames—Typical relations of their ornament—Other

objects found in Scotland possessing the same

character—Swine’s head of bronze found at Liechestown,

Banffshire—Character of its ornamentation—Other objects

exhibiting the same style of art—Sword-sheath of bronze

found on the Pentland Hills—Bridle-bit, with red and

yellow enamels, found at Birrenswark, and

harness-mountings found in Annandale—Difference of the

art of these objects from that of the Celtic Christian

times—Technical skill displayed in their manufacture—The

testimony of Philostratus to the skill of the Barbarians

of the Ocean in working enamels—Such enamelled

horse-trappings found only in Britain—Bronze mirror and

other objects found at Balmaclellan, Kirkcudbright—The

character of their ornament—Such mirrors found

associated with interments of Pagan times—Pagan Cemetery

at Mount Batten, near Plymouth—Bronze mirror found in

one of the graves—Character of its ornament—Similar

mirrors found in graves at Trelan-Bahow, Cornwall, and

at Birdlip, near Gloucester—Character of their

ornament—Other bronze mirrors found in Britain—They

differ in form and ornamentation from Roman

mirrors—Their ornament discloses the existence of a

native school of art differing from the Roman

style—Bronze spoons found at Weston, near Bath, and

Llanfair, Denbighshire—Bronze collar found at Stitchell,

in Roxburghshire—Bronze armlet found at Plunton Castle,

Kirkcudbrightshire—Hoard of gold objects found on the

Shaw Hill, Peeblesshire—This group of objects, in bronze

and gold, includes characteristic examples of the work

of a special school of decorative art—Its distinctive

character—Its Celticism—Another group of objects in

bronze peculiar to Scotland—Massive enamelled bronze

armlets found at Castle Newe, Aberdeenshire—The

character of their ornament—Enamelled bronze armlets

found at Pitkellony, near Muthil—Others of similar

character found in Scotland—One found at Stanhope,

Peeblesshire, associated with a bronze vessel of Roman

type—The period of this distinctively native style of

art reaches back beyond the time of the Roman

occupation—Another group of personal ornaments in

bronze, exhibiting the special features of this school

of decorative art—Armlet, in the form of a double-headed

snake, found in the Culbin Sands—Its form and

decoration—Its character as a work of art—Armlets of

similar form found at Pitalpin, near Dundee, and at

Grange of Conan, near Arbroath—Bronze ball, with Celtic

decorations, found at Walston, Lanarkshire—Stone balls,

with ornaments of similar character, found in various

parts of Scotland—Their probable purpose—Their area—This

group of objects presents a series of examples of the

art which characterised the Iron Age Paganism of

Scotland—Its difference from the art of the Christian

time—Its special qualities and characteristics

LECTURE IV.

THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE BROCHS.

The Broch of Mousa, Shetland—Its situation and Pages

appearance—Its peculiarities of construction—Its 174–208

chambers, stairs, and galleries—Its features not related

to those of any variety of castle of historic times—Many

similar structures in different parts of Scotland—The

Brochs of Glenelg—Broch at Loch Duich—Their typical

plan—Evidence as to height—Typical characteristics of

the Brochs—They point to a double intention in the minds

of the builders—Their admirable adaptation for purposes

of shelter and defence—Range or area of the typical

form—Broch on Cockburn Law in Berwickshire—Broch at

Torwood, Stirlingshire—Broch at Coldoch,

Perthshire—Their numbers north of the Caledonian

Valley—More than three hundred examples in the five

northern counties—Significance of this result—They are

the remains of a period of architectural activity which

has no parallel in the history of the country—No example

of the type is known except in Scotland—Instances of

Brochs with peculiar features—Defensive works, wells,

and drains—Construction of the doorway—The general

adoption of such a peculiar system of strongholds points

to the existence of peculiar circumstances in the

history of the people—Uniformity of plan and

construction a striking feature alike of the Round

Towers of Ireland and the Brochs of

Scotland—Dissimilarity of the two types of

structure—Idea of which the Broch structure is the

actual embodiment—The archæology of Scotland is largely

composed of typical forms that occur nowhere else—Her

monuments and metal-work demonstrate the existence of a

National School of Decorative Art in Early Christian and

Pagan times—The remains of these structures demonstrate

the existence of a National School of Architecture as

truly unique—Significance of these facts in relation to

the unwritten history of Scotland

LECTURE V.

THE BROCHS AND THEIR CONTENTS.

Excavation of the Broch of Kettleburn, Wick, by the late Pages

Alexander Henry Rhind of Sibster—Group of objects found 209–259

in it—Their deposit in the National Museum gave a new

character to the collection of Scottish antiquities and

a new direction to Scottish archæology—Description of

the relics—Implements in stone, bone, bronze, and

iron—The food of the inhabitants of the Broch—No reason

for attributing to them an exceptionally low condition

of culture and civilisation—Excavation of the Brochs of

Kintradwell and Carn-liath, in Sutherlandshire—Group of

relics found in them—The food of the

inhabitants—Outbuildings or secondary constructions in

connection with the Brochs—Burials found in

them—Excavation of the Brochs of Yarhouse, Brounaben,

Stirkoke, Bowermadden, and Dunbeath in

Caithness—Description of relics found in them—Excavation

of the Broch of Levenwick in Dunrossness, Shetland—Its

peculiar features—The Brochs of Orkney—The Broch of

Burray—The Broch of Burwick—The Broch of Okstrow—The

Broch of Lingrow—The Broch of Burrian—Character of the

relics found in them—Determination of the general

relations of the group of remains obtained from the

Brochs—They are products of an advanced state of

culture, civilisation, and social organisation—The

relations of the structures and their contents are

Celtic, and not Scandinavian

LECTURE VI.

LAKE-DWELLINGS, HILL-FORTS, AND EARTH-HOUSES.

A Broch like Clickamin is practically a lake-dwelling—Many Pages

defensive structures in lakes which are not 260–307

Brochs—Defensive structure in the Loch of Hogsetter,

Whalsay—Its special peculiarities—Lake-dwellings

constructed of wood, known as Crannogs—The Crannogs of

the Loch of Dowalton—The Crannogs of Ayrshire—General

similarity of the groups of objects recovered from them

to those found in Brochs—No class of ancient remains of

which we have less precise knowledge than

Hill-Forts—They differ essentially from all other

structures—They are of two varieties, earthworks and

stoneworks—Character of the earthworks—Earthwork on

Midhill Head, Midlothian—Stone fort at Garrywhoine,

Caithness—The White Caterthun, Forfarshire—Fort on Ben

Ledi—The vitrified forts—Knockfarril in

Strathpeffer—Craig Phadrig, near Inverness—Fort at

Finhaven, Forfarshire—Dun Mac Uisneachan, in Loch

Etive—Forts in Arisaig, Inverness-shire—Vitrified forts

do not differ in character from forts that are not

vitrified, if their vitrifaction be not a feature of

their construction—The evidence insufficient to

establish that the vitrifaction was a method of

construction—The phenomena of the vitrified forts in

France—The Gaulish forts constructed with alternate

layers of logs and stones—Similar construction of the

great rampart of Burghead in Morayshire—The hill-fort of

Dunsinnane associated with underground chambers—Similar

association in the forts of Ireland—Underground chambers

not associated with forts—The “Earth-Houses” at

Broomhouse, Berwickshire—In Strathdon,

Aberdeenshire—Groups of them at Airlie, Forfarshire, and

Kildrummy, Aberdeenshire—Associated with an overground

habitation and a group of graves at Grange of Conan,

Forfarshire—With objects of the Roman period at Tealing,

Pitcur, Newstead, and Crichton Mains—The range and

period of this type of structure—The culture and

civilisation of the people who constructed them

INDEX 309

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

View of the Broch of Clickamin, Shetland _Frontispiece_

Clay Vase found in a Mediæval Stone Coffin at Montrose <span

class='htmlonly'>11<span

class='epubonly'>11

Illumination from a Fourteenth-Century Manuscript 12

Clay Vases found at Castle Hill of Rattray,

Aberdeenshire 13

Sword found in a Viking Grave at Ballinaby, Islay 17

Boss and Handle of Shield found in a Viking Grave at

Ballinaby 18

Front view of Handle of Shield, Spear-head, and

Ferrule found in a Viking Grave at Ballinaby 19

Iron Ferrule and Fragment of Iron found in a Viking

Grave at Ballinaby 20

Bronze Plaque, with Figure of a Warrior, found in the

island of Oland 20

Sheath-mounting of Bronze and Axe-heads of Iron from a

Viking Grave at Ballinaby 21

Adze and Hammer from a Viking Grave at Ballinaby 22

Forge-tongs and Handle of Pot from a Viking Grave at

Ballinaby 23

Oval Bowl-shaped Brooch and its Pin of Brass from a

Grave at Ballinaby 24

Double Disc of Bronze and Hairpin of Silver from a

Grave at Ballinaby 27

Chain of Knitted Silver Wire and Beads of Coloured

Glass from a Grave at Ballinaby 28

Saucepan of Thin Bronze from a Grave at Ballinaby 29

Implement of Black Glass for Smoothing Linen from a

Grave at Ballinaby 30

Sword of the Viking time from Vik, in Norway 33

Linen Smoother of Black Glass (modern) 37

Oval Bowl-shaped Brooch of Brass found in a Grave at

Ballinaby in 1788 38

Oval Bowl-shaped Brooch of Brass found in a Grave near

Newton, Islay 39

Oval Bowl-shaped Brooch found in Tiree 40

Oval Bowl-shaped Brooch of Brass found at Castletown,

Caithness 44

Oval Bowl-shaped Brooch found in a Cist in The Long

Hills, Wick, Caithness 45

Sword ploughed up in Rousay, Orkney 45

Silver Mounting of a Drinking Horn found at Burghead 46

Sword-hilt of the Viking time found in the island of

Eigg 49

Side view of Pommel and Edge of Grip of Sword-hilt <span

class='htmlonly'>50<span

class='epubonly'>50

Upper side of Guard of Sword-hilt 51

Sword-hilt found in a Grave at Ultuna, Sweden 52

Buckle of Bronze from a Grave-mound in Eigg 53

Ground Plan and Sections of Grave-mounds in Eigg 53

Penannular Brooch of Bronze, silvered, from a

Grave-mound in Eigg 54

Belt-clasp of Bronze from a Grave-mound in Eigg 54

Whetstone and portions of Cloth from a Grave-mound in

Eigg 55

Single-edged Comb from a Grave-mound in Westray 57

Oval Bowl-shaped Brooch from a Grave-mound in Westray 57

Iron Key from a Grave-mound in Westray 58

Sheath-mounting from a Grave-mound in Westray <span

class='htmlonly'>58<span

class='epubonly'>58

Sectional View of Burials in Stronsay, Orkney 67

Urn of Steatitic Stone from a Cist in Stronsay <span

class='htmlonly'>68<span

class='epubonly'>68

Urn of Steatite from Stennis, Orkney <span

class='htmlonly'>70<span

class='epubonly'>70

Urn of Steatite from Corquoy, Rousay 71

Urn of Steatite from Rousay 72

Urn of Steatite from Shapinsay, Orkney 72

Urn of Steatite from The Fair Isle <span

class='htmlonly'>73<span

class='epubonly'>73

Vessels of Sandstone found at Aucorn, Caithness 75

Silver Brooch found at Skaill, Orkney 79

Silver Brooch found at Skaill, Orkney 81

Silver Brooch found at Skaill, Orkney 82

Neck-ring of Silver found at Skaill, Orkney 84

Neck-ring of Silver found at Skaill, Orkney 85

Neck-ring of Silver found at Skaill, Orkney 86

Armlets of Silver found at Skaill, Orkney 87

Flat Arm-band of Silver found at Skaill, Orkney 88

Circular Patterns on Brooches found at Skaill 94

Pattern of Interlaced Work on Brooch found at Skaill 94

Zoomorphic Patterns on Brooch found at Skaill 95

Zoomorphic Patterns on Brooches found at Skaill 96

Human-headed Figure on Brooch found at Skaill <span

class='htmlonly'>97<span

class='epubonly'>97

Axe-head inlaid with Silver from the Mammen How, <span

Denmark class='htmlonly'>97<span

class='epubonly'>97

Thor’s Hammer in Silver from Skäne, Sweden 99

Runic Monument at Skjern, North Jutland, with Thor’s

Face 100

Runic Monument at Aby, with Thor’s Head and Hammer <span

class='htmlonly'>101<span

class='epubonly'>101

Hood found in a Moss in St. Andrew’s Parish, Orkney 103

Portions of the fabric of the Hood and Woollen fabric <span

from the Moss of Haraldskjaer, Jutland class='htmlonly'>105<span

class='epubonly'>105

Gold Rings found at Stennis 106

Gold Rings found in the Hebrides 107

Ingot of Silver found in the island of Bute 107

Gold Rings and Fillets found in the island of Bute 108

Penannular Arm-ring of Silver found at Rattar,

Caithness 109

Bronze object, like the frontal of a horse, with

horns, found at Torrs, Kirkcudbrightshire 113

Plan of the horns of the Bronze object 115

Bronze Plaque, with Figures of Warriors, found in the

island of Oland 116

Bronze object in the form of a Swine’s Head, found at

Liechestown, Banffshire 117

Plates, forming separate parts of the Bronze object 118

Sword-sheath found at Morton Hall 120

Mountings of Cast Bronze found at Henshole, on Cheviot 121

Bronze Ornaments found in a Cairn at Towie,

Aberdeenshire 122

Mounting in Cast Bronze from Dowalton Loch <span

class='htmlonly'>123<span

class='epubonly'>123

Bridle-bit, enamelled, found in moss at Birrenswark 124

Quern found with Bronze articles at Balmaclellan 126

Bronze Mirror found at Balmaclellan <span

class='htmlonly'>127<span

class='epubonly'>127

Half of a Crescentic Plate of Bronze, with its <span

Ornament, found at Balmaclellan class='htmlonly'>128<span

class='epubonly'>128

Form of the Bronze Plates found with the Mirror at

Balmaclellan 129

Bronze Mirror found in a Grave at Mount Batten, near

Plymouth 130

Back of a Bronze Mirror found in a Grave at Birdlip,

near Gloucester 132

Bronze Spoon found at Weston, near Bath 134

Backs of the Handles of Bronze Spoons from Weston 135

Spoon found at Weston, and Spoon found at Llanfair 136

Jointed Collar of Bronze found at Stitchell,

Roxburghshire 136

Jointed Armlet found in the Parish of Borgue,

Kirkcudbrightshire 137

Gold Ornament found on the Shaw Hill, Peeblesshire 139

Bronze Armlet, enamelled, found at Castle Newe, <span

Aberdeenshire class='htmlonly'>141<span

class='epubonly'>141

Back view of Bronze Armlet found at Castle Newe <span

class='htmlonly'>142<span

class='epubonly'>142

Enamelled Plates of Bronze Armlets found at

Pitkelloney, Perthshire 143

Bronze Armlet found at Auchenbadie, Banffshire 144

Back view of Bronze Armlet found at Auchenbadie, <span

Banffshire class='htmlonly'>144<span

class='epubonly'>144

Plan of Ornamentation of Bronze Armlet found at <span

Auchenbadie, Banffshire class='htmlonly'>145<span

class='epubonly'>145

Front view of Bronze Armlet found at Drumside,

Belhelvie, Aberdeenshire 146

Back view of Bronze Armlet found at Drumside,

Belhelvie, Aberdeenshire 146

Plan of Ornamentation of Bronze Armlet found at

Drumside, Belhelvie, Aberdeenshire 147

Armlet of Brass found near Aboyne, Aberdeenshire 148

Armlet found near Aboyne (back and side views) 149

Bronze Armlet in the National Museum (back and front

views) 149

Bronze Armlet found at Stanhope, Peeblesshire 150

Buckle-like object of Bronze found at Stanhope,

Peeblesshire 151

Saucepan of Bronze found with the Bronze Armlet at

Stanhope, Peeblesshire 152

Bronze Armlet, probably from Bunrannoch, Perthshire <span

class='htmlonly'>153<span

class='epubonly'>153

Plan of Ornamentation of Bronze Armlet from Perthshire <span

class='htmlonly'>154<span

class='epubonly'>154

Bronze Armlet found near Seafield Tower, Kinghorn,

Fife 155

Bronze Armlet found near Newry, County Down, Ireland 155

Bronze Armlet found in the sands of Culbin, Elginshire 156

Bronze Armlet found in the sands of Culbin, Elginshire (back

view) 157

Bronze Armlet found at Pitalpin, near Dundee 159

Bronze Armlet in the National Museum <span

class='htmlonly'>160<span

class='epubonly'>160

Bronze Armlet found at Grange of Conan, near Arbroath 160

Bronze Ball found at Walston, Lanarkshire 162

Ornamented Stone Ball from Elgin 162

Ornamented Stone Ball found at the Glas Hill, Towie,

Aberdeenshire 163

Ornamented Stone Balls found at Freelands and Fordoun 164

Ornamented Stone Ball in the collection of Sir J. Noel

Paton 165

Ornamented Stone Ball found at Ballater, Aberdeenshire 166

Ornamented Stone Ball found in the Tay, near Perth 166

Ornamented Stone Balls found in Argyleshire and

Inverness-shire 167

Ornamented Stone Ball found in the Isle of Skye 167

Ornamented Stone Balls found at Skaill, Orkney 168

Ornamented Stone Ball found near Kirkwall, Orkney 169

Ornamented Stone Balls found in Dumfriesshire, and at

Dudwick, Aberdeenshire 169

Ornamented Stone Balls found at Montblairy,

Banffshire, and near Nairn 169

Men with Maces (from the Bayeux Tapestry) 170

Exterior view of the Broch of Mousa, Shetland 175

Ground Plan of the Broch of Mousa, Shetland 176

Section of the elevation of the Broch of Mousa,

Shetland 178

View of Doorway of Broch in Glenbeg, Glenelg 181

Ground Plan and Section of Doorway of Broch in

Glenbeg, Glenelg 181

Section of Elevation of Broch in Glenbeg, Glenelg 182

Ground Plan of Doorway of Broch at Loch Duich 183

Sectional elevation of S.E. side of entrance passage <span

of Broch at Loch Duich class='htmlonly'>184<span

class='epubonly'>184

Views of Cole’s Castle and Dun Dornadilla,

Sutherlandshire 185

General Plan of Broch and its fortifications on

Cockburn Law, Berwickshire 187

Masonry of Broch on Cockburn Law 188

Ground Plan and Section of Elevation of Doorway in

Broch of Torwood, Stirlingshire 189

Ground Plan of the Broch of Coldoch, Perthshire 190

View of the Nuraghe of Goni, in Sardinia 193

Section of Nuraghe, showing chambers and stair 193

View of Broch, known as Cole’s Castle, Sutherlandshire 194

General Plan of Broch of Clickamin, near Lerwick,

Shetland 196

Diagrammatic Section of East Broch, Burray, Orkney 197

Diagrammatic Section of the Broch of Borrowston,

Shapinsay, Orkney 198

Ground Plan of Broch at Manse of Harray 198

Section of the Well in the Broch at Manse of Harray 199

Ground Plan of Structure at Bodinar, Cornwall 207

Ground Plan of Broch at Kettleburn, near Wick 210

Lamp of Sandstone from Broch of Kettleburn <span

class='htmlonly'>212<span

class='epubonly'>212

Long-handled Comb from Broch of Kettleburn 213

Bronze Tweezers from Broch of Kettleburn 214

Section of Chamber in Broch of Kintradwell 217

Stone Cup from Broch of Kintradwell 218

Oval Pebble of Quartzite from Broch of Kintradwell 220

Hammer-marked Plate of Brass from Broch in Dunrobin

Park 222

Ground Plan of Broch of Yarhouse, Caithness 224

Circular Brooch of Brass from a Burial in the mound

covering the ruins of Broch of Yarhouse 225

Interior Aperture of Doorway in Broch of Yarhouse 227

Entrance to Stair in Broch of Yarhouse 228

Whetstones from Broch of Yarhouse 230

Bronze Armlet from Broch of Yarhouse 231

Portions of Horns of Reindeer from Broch of Yarhouse 231

Vessel of Red Sandstone, Bead, Comb, and Bronze Pin, <span

from Broch of Yarhouse class='htmlonly'>233<span

class='epubonly'>233

Ground Plan of Broch of Levenwick, Shetland 235

Bronze Knob from Broch of Harray, Orkney <span

class='htmlonly'>236<span

class='epubonly'>236

Bone Cup, Comb, Button, and Pins, from Broch of Harray <span

class='htmlonly'>237<span

class='epubonly'>237

Ornamented Bone Pin from Broch of Burwick, Orkney <span

class='htmlonly'>239<span

class='epubonly'>239

Long-handled Comb from Broch of Burwick 240

Round-backed Comb from Broch of Burwick <span

class='htmlonly'>240<span

class='epubonly'>240

Cup and Lamps of Sandstone from Broch of Okstrow, <span

Orkney class='htmlonly'>241<span

class='epubonly'>241

Bronze Pin, Penannular Brooch, and Mounting of Bronze <span

from Broch of Okstrow class='htmlonly'>242<span

class='epubonly'>242

Ground Plan of Broch of Lingrow, Orkney 243

Pebble of Quartzite and Implement of Bone from Broch <span

of Lingrow class='htmlonly'>244<span

class='epubonly'>244

Clay Mould for casting Bronze Pins from Broch of

Lingrow 245

Bone Implement and Pins of Bone from Broch of Burrian, <span

Orkney class='htmlonly'>246<span

class='epubonly'>246

Bone Pins and Needles from Broch of Burrian <span

class='htmlonly'>247<span

class='epubonly'>247

One of a set of Playing Dice from Broch of Burrian <span

class='htmlonly'>248<span

class='epubonly'>248

Tool of Bone and Round-backed and Double-edged Combs <span

of Bone from Broch of Burrian class='htmlonly'>249<span

class='epubonly'>249

Double-edged Comb of Bone from Broch of Burrian <span

class='htmlonly'>250<span

class='epubonly'>250

Long-handled Combs of Bone from Broch of Burrian <span

class='htmlonly'>251<span

class='epubonly'>251

Smoothing Implement of Bone from Broch of Burrian <span

class='htmlonly'>252<span

class='epubonly'>252

Weaving Comb of Wood and Iron used in India <span

class='htmlonly'>254<span

class='epubonly'>254

Stone with Incised Figures of Crossed Triangles from

Broch of Burrian 255

Metatarsal Bone of Ox, with Incised Symbols, from <span

Broch of Burrian class='htmlonly'>256<span

class='epubonly'>256

Defensive Structure in the Loch of Hogsetter, Whalsay,

Shetland 261

Portion of a Shoe of Stamped Leather from Crannog in <span

Dowalton Loch class='htmlonly'>265<span

class='epubonly'>265

Saucepan of Bronze, of Roman form, from Crannog at

Dowalton 266

Bead of Glass with lining of Bronze from Crannog at

Dowalton 267

Basins of Bronze from Crannog at Dowalton 268

Ground Plan of Earthwork on Midhill Head, Midlothian 273

Section of Hill-Fort of Dunsinnane, with Underground

Chambers 281

Ground Plan and Sections of Earth-house at Broomhouse,

Berwickshire 283

Ground Plan of Earth-house at Migvie, Aberdeenshire 284

Ground Plan of Earth-house at Buchaam, Strathdon 285

Ground Plan of Earth-house at Culsh, Aberdeenshire 287

Ground Plan and Section of Earth-house at Kildrummy,

Aberdeenshire 288

Ground Plan and Section of Earth-house at Eriboll,

Sutherlandshire 289

Ground Plan and Section of Earth-house at Kinord,

Aberdeenshire 291

Ground Plan of Earth-house at Cairn Conan, near

Arbroath 294

Ground Plan of Earth-house at Tealing, Forfarshire 298

Sketch Ground Plan of Earth-house at Newstead,

Roxburghshire 300

Ground Plan of Earth-house at Crichton Mains,

Midlothian 301

Sections of Earth-house at Crichton Mains, Midlothian 302

Ambry and Hewn Stones in Earth-house at Crichton Mains <span

class='htmlonly'>303<span

class='epubonly'>303

LECTURE I.

(17TH OCTOBER 1881.)

CHRISTIAN AND PAGAN BURIAL—VIKING BURIALS.

At the outset of my first series of Lectures I stated that the necessity

of abandoning the historical method of inquiry was involved in the very

nature of the investigation which I contemplated, because the relations

which the materials to be investigated bear to each other, and to

special phases of human culture and civilisation, are neither disclosed

by historical record nor discoverable by historical methods of research.

I therefore proposed that, for the purposes of this inquiry, we should

consider ourselves engaged in the exploration of an unknown region; and

that, starting from the borderland where the historic and the

non-historic meet, and ascending the stream of time, we should proceed

to make such observations of the facts and phenomena encountered in our

progress as would enable us to determine their relations by comparison

with facts and phenomena already familiar to us, and to deduce

conclusions which, so far as they are sound and relevant, would serve as

materials for the construction of a logical history of culture and

civilisation within the area investigated.

Having thus traversed the region characterised by the phenomena of the

Early Christianity of Scotland, all that is distinctively Christian is

now left behind. Before us lies the whole extent of the Pagan period,

resolvable into three great divisions, characterised as the Ages of

Iron, of Bronze, and of Stone. In each of these we shall meet with

distinctive manifestations of culture, disclosing their peculiar

characteristics by their special products. These products are the

materials of our investigation, and they fall to be dealt with by the

same methods that have been employed in the disclosure of the nature and

quality of the culture and civilisation of the Early Christian Time in

Scotland.

I have adopted this division of the general subject into “Christian

Times” and “Pagan Times,” because the phenomena with which I am dealing

do themselves exhibit a clearly defined distinction, and are separable

from each other by their characteristics according as they are products

of Christian or of Pagan forms of culture and civilisation.

For instance, while Paganism existed, there were two customs which gave

a distinctly typical character to the archaeological deposits of the

heathen period. These were (1) the burning of the bodies of the dead;

and (2) the deposit with the dead (whether burnt or unburnt) of

grave-goods—urns, weapons, clothing, personal ornaments, and implements

and utensils of domestic life. Previous to the introduction of

Christianity, the burials are characterised by cremation or by the

association of urns, arms, implements, and ornaments. After the

introduction of Christianity these characteristics cease. The

substitution of Christianity for Paganism thus produced an alteration in

the character of the archæological deposits exactly comparable to that

which was produced by the substitution of bronze for stone, or of iron

for bronze; and the difference between the Christianity and the Paganism

of a people or an area, as thus manifested, is therefore a true

archæological distinction.

But no archæological boundary is of the nature of a hard and fast line.

The deposits which constitute the periodic divisions of archæology (like

those of the geological series) are always to a greater or less extent

products of a re-formative process, by which portions of pre-existing

systems are imbedded in the new formation, in whose constitution the

disintegrated elements of the older system are often quite clearly

visible. There is therefore necessarily a series of transitional

phenomena along the whole line of contact, and though the new system may

have been characterised by a gradually increasing number of new types,

the older types are often continued with altered characteristics, caused

by an increasing conformity to the new conditions. It thus becomes of

importance that the character of these transitional phenomena should at

least be indicated before we finally pass from the region of

Christianity into that of Paganism. Their investigation is essentially

an examination of the disintegrated elements and altered fragments of

the Pagan systems that have entered into the composition of later

Christian formations; and no branch of this inquiry is more instructive

than that which takes cognisance of the survival of Pagan customs in the

usages connected with Christian burial.

“The first Christians,” says Aringhi, “did not follow the heathen custom

of placing deposits of gold, silver, and other precious articles in

their sepulchres.” But it is plain from his further statement that they

followed it partly, or, in other words, that the older custom was

continued in a modified form;[1] for he goes on to say that “they

permitted gold, interwoven with the cloth used in the preparation of the

body for burial, and such things as gold rings on the fingers; with

young girls, too, they often buried their ornaments and such things as

they most delighted in.”

-----

Footnote 1:

The body was swathed in linen, sometimes with the insignia of office,

or with ornaments of gold, or gems placed in the coffin or

sarcophagus.—Euseb. _Vit. Const._ iv. 66; Ambros. _Orat. in obit.

Theodos_; _August. Conf._ ix. 12, cited in Smith’s _Dict. of Christ.

Antiq._, _sub voce_ “Burial of the Dead.” The insignia of office, if

the deceased had held any such position—gold and silver ornaments in

the case of private persons—were often flung into the open grave, and

the waste and ostentation to which this led had to be checked by an

imperial edict.—_Cod. Theodos._ xi. tit. 7, 1, 14. _Ibid._ So common

was the burial of weapons and ornaments in Early Christian times among

the Franks, that enactments against the violation of graves in search

of treasure form a special feature in the Salic Laws. Gregory of Tours

tells of the robbery of the grave of the wife of Gonthram, who was

buried in the Church of Metz, “cum auro multo rebusque preciosis;” and

Montfaucon adds that from this we see that it was not the kings only,

but the great of the land also, who were at that time buried with

things of price.

-----

Although the Pagan form of burial in which the dead were placed in their

tombs, apparelled in their richest robes, and with their arms,

ornaments, and insignia, is clearly opposed to the doctrine taught in

all ages of the church, that the dead are for ever done with the things

of this life,[2] we find it strangely surviving as a Christian

ceremonial in the burial of kings and clergy. Childeric, the last of the

Pagan kings of France, was buried seated on a throne, in his kingly

robes, and with the arms, ornaments, and insignia of royalty.

Charlemagne, the establisher of Christianity (who meted out the

punishment of death to the Saxons who dared to burn their dead after the

old manner),[3] was also buried seated on a throne, with his royal

robes, his arms and ornaments, and the book of the Gospels on his knee.

The Scandinavian Viking was buried with his arms because his Valhalla

was a fighting place; but the Christian kings of Denmark continued to be

buried with their arms although there was no Valhalla prepared for

them.[4] Giraldus Cambrensis, describing the miserable death of Henry

II. of England, laments that when the body was being prepared for burial

“scarcely was a decent ring to be found for his finger or a sceptre for

his hand, or a crown for his head, except such a thing as was made from

an old head-dress.” When the custom was disused for kings, it was

retained for the clergy.[5] Archbishops and bishops have always been

buried with their insignia and robes of office.[6] Their graves,

containing the crosier or staff, the chalice and paten, the robes and

ring, although necessarily of Christian time and Christian character,

are directly related in the line of archæological succession to those of

the earlier Paganism. The custom also survives in the pompous

accessories of a military funeral. When we see the sword laid over the

coffin, and the horse led in procession to the grave, we witness the

survival of one of the oldest ceremonies ever performed among men—the

difference being, that of old the weapon was laid in the grave beside

the hand that had wielded it, and the horse was slaughtered to accompany

his master to the unseen world.[7] Some forms of this survival gradually

passed into distinctively Christian usages[8] with a definitely

Christian significance, and others became actually incorporated in the

ritual of the Church. One of the most striking of the sepulchral customs

of the Pagan Northmen was that of binding the “hell-shoes” on the feet

of the dead. It is stated in the Saga of Gisli the Outlaw that when they

were laying Vestein in his grave-mound, Thorgrim the priest went up to

the mound and said, “’Tis the custom to bind the hell-shoes on men so

that they may walk on them to Valhalla, and I will now do that by

Vestein;" and when he had done it he said, “I know nothing about binding

on hell-shoon, if these loosen.” This custom is often found in Christian

as well as in pre-Christian graves in Central Europe. It was well known

to the liturgical writers of the Middle Ages. Durandus says: “The dead

must also have shoes on their feet by which they may show that they are

ready for the judgment.” Members of religious orders were usually thus

buried, but the custom was not confined to them alone.[9] The idea of

providing for a journey which was implied in the Northern custom of the

“hell-shoon,” is curiously illustrated by the statement of Weinhold,

that in some remote districts of Sweden, up to a very recent period, the

tobacco-pipe, the pocket-knife, and the filled brandy-flask, were placed

with the dead in the grave.

-----

Footnote 2:

There are records of occasional cases in which the converts rebelled

and went back to their old customs in spite of the efforts of the

clergy to restrain them. Thus we find in A.D. 1249, that in Livonia,

where heathenism lingered longer than in almost any other part of

Europe, there is a solemn deed of contract entered into between the

converts and the brethren of the Holy Cross, by which the converts

become bound, for themselves and their heirs, never again to burn

their dead or to bury with them horses or slaves, or arms or

vestments, or any other things of value, but to bury their dead in the

cemeteries attached to the churches.—Dreger, _Codex Diplomaticus

Pomeraniæ_. Again we find that the Esthonian converts rebelled in

1225, took back the wives they had given up, exhumed the dead they had

buried in the Christian cemeteries, and burned them, after the fashion

of the old Pagan times.—Gruber, _Origines Livoniæ_, cited by Wyllie in

_Archæologia_, vol. xxxvii. p. 46.

Footnote 3:

Si quis corpus defuncti hominis secundum ritum paganorum flamma

consumi fecerit, et ossa ejus ad cinerem redierit, capite

punietur.—_Capitulary_, A.D. 785.

Footnote 4:

When the grave of King Olaf at Sore was opened, a long sword was found

over the body from the head to the feet. In the coffin of King Erik

Glipping, in the Church of Viborg, his sword lay at his side.

Kornerup, _Aarboger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed_, 1873, p. 251.

Footnote 5:

In the _Capitularia Regum Francorum_ we are told that the custom which

had grown obsolete among the common people was retained for the

clergy:—Mos ille in vulgo obsoletus in funeribus episcoporum et

presbyterum retinetur.

Footnote 6:

Durandus says, “Clerici vero, si sint ordinati, illis indumentis

induti sint, quae requirunt ordines, quos habent; si vero non habent

ordines sacros more laicorum sepeliantur. Verumtamen licet in aliis

ordinibus propter paupertatem hoc saepius omittatur, in sacerdotibus

tamen et Episcopis nullo modo praetermittendum est.”—_De Div. Off._

lib. 7. Kornerup, describing the practice in Denmark, says of the

burials of the higher orders of the clergy in the Middle Ages—“On

their heads they bore the mitre, on their shoulders the cloak of gold

brocade, on the finger the Episcopal ring, and the crosier lay by the

side of the corpse. Their feet were shod, and the chalice and paten

were placed in their hands.” These particulars have been verified in

many instances, among which it is only necessary to mention the graves

of Bishop Absalon at Sore, and Bishop Suneson at Lund.—Kornerup,

_Aarboger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed_, 1873, p. 251.

Footnote 7:

In a tumulus opened near Picton Castle, there were found, along with

the skeleton of a man, a sword, a breastplate, four horse-shoes, and a

gold ring, on the bezel of which were engraved the arms of Sir Aaron

ap Rhys, a knight of the Holy Sepulchre. The latest instance of this

custom carried out in its integrity occurred at the interment of

Frederick Casimir, a knight of the Teutonic Order, who was buried with

his horse and his arms at Treves in February 1781.

Footnote 8:

A variety of the custom of burial clothed took the form of burial in a

monkish habit. It was not uncommon in the twelfth century for laymen

to be thus buried, under the notion that the sanctity of the dress

preserved the body from molestation by demons. Thus Erik Ploupenning

sets forth in a deed dated 1241, “Votum fecimus ut in habitu fratrum

minorum mori deberemus et in ipso habitu apud fratres minores

Roeskildenses sepiliri.”—Pontoppidan, _Annales Eccl. Dan. 1669_. The

idea of sanctity connected with the monastic orders led people to seek

for burial, not only in the consecrated ground about the monastery,

but in the habit of the monks. The right was in early times purchased

by the great men of Brittany by the gift of lands and other offerings,

as we have seen to be the case in Ireland.—Stuart’s _Sculptured Stones

of Scotland_, vol. ii. p. 63.

Footnote 9:

Bernard, grandson of Charlemagne, who died in 818, was found with

shoes on his feet when his coffin was opened in 1638. William

Lyndewode, Bishop of St. David’s, who died in 1446, was buried in St.

Stephen’s. When his grave was recently disturbed during repairs, the

body was found unclothed, but with shoes on the feet.—_Archæologia_,

vol. xxxiv. p. 403. In the cathedral of Worcester a skeleton was found

in 1861 having shoes or sandals on its feet, the soles of which were

quite entire.—_Gent. Mag._, Oct. 1861. The Abbé Cochet mentions a

large number of instances in France, proving the existence of the

custom there from the twelfth century to the seventeenth. In an

account of the funeral expenses of Roger Belot, who died in 1603,

there is a charge of twelve sous six deniers for a pair of shoes to

place on the feet of the defunct.—_Revue Archæol._, vol. xxv. (1873)

p. 12.

-----

Broadly stated, the archæological effect of the establishment of

Christianity was to cut off the presence of grave-goods from the burials

of the area. But these examples show that while this was the general and

final result, it was neither obtained absolutely nor at once. The burial

usages of a people are among the most unalterable of all their

institutions. Other observances may change with the convictions of

individuals, but the prevailing sentiment which leads to the disposal of

the dead—"gathered to their fathers"—in the same manner as the fathers

themselves were disposed, resists innovation longer and more stubbornly

than any other. In point of fact we find that from the beginning there

have been but two great typical forms of burial—viz. burial with

grave-goods, which is the universally Pagan type, and burial without

them, which is the universally Christian type.

These typical forms of burial are respectively products of the opposing

doctrines of Paganism and Christianity as touching the future life. I

cannot tell what may have been the precise attitude of mind which

induced my Pagan ancestor to provide his dead with grave-goods. In view

of the general prevalence of the custom, I cannot doubt that it was an

attitude which regarded their provision as a sacred duty, universally

binding and almost universally performed. But the Christian belief in a

resurrection to newness of life recognised no such duty to the dead, and

steadily opposed the practice as amounting to a denial of the faith. On

this account it is plain that when we find the dead in Christian graves

provided with grave-goods we have a form of burial which cannot be

accounted for by anything in the essential elements of Christianity

itself, and therefore it must be regarded as a survival of the older

custom, which logically ought to have died with the death of the Pagan

system,—of which it was a distinctive usage.