truism; but it is also very certain that South Africa, while irrigating,
must offer homes to a leavening mass of sound and desirable British
settlers before the irrigation schemes under discussion can effect the
agricultural transformation which, in British hands, might speedily come
to pass. The nature of this settlement and the expedition of it, from an
economic, social, and political point of view, is declared by Lord
Milner to be of supreme importance. A new and progressive farming
population must reinforce the old; for, it is most essential "that the
old condition of things shall not be reproduced, in which the race
division coincided almost completely with a division of interests, the
whole country population being virtually Boer, while the bulk of the
industrial and commercial population was British." The three great
essentials of any successful scheme, according to Lord Milner's showing,
are these: it must have magnitude, it must deal with land of good
quality, it must attract settlers of the right kind. In the matter of
magnitude there are many and intricate questions to be discussed. Land
settlement must be undertaken on a large scale else it will be
politically unimportant, the Boer States will remain Boer States in all
but name, and any money advanced by the British speculator will be like
the talent hidden in a napkin--just a talent and nothing more, till the
end of the chapter! The Government must assert its paternity; it must
control, it must assist. On all sides simultaneous effort must be made
to march in time with the progressive note that, once struck, must be
continuously and consistently re-echoed throughout the length and
breadth of the new Colonies. The best quality of land must invite the
best quality of settler, though regulations must be sufficiently elastic
to meet the wants of the settler with capital, and also those of the
settler with little more than practical experience. They must vary, too,
with the varying character of the farms. The reason for this necessity
has concisely been explained by Lord Milner: "Take only the broad
distinction between dry and irrigated farms, familiar to every South
African. Evidently a much larger area is required in the former than in
the latter, while the experience needed by the farmer would vary greatly
in the two cases. In the former he would be mainly employed in
stock-raising, while in the latter in the cultivation of cereals; and in
favourable neighbourhoods market gardening would be the most profitable
industry. Australian ranchers seem peculiarly suited to the high veldt,
while the corn lands of the 'Conquered Territory' could have no better
occupants than young progressive farmers from the Scottish lowlands. And
there are intermediate types of farms suited to settlers of the most
varied experience and resources."
A rough draft of the terms on which the Orange River Colony Government
proposed to offer Government land to British settlers affords an insight
into the big projects that are afoot. The draft was submitted to the
British Government about the middle of 1902 in order that sanction might be
given to the principle of the conditions set forth. Here--abbreviated--are
the conditions of lease:--
"The settler shall pay the annual rent due by him to the
Government in half-yearly instalments, the first of which shall
be due six months after his taking possession. The settler
holding under a lease shall have the right, with the approval
of the Government, at any time after the completion of his
first year's tenancy, to enter upon the system of purchase by
instalments, by giving three months' notice to the Government
of his intention to do so before the date when his next
half-yearly instalment falls due. In that case his leasehold
tenure shall be held to cease from the date of the payment of
such instalment, and he shall be entitled to acquire the land
on the same terms as a settler taking it on the purchase
system, save and except that he shall not have a year's grace
before beginning to purchase by instalments, but that the first
of his sixty half-yearly instalments shall become due six
months after the date of his last payment under the lease.
Every lease shall be for five years, but shall be renewable at
the option of the settler for a further period of five or ten
years."
The grounds on which the Government may cancel the lease shall be the
following:--
"Failure to pay in full any half-yearly instalment of rent, or
any sum due in respect of advances within three months of its
becoming due.
"Neglect to cultivate the land in a proper and husbandlike
manner to the satisfaction of the Government, or to apply any
money advanced by the Government for the purpose specified.
"Conviction for any criminal offence punishable by death or by
imprisonment without option of a fine."
The Government will be prepared to make advances to the settler for such
permanent improvements as the Government may approve, such as drainage,
fencing, farm buildings, tree-planting, the sinking of wells, making of
roads, reclamation of waste land, or any other work calculated to
permanently enhance the value of the land, provided--
"That the sum of such advances shall not at any time exceed the
capital which the settler has himself expended, or can satisfy
the Government that he is prepared to expend, in connection
with the cultivation of the land.
"That the total outstanding amount at any one time shall not
exceed five times the rent of the land."
All advances made by the Government in accordance with the foregoing
section shall be repaid by the settler with interest at £5 per centum
within ten years by twenty equal half-yearly instalments.
Among the conditions of purchase it is stated:--
"The settler shall acquire the freehold of the land by paying
to the Government for the period of thirty years an annual sum
amounting to £5, 15s. per centum of the purchase price. This
annual sum shall be paid in two half-yearly instalments of £2,
17s. 6d. per centum of such price.... If the settler affix to
his holding any engine, machinery, or any other fixture, or
erect a building which he is not authorised by the Government
to affix or erect, the said fixture or building shall be the
property of the settler and removable by him within a
reasonable time after the cancellation of his contract,
provided that he first discharges all debts due by him to the
Government, and that after the removals he makes good any
unavoidable damage thereby occasioned. The settler must give
one month's notice of his intention to remove such fixture or
building, and on receipt of such notice the Government may
elect to purchase such fixtures or building after a valuation
as provided for."
During the currency of the contract of purchase the settler will not be
liable to pay any quit-rent or land-tax, or to make any other payment to
the Government than those provided for by the contract. But from the
time of the land becoming the freehold of the settler under any of the
provisions it shall be subject to any quit-rent or land tax payable to
the Government, to which any other freehold land may from time to time
be subject, according to the laws of the Orange River Colony. The
settler shall be liable, both before and after the acquisition of the
freehold, to pay any rates which may be lawfully levied on the land for
local purposes, but such rates shall not, during the period of thirty
and a half years from the date of the settler's taking possession under
the contract of purchase, exceed 1d. per £1 per annum of the purchase
price of the land.
In reply to the Colonial Secretary's telegram stating his belief that
the settlement of farmers from England would not be successful unless
the farms were close together, Lord Milner answered: "I quite agree that
farmers from home should not be isolated. But we want farms of various
characters. Dry farms, as you suppose, are much in demand by
Australians. I have a number of excellent applicants of this class, and
could to-morrow dispose of twice as many dry farms as we possess in
healthy parts of the Transvaal to selected Australasians who have served
in war and have agricultural experience and some capital. Generally
speaking, I do not think it desirable to encourage agricultural settlers
from home. It would be better to give the first chance to the men on the
spot, whether oversea colonists or yeomen. This would not permanently
exclude men from home, as a long time must elapse before we can deal
with some of the land we have, and I hope to go on acquiring more. But
land immediately available should be offered to those already here who
cannot afford to wait."
Everything mainly depends on the size of the settlement scheme. To be of
use it must be rapidly pushed forward with all the vigour that the
Government can bring to bear on the subject. The ball, once effectively
set rolling, would then move by the force of its own impetus. First some
three or four thousand settlers on land acquired by Government would set
the example, and quickly, round them would flock private persons from
the oversea Colonies or Great Britain who, discovering that the
Government meant business, would follow suit, acquire land, and settle
down in British constellations, so that the sharp social and political
division between town and country would cease to exist and the past
state of agricultural stagnation could never return. Thus, much would be
done "to consolidate South African sentiment in the general interests of
the Empire."
[Illustration: A FARM IN THE KARROO PROPER
(A typical stone-faced earth bank of a water dam in foreground)]
In regard to the quality of the land, a very small quantity of the land
available in the Transvaal is suited to British settlers, and but
little, though excellent, Government land is to be obtained in the
Orange River Colony. In both Colonies most of the land is privately
owned. Much of this land may come into the market, and many farmers may
be found willing to part with a portion of their property in order to
obtain capital for the restocking of the other portion. But, thinks Lord
Milner, unless the Government is armed with a general power of
expropriation--not necessarily for use save in emergency--it will be
impossible to get sufficient land, or even to make the best use of the
land we already have or may hereafter acquire by voluntary purchase.
For, knowing his Boer through and through, he rightly assumes that one
or two recalcitrant owners might prevent an irrigation scheme for a
whole district, or otherwise obstruct the distribution of a given area
into farms suitable for settlers. But, far from wishing to dispossess
the Boer farmer and create a class of landless and discontented men,
Lord Milner expresses his belief that it is our duty and interest to
preserve the Boer as a farmer though not as a large negligent landowner.
Unless land is purchased and British settlers are speedily installed, an
opportunity will be lost which will never recur, and neglect of the
present may endanger the future peace and prosperity of South Africa. In
fact, the key to the situation, the key to the gate which will let in a
steady influx of agricultural immigrants, is made up of two
things--powers of expropriation and money.
There are naturally many quibblers belonging to the "Foreigners' friend
and Britons' foe" party who look askance at these proposals, and,
indeed, at any proposals which might endow colonisation with what they
call a political, but which should properly be termed an Imperial,
trend. The idea of outnumbering the Dutch inhabitants seems to them
preposterous--even vindictive. They would prefer the British Government
and the British taxpayers, in matters connected with their own policy
and their own expenditure, to be out-voiced by the inhabitants of the
territory they have spent blood and treasure to conquer. But to discuss
the arguments of these quibblers would be sheer waste of time and of
space. Obstructions ever have their value. As the impediment in the
shell of the oyster brings about the growth of the pearl, so the
obstruction in the bivalve of politics has brought forth the jewel of
Imperial solidarity.
But it may as well be mentioned that the expropriation suggestion which
also excites the ire of Radicals, is by no means an invention solely
directed against the Boers in the conquered States. The precedent is to
be found in the legislation of New Zealand. The Land for Settlements
Act, 1894, enables the Government of that Colony, if no private
agreement can be arrived at, to take land compulsorily for settlement,
subject to a price fixed by valuation and a certain compensation.
As regards settlers--the third great essential of Lord Milner's
scheme--the future looks rosy enough. There are many who served in the
war and have a right to preference, who are eager to live on the land
and farm it, and who do not seek to acquire it merely as a speculation
or a makeshift. Hundreds of hale and hearty fellows, men of experience
and resource, men who have the pluck to succeed, and men who have the
courage to challenge failure, have already offered themselves and wait
patiently till their turn may arrive. Were the land forthcoming, it
would not be exaggeration to say that some 10,000 and more of our
fellow-countrymen would be cultivating it within the twelvemonth.
NATAL
The progressive mood of Natal should afford sufficient encouragement to
even the most wary speculators. Here, for the purpose of attracting
tenant farmers, the plan is to form agricultural settlements resembling
the close colonies of New Zealand, the settlements to be planted on
areas irrigated by Government works. According to Sir Albert Hime,
irrigation here intensifies cultivation tenfold, and so enables a farmer
to get his living off one-tenth of the amount of land that would
otherwise be required, and furthermore assures his crop. Owing to the
broken nature of the country, the irrigable areas are small in size and
suited mainly for supporting settlements of small cultivators. Such
settlements, wherever started, however, have proved unmistakably
prosperous, and it only remains for the Natal Government to introduce
its scheme of close settlements to the notice of the right form of
emigrant in order to render the "Garden Colony" eternally rich in green
things upon the earth. At present sugar-planting, thanks to the system
of central mills, is in a flourishing state. The same may be said of
tea-planting, which owes much to the continuous efforts of Sir J. L.
Hulett, whose "gardens" are the most important in Natal.
The demand for the wattle bark is on the increase. This tree (_Acacia
Mollissima_), originally brought from Australia, soon became
acclimatised in Natal, where there are now 50,000 acres of wattle
plantation. The wattle bark is exported to England, while the
tree--stripped of its bark--serves for poles which are much in demand in
the Rand mines. It is said that land for wattle-growing may be purchased
at from eighteen to twenty-five shillings an acre, the cost of ploughing
and planting may be estimated at from thirty-two to fifteen shillings an
acre. It takes some six years before cutting down can be begun, but
then, the probable net profits would be nearly half the gross returns.
[Illustration: A KAFFIR VILLAGE.]
With the development of the Rand the demand for timber will increase by
leaps and bounds, and the market for wattle bark as a tanning
material will advance proportionately. As an instance of the increase in
the demand for bark, it may be stated that the exports were valued at
£69,850 in 1901 as against £30,929 in 1898.
Elsewhere, expansion and development will be the direct result of
irrigation. To those interested in South Africa, the future, whether
prospectively considered or practically discussed, must hinge on the
water-supply and the cunning practice of water-storage.
Mr. Willcocks (now Sir William Willcocks) of the Egyptian Irrigation
Department, one of the most experienced men, indeed one of the greatest
experts in irrigation in the world, when asked to contribute to this
volume, said "it would indeed afford him much pleasure to co-operate,"
but, owing to the great pressure of affairs, he could not do credit to
any other work he might undertake. But his report on South Africa is so
admirable an exposition of the possibilities of the country, seen from
the then standpoint, that merely to quote some of its most salient
features were preferable to inviting the opinion of a lesser authority.
Plainly, the expert tells us that, with the exception of the south-west
corner of the Cape Colony, the "conquered territory" of the Orange River
Colony, and the high veldt of the Transvaal, the agricultural
development of the whole country depends on irrigation. The high-lying
plateau of South Africa has by its situation a rainfall suited to
tropical countries, and, owing to its altitude, a climate which belongs
to a temperate zone. The autumn rains of February and March, which are
monsoon rains, would in a country like India be of infinite value; but
followed, as they are in South Africa, by a severe and biting winter,
they are of little value for agricultural purposes. The long winter and
spring drought, and the uncertain summer rains, absolutely prohibit
agriculture of any advanced kind. In certain favoured tracts--such as a
fifth of Cape Colony, half the Orange River Colony, and two-thirds of
the Transvaal--Indian corn, potatoes, roots generally, and pumpkins for
feeding stock in winter, can be grown with the aid of the rainfall, and
matured in all but years of heavy drought. By means of crop rotations,
suitable manures, and good tillage, agricultural development of no mean
value could be accomplished within a decade, especially if taken in
conjunction with stock-breeding, the principal industry of the country.
But, in other parts of the colonies, water comes when it is of no value,
and is absent when it would be worth untold gold. To avoid this
inconvenience, Mr. Willcocks says, we have only to imitate nature and
impound on the surface of the ground the same water which she stores in
caverns and fissures; and for instance of what even inferior water may
do with the rich soil of South Africa, he gives the Kenilworth Oasis
(within a few miles of Kimberley), which is irrigated by the refuse
water of the diamond mines.
Generally speaking, the annual rainfall is sufficient to allow of the
storage of water on a very large scale. Cape Colony with the aid of its
rainfall, together with the Orange River, should be able to ensure the
perennial irrigation of 1,000,000 acres, the Orange River Colony of
750,000 acres, and the Transvaal of 500,000 acres in the high-lying
regions and 1,000,000 in the low tracts, which tracts Mr. Willcocks
recommends should be thrown open to our fellow British-Indian subjects.
[Illustration: VERMONT MERINO EWES]
Seeing that agriculture without irrigation is generally impossible
throughout the new colonies, it must be admitted that the secret of
their development lies first and foremost in the ingenious storage of
water. The rainfall is like the traditional Offenbachian policemen,
"when wanted, never there," and when it is not wanted it is invariably
present. Therefore it is necessary for the Government to proclaim the
countries themselves as arid or semi-arid, and legislate accordingly.
Italian irrigation laws may be taken as a model for all arid and
semi-arid countries in the possession of Europeans. The Government of
Cavour decreed the rivers and torrents as public property, and, as such,
the property of the Government representing the people. Ancient and
vague irrigation rights standing in the way of legislation were promptly
disposed of, and the Government set itself to legislate for future
concessions, to which wise and strong measure modern Italy owes much of
its prosperity.
It is decided that all important irrigation works should be carried
forth by the State, and not, as in America, by individuals or
concessionaire companies, for experience shows that private enterprise
has often disastrous results, because of the difficulty in realising
immediate returns from the investment. The slow and sure methods of a
Government in the control of the works--their construction, ownership,
and administration--is the only successful method. Such works, well
conceived and well executed, bring in a direct benefit to the State if
allowed to develop on slow and natural lines; they also bring in
indirect benefits which a State reaps from increase of wealth of every
kind.
With the increased demand for agricultural labour, caused by the
development of the country, the poor white problem will be solved. The
sole kind of manual labour which appeals to the poor white is
agricultural labour, since he cannot work in competition with black
labour.
Mr. Willcocks considers that, in order to save the country from dropping
from the height of prosperity to poverty, part of the profits of the
mines should be invested in irrigation works for the permanent
development of the country. "The mineral wealth of the Transvaal is
extraordinarily great, but it is exhaustible, some say in within the
space of fifty, others within the space of a hundred, years. It would be
a disaster, indeed, for the country, if none of this wealth were devoted
to the development of its agriculture. Agricultural development is slow,
but it is permanent and knows of no exhaustion." After recommending the
adoption of the metric system of weights and measures--which is superior
to all other systems--he takes the sections of the three colonies and
describes them in detail. The technicalities of irrigation must be
studied separately, but the characteristics of the country are
interesting to all.
THE SOUTH-WESTERN CORNER OF THE CAPE COLONY
The abundant winter rains render this, one of the wheat districts of the
Colony, independent of irrigation in winter. The farms, in size about
2000 acres, appear too large to be profitably worked by poor farmers.
Ploughing is done perfunctorily, and no rotation of leguminous crops
with serials is attempted, because it is believed that there is no
market in Cape Town for beans and other legumins. Mr. Willcocks suggests
as a remedy the construction of an agricultural railway through this
district, so that the disposal of fodder would be simplified. He also
proposes the exchange of seeds between Egypt, which is rich in legumins,
and the Colony, which is rich in fodders capable of existing in
conditions of extreme drought. He thinks the luscious emerald burseem
(Egyptian clover), grown in rotation with wheat, might stock the soil
with nitrogen and possibly destroy the rust in wheat which is
universally complained of. Indeed he declares that legumins might be
grown with cereals all over the Colony with great benefit to
agriculture. Lentils are a wholesome and sustaining fare, and beans form
the principal food of donkeys and poultry in Egypt. In India horses,
sheep, and cattle, Mr. Willcocks says, are fed on "gram," another
lentil; and the present writer can testify to more than that, for not
only do the horses fatten, but so also do the families of the native
"syces" employed to take care of them! This proves that gram, if
properly used, is as nourishing for the biped as for the quadruped
world. But the art of using the lentil is not generally known. The
lentil worked into a purée, and diluted and warmed with curry gravy,
makes one of the finest adjuncts to the breakfast-table imaginable.
Served hot in a sauce tureen it can be eaten with fish, hard-boiled
eggs, biscuits, or any other light food which may be at hand. This sauce
supplies the stamina and flavour of a meal.
To return. The Wynberg district is famed for its vineyards, which,
lately, have suffered through phylloxera. Much of the grape-juice is
converted into the brandy that works such havoc with the natives. Mr.
Willcocks proposes as an alternative the introduction of the resinous
firs common in Greece for the purpose of converting the grapes into the
light wines which are manufactured by the Greek farmers; but it is to be
feared that the native palate, tutored to the smack of more fiery fluid,
will not approve the delicate flavour of the resinato wines.
In regard to the Breede River Valley, expensive river and canal works
will be needed to properly irrigate the district, but these will repay
the expenditure. In the Touws River Valley, in years of ordinary winter
rain, good wheat crops can be grown on the alluvium of the river, which
crops might be made permanent by the construction of fifteen-feet high
weirs at suitable sites, and the leading off of small canals from the
up-stream sides.