Hyrcanus, who was in banishment among the Parthians during many years,

hearing of the advancement of Herod, and his marriage with his

grand-daughter, felt a desire to return to Jerusalem, anticipating a

kind welcome at the hands of Herod, on account of the family alliance

which now so closely united them.

Hyrcanus, arriving at Jerusalem, was received by Herod with all the

appearance of pleasure and satisfaction. But a short time after, Herod

fancied that Hyrcanus, being of the Asmonean family, might one day or

other, take the kingdom from him, although Hyrcanus was now upwards of

eighty years old! Herod therefore invented some pretext, and had the

old Hyrcanus put to death.

About this season, a very alarming earthquake shook the whole country

of Judea, and destroyed about thirty thousand of the inhabitants,

together with their houses and their property. Shortly after, a very

destructive pestilence infested Judea, and swept away many of the

people. A few years later a grievous famine pervaded the land, on

which occasion Herod behaved very liberally to the people, in order to

gain their affections; but in this he was disappointed.

It was just at this period that Mark Antony and Octavius, the two

brave Romans, fell into a disagreement with each other. The result

proved in favor of Octavius, by whom Mark Antony was vanquished and

entirely ruined.

Mark Antony was the true and tried friend of Herod, who being now

fearful of the power of Octavius, sought to appease him by making a

servile submission to him. Herod accordingly waited on Octavius in

humble attire, having laid aside his royal diadem, and with a free and

open countenance, confessed his sincere regard and friendship for Mark

Antony in former days; but now he wished to declare his perfect

obedience to the will and wishes of Octavius, if such trust would be

reposed in him at his hands.

Octavius, allured by the flattery and cringing tone of Herod, received

his declaration of obedience in the most polite manner, and requested

him immediately to return, resume the crown, and ascend the throne. He

then fully established Herod in his kingdom, and remained his friend

during his life-time.

The history of Herod's life will be found overshadowed by crimes of

the blackest dye. Avarice, envy, jealousy and pride; these had so

great an effect upon his wicked mind and cruel heart, that no

redeeming quality existed in the breast of this hateful tyrant.

Herod was now visited by severe domestic troubles, which disturbed his

peace of mind, and produced in him great irritability of temper,

violent grief and rage throughout the remainder of his life.

It will be recollected that Mariamne was one of the most beautiful

women in Judea. Herod, fearful lest at his death any other man should

possess so great a beauty as his queen, and lest any branch of the

Asmonean family should become master of Judea, and thus deprive his

own lawful heirs of their right to the crown, gave secret

instructions, that if his death should be before that of Mariamne,

that both she and her mother should be immediately put to death.

This cruel and inhuman decree of Herod reached the ears of the Queen,

who from that very day rejected him for ever, and upbraided him with

the murder of her relations, and that by such means alone he had

obtained the crown. She further resented his wicked designs, by

heaping bitter reproaches on his mother and sister, in reference to

the obscurity of their birth and parentage. Herod's conscience

becoming tormented, he implored his Queen by all kind and affectionate

importunities, but without effect. Mariamne seemed resolved to punish

Herod for his wicked intentions. She would not yield to his

entreaties, and positively determined to discard him for ever. This

conduct of the Queen so enraged Herod, that acting on the advice of

his mother and sister Salome, he slew his beautiful and innocent

Mariamne, and to palliate this outrageous cruelty, alleged that she

had attempted to poison him, and that he only acted in self defense.

It was not long before the mother shared the same fate as her daughter

at the hands of her relentless son-in-law. The death of Mariamne was

not easily forgotten by Herod. It preyed on his mind so violently,

that he became one of the most miserable wretches in existence. His

love for his Queen whom he had so atrociously put to death, produced

extreme grief and vexation of spirit which rendered him truly

wretched. He became more arbitrary and despotic in his government; he

appointed those whom he wished to favor, as high priests, and deposed

them as frequently, to satisfy his unruly passions and caprice of

temper.

He introduced innovations into the religious observances of the

Temple, in direct opposition to the will of the people, who

remonstrated with him on the mischief which would result therefrom.

Notwithstanding all the arguments advanced to dissuade him from such

wicked and impious conduct, Herod obstinately adopted the practices

and customs of the heathen nations, under the false pretext of

pleasing and gratifying the wishes of Cæsar.

Herod's conduct in this respect, brought upon him the hatred of the

people; who being jealous at all times lest their ancient and holy

religion should in any way be infringed upon, regarded him with

suspicious distrust. Herod becoming sensible at last of the disrepute

into which he had fallen, and fearful of the consequences thereof,

sought to protect himself by building several strong towers in and

about Jerusalem. He then built temples in the different places and

dedicated them to Cæsar, who was at that time his great friend.

Herod finding that the hatred of the people toward him did not abate,

then sought to appease them, by proposing to pull down the old Temple

and build up a new one in its stead, far superior in every degree to

the one then in existence. In order to induce the people to second his

views, he pointed out the necessity of a new Temple, since the old one

had undergone many repairs, owing to the frequent outrages which had

been committed against it.

The people were, however, not disposed to listen to Herod's proposal

to remove the old Temple until he had assured them that it should

remain untouched till all the requisites for the new building should

be ready and prepared to be set up. Herod, being on this occasion,

earnest in his intentions, executed all that the people requested of

him, at an enormous outlay of both labor and material. To carry out

his plans he employed nearly ten thousand of the best mechanics under

the direction of about one thousand priests. At the expiration of two

years, the new Temple rose in all its glory and splendor, at an

immense labor and cost, as fully described by the faithful historian

Josephus, who says it was one of the most magnificent and beautiful

structures that ever adorned the country of Judea.

When completed, the Temple was dedicated for divine worship on the

anniversary day of Herod's ascension to the throne. The occasion was

celebrated with a large number of sacrifices after the ancient custom,

and amidst great rejoicings and public festivities.

It has been asked why this new Temple, built by Herod, was not called

the third Temple? The reply is, that though it was built anew from

the foundation, yet it was only by way of reparation, it not having

been destroyed by the enemy as in the days of Nebuchadnezzar; nor did

it lay in ashes, and remain desolate, as the first Temple. It is

therefore still designated by the name of the second Temple.

Herod having completed this work to the satisfaction of the people,

was anxious to further secure their good opinion; he therefore

procured for such of his people who were scattered in Greece and Asia

Minor, a renewal of their privileges, and permission to live in other

countries, according to their own laws and religion, which had been

granted them before by the kings of Syria, and by the Romans.

Herod was not permitted to enjoy that peace of mind which he

anticipated; he was visited with domestic troubles which he little

expected, but which he richly deserved. Aristobulus and Alexander, the

two eldest sons of Mariamne, who were educated at Rome, now returned

to Jerusalem. These youths deeply lamented the loss of their mother,

and often reflected with sorrow on her untimely death, and they gave

vent to their feelings by public demonstrations of their resentment

for the death of their injured parent. These expressions being

repeatedly and loudly declared, were very disagreeable to the ears of

Salome, the sister of Herod, who was instrumental in the death of

Mariamne. Salome being wickedly disposed, and probably fearing the

vengeance of the two youths, endeavored to rouse the jealousy and

anger of Herod against his sons, by persuading him that they were

plotting against his life. This intelligence created disputes and

quarrels between the father and the two sons, which lasted many years,

and caused Herod much annoyance and fear during the remainder of his

old age. Salome, by her crafty design, ultimately succeeded in

effecting the execution of the two sons by an edict from Herod, and

the sanction to the same at the hands of Augustus Cæsar. It must be

observed that Herod had been already married to one Doris, previous to

his alliance with Mariamne. By this wife he had a son named Antipater,

who had been actively engaged with Salome in procuring the death of

the two sons of this said Herod.

When Herod was displeased with his two sons, he placed Antipater in

some post of honor; and now that they were dead, he intended that

Antipater should succeed in the kingdom. Antipater eager to obtain the

crown, conspired to poison his father. This being detected, he was

sentenced and condemned to be executed, by and under the directions of

Augustus Cæsar, and with Herod's approbation. This was the third son

whom Herod put to death. In the seventieth year of his age, and five

days after the death of Antipater, Herod himself died by a dreadful

complication of diseases. He was attacked by fever and ulcerated

bowels, in which excruciating pain he lingered for some time, till he

died. No doubt the extreme pains which he suffered, were inflicted as

a punishment for his enormous cruelties, and the multiplied iniquities

of his whole life.

On his death-bed, Herod, considering that the extreme hatred the

people had for him would prevent them from lamenting his loss, and

that his death would no doubt cause much rejoicing in the land, was

determined even in his last moments to be wicked and cruel. To effect

this, he convened a meeting of all the principal Jews, from all parts

of the kingdom, on pain of death, to appear at Jericho where he then

lay. He ordered them all to be shut up prisoners, and then commanded

his sister Salome and her husband, his chief confidants, that they

should have them all put to the sword by the soldiery, for this, said

he, "will provide mourners for my funeral all over the land."

Herod died, but his orders were not attended to, for Salome, although

wicked, hesitated to commit so horrid a deed as the murder of so many

innocent persons, and therefore as soon as Herod was dead, she

released all the prisoners.

At Herod's death, his son Archelaus succeeded him in the government of

Judea, nearly ten years, during which time he was guilty of many acts

of cruelty and tyranny, for which he was ultimately deposed by the

Roman emperor, and banished to an obscure place in France. The Romans

being so displeased with the evil practices and bad government of

Archelaus, they reduced Judea to a Roman province, to be ruled by a

Roman procurator or governor, who was sent thither and removed

therefrom at pleasure. It was now that the power of life and death

was taken out of the hands of the Jews, and placed in that of the

Roman governor; and from that time all taxes were gathered by the

publicans, and paid directly to the Roman emperor.

This new regulation very much annoyed the people; for the Pharisees,

and all those under their influence, considering it unlawful to

acknowledge a heathen for their king or governor, looked upon their

tax-gatherers with greater detestation than any of those kings or

governors of former days, appointed to rule over them, and who were of

their own nation or religion. True, Herod was an Idumean by birth, yet

all the Idumeans having embraced the Jewish religion, he was so far

counted a lawful governor, that the people did not scruple to pay him

their taxes. The Romans followed the plan adopted by Herod in the

appointment of the high priests, and the removing of them as often as

they pleased, to answer their own purposes.

In this way the affairs of the Jews were carried on for some years,

when about this period christianity was ushered into the world; which

caused much rage and persecution to take place among the Jews, until

at last they were driven to such extremities, and thus exposed to the

furious and formidable army of the Romans, who were then great in

power; and the Jews were thus so weakened by the continued inroads

made upon them, that they fell an easy prey to the enemy. The city of

Jerusalem was utterly demolished, the beautiful Temple desecrated and

finally destroyed, and about eleven hundred of the people perished in

the conflict. The country all round became desolate; the streets

overflowing with human blood, terrified the few of the poor Jews who

still survived, so that they fled for their lives, and were scattered

all over the face of the globe. Thus ended the Jewish polity; from

that time up to the present, the Jewish nation has been dispersed

throughout the known world; seeking protection under those governments

where they may chance to fix their residence. In concluding this

portion of the work, we venture the following few remarks:

From the time when the Jews returned from the Babylonish captivity,

both the Temple service and the general affairs of the nation at

large, appear to have been in an unsettled state. Oppressed and

persecuted by the various powers near and about Judea; the continued

civil broils among themselves; the tyranny and cruelty of their own

kings and priests, all tended to keep them in a state of confusion and

disorder: yet worse still, was the neglect of God's holy laws, and the

introduction of heathen rites and customs, by which the pure religion

of their ancestors became polluted. Add to this the innovations which

were permitted to creep in upon the sacred worship of God, and the

party feeling which strengthened such on the one hand, and the furious

opposition on the other--this had the effect of preventing the nation

from possessing that peace of mind and happiness which they would have

otherwise enjoyed, owing to those glorious prophetic predictions

which made such an impression on them, and which promised nought but

real comfort and divine peace on their release from Babylonish

captivity.

It is therefore to be concluded that there is a period yet to come,

which shall bring together again all the scattered flock of Israel, to

the Holy Land of their fathers. Then will they be convinced of their

past errors, and the sins committed by their fathers of old, whose

wickedness brought down upon them the just vengeance of an offended

God. Then will all the blessings reserved for the righteous, be

conferred upon them in that day, as foretold by the prophet Zephaniah:

"At that time will I bring you _again_, even in the time that I gather

you; for I will make you a name and a praise among all the people of

the earth, when I turn back your captivity before your eyes, saith the

Lord."

END OF PART I.

Part Second.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE SEVERAL SECTS WHICH SPRANG UP AMONG THE JEWS BEFORE

AND AFTER THE DAYS OF THE MACCABEES.

CHAPTER I.

The Assideans.

After the spirit of prophecy had ceased among the Jews, and there

being no inspired persons to whom they could apply as formerly, they

fell into religious doubts and disputes. This caused different

opinions to exist among them, and divided them into sects and parties;

such as the Pharisees, the Sadducees, and the Essenes, who were the

principal, and supposed to have arisen out of the Assideans.

The Assideans are called by some "Chasidim," or _pious_. They were a

religious society among the Jews, whose chief and distinguishing

character appears to have been to support the honor of the Temple, and

observe punctually the traditions of the Elders. In the apocryphal

books of the Maccabees, we meet with the word "asidaioi," which no

doubt is derived from the Hebrew word _chasidim_. This sect is

supposed to date their origin either during the captivity, or shortly

after the restoration of the nation. Being of a pious and religious

character, they were the first who adhered to Mattathias, and

afterwards to his son Judas Maccabees, in defense of their religion

and the Law of God. They proved themselves zealous in their cause, as

stated in the following passage: "There came to Mattathias, a company

of Assideans, who were mighty men of Israel, even all such as were

voluntarily devoted unto the law." They were not however, considered a

distinct religious sect from the rest of their brethren; but they were

devoted to their ancient religion and the service of the Temple, the

supporting of the sacrifices, the relief of the poor, and the general

benefit of all their co-religionists. Our views on the subject may be

considered correct, as Josephus, who wrote in those times, and

concerning those affairs, does not mention any such sect being

distinctly marked from the general body of the people. We may

therefore safely adopt the opinions of those who consider the

appellation given them in the book of the Maccabees, to be no more

than used in our days to pious and religious men, who are designated

saints or holy men.

CHAPTER II.

The Pharisees.

This sect derived their name from the Hebrew word "Perusheem," which

signifies separation, and so called because of their being separated

from the body of the people in point of their religious conduct. They

considered themselves more than ordinarily holy, and more strict in

the observance of their religious precepts and ceremonies. It is not

quite certain at what time the Pharisees first made their appearance;

yet there is no doubt, that like all the other sects among the Jews,

they were not known in any way, until some time after the death of

Malachi, the last of the prophets, when the spirit of prophecy ceased

to exist among Israel. Josephus, who was himself of this sect, speaks

of it as flourishing in the days of Johnathan the high priest. In the

days of John Hyrcanus, a high priest of the Asmonean race, they became

very numerous and influential. It is generally admitted that the

Pharisees were more devout than their brethren, and appear to have

excelled in the knowledge of the law, and to have been more skillful

in their interpretation of the same.

The principal doctrines of this sect were as follows:

They held sacred all the traditions of the elders in those days, and

considered the laws of the Rabbins, as contained in the said

traditions, equally binding upon them as the written law. They were of

the belief that the written law could not be properly understood

without the explanation of the oral law, which removed the apparent

difficult passages in the written law. They were guided by the

conviction that both were derived from the same fountain, as handed

down by the tradition from father to son. They further believed, that

when Moses was with God on the mount during forty days, he received

from him both laws--the one in writing, the other traditionary, which

contained the sense and explanation of the former. That Moses having

returned to his tent, taught the same to Aaron, then to his sons,

afterwards to the seventy elders, and lastly to all the people. That

the same was further continued throughout every generation until their

day, and that consequently they considered their system the only true

one, in order to the understanding of the law and the performance of

its precepts. This sect became the most numerous of all the others,

since their doctrines were supported by the scribes and expounders of

the law, who were the most competent judges in those days, and hence

the best calculated to guide the people in all their religious

duties.

The Pharisees were, therefore, much respected and highly esteemed by

the general class of the people, who followed their example in the

performance of all their religious observances, and because they would

not encourage any innovations to be made in their religion or temple

worship. They were very particular in the performance of all the

ceremonial part of their religion, considering form and custom to be

the great contributing cause to the cementing more firmly the

principles upon which the Jewish religion is based, and that frequent

changes in religious affairs tend materially to weaken, but not to

strengthen, the cause.

They maintained the belief in the resurrection of the body--at least

of the good--and the future rewards and punishments to all men in an

eternal state of retribution, believing that every soul is immortal.

They ascribed some things to fate, but held that other things were

left in man's own power; that all things were decreed by divine power,

yet not so as to take away the freedom of man in the discharge of

those duties which he is expected to perform in this life, in order to

obtain the promised happiness of an hereafter.

The religion of the Jew in the present day, is that which was

practised by the sect called Pharisees, and is in general use among

all the descendants of Israel, wherever they may be dispersed

throughout the earth. There are some few exceptions, in those who have

seceded, and have set up a standard for themselves; but they are few

in number, and not very significant in the scale of Judaism. The

principle which they so strenuously advocate is a mere change in the

formulæ of prayer, and the mode of synagogue worship, under the idea

of conciliating the Gentiles, by whom they are surrounded. The belief

in the coming of the Messiah, and the resurrection of the dead, as

also the restoration of Israel to the promised land, is not in the

least invalidated. The Jews in general look forward with anxious hope

for the forthcoming of that period in which all this shall come to

pass, as so frequently foretold by the prophets in the various ages in

which they flourished.

CHAPTER III.

The Sadducees.

The Sadducees derive their name from the Hebrew word "Tzaddukeem," so

called from Zadok, who was a pupil of Antigonus, the son of Socho,

president of the Sanhedrim, upwards of two thousand years ago. This

sect arose from the following circumstance.

Antigonus taught in his school the doctrine that "Man ought to serve

God from pure love, and not in a servile manner, either out of fear of

punishment or the hope of reward."

Zadok, not comprehending the spiritual idea of this doctrine,

concluded that there would not be any future state of reward or

punishment; and, accordingly, taught and propagated this false

doctrine after the death of his preceptor, Antigonus.

This sect believed in the written law as handed down from the time of

Moses; but not in the oral or traditional law. They rejected all the

traditions maintained among the Pharisees. They not only denied the

resurrection of the body, but even the existence of the soul after

its departure from the body here on earth. They ignored the idea

entertained of divine decrees, and held the belief that man is

absolute master of his own actions, with the full privilege of acting

as he pleases, either for good or evil. That God does not in anywise

influence his creatures in the doing the one or the other; that man's

prosperity or adversity in life depends entirely on his own acts, and

that both are respectively the result of either his wisdom or his

folly. The Sadducees received the Pentateuch as divine; but not the

other books of the old testament. In the days of Josephus, the

celebrated Jewish historian, the Sadducees were not very numerous, but

supposed to have been the most wealthy among the people; and the more

opulent joined them. We can easily reconcile this to our minds, as we

observe in our times that the rich and the great are apt to prefer the

pleasures and enjoyments of this life to any expectancy in a future

state of existence. Hence they are found ready and willing to embrace

such a system of religion as enables them to follow their own

inclinations.

These men do not wish to tax their minds with any uneasy reflections

on the subject of retribution, or of the world to come, when they

shall be called to account for their past conduct in this life.

The Sadduccees were, however, not tolerated among the mass of the

people, in consequence of their assertions, precepts, and doctrines,

which were held by the community at large as impious, and, therefore,

injurious to the happiness of society.

At the destruction of Jerusalem, this sect became very

insignificant--their name became nearly forgotten for many years--and

subsequently the name was applied to the sect called Karaites, whom we

shall notice hereafter, in reproach and disgrace.

CHAPTER IV.

The Samaritans.

The Samaritans were originally heathens, consisting of persons from

the several nations, to whom the king of Assyria gave the lands and

cities of the Israelites when they were made captives by the said

monarch.

This sect was called Samaritans from the fact of their having been

settled in the city of Samaria, the metropolis of the kingdom of

Israel. When these people were first carried to Samaria, they adopted

the idolatrous worship and customs of the surrounding nations from

among whom they came.

History informs us that Samaria was infested with lions, which the

people supposed to be a judgment from heaven for their idolatrous and

superstitious practices.

The king of Assyria being of the same opinion with the rest of the

people, sent a Jewish priest to instruct them in the Jewish religion,

and to put away their idolatry.

Notwithstanding the instruction they received from the Jewish priest,

these people could not easily be weaned from their old practices; and,

therefore, to conciliate all parties, as they supposed, they made up

among themselves a system embracing the principles of both the Jewish

and the heathen religion.

At the return of the Jewish nation from the Babylonish captivity--and

after the rebuilding of the temple at Jerusalem--the religion of the

Samaritans underwent a revision, and an alteration in many points,

under the following extraordinary circumstances.

One of the sons of Jehoiada, the high priest, married the daughter of

Sanballat, the Horonite, contrary to the Mosaical law, which prohibits

the inter-marriage of the Israelite with any of the other nations.

Nehemiah in his day zealously endeavored to reform the people among

whom this innovation had spread itself to an alarming extent. He

compelled all those men who had married strange women to repudiate

them.

Manasseh, unwilling to obey the order of Nehemiah, together with many

others who acted in concert with him, left Jerusalem with their wives,

and settled themselves under the protection of Sanballat, the governor

of Samaria.

From that time onward, the worship of the Samaritans came much nearer

to that of the Jews. At a later date, they obtained permission from

Alexander the Great, to build a temple on Mount Gerizim, near the city

of Samaria, in imitation of the temple at Jerusalem, where they

followed the same system of worship, with some few exceptions.

This sect bears some affinity to the Sadducees--it being the

prevailing opinion among the learned, that they rejected all other

sacred writings excepting the five books of Moses.

This circumstance created a strong hatred between the Samaritans and

the original Jews. It was considered in those days a great reproach

among the Jews to be designated a Samaritan. So violent was the

animosity on both sides, that the one would not in any way associate

with the other, nor even perform any acts of civility to each other,

and thus all friendly intercourse ceased among them.

The Samaritans, as well as the Sadducees, are sometimes called by the

Jewish Rabbins, "Cutheem."

CHAPTER V.

The Essenes.

This sect is supposed to have first appeared a short time before the

days of the Maccabees, when the faithful among the Jews, at least

those who were the most scrupulously religious, had to flee from the

power of their cruel enemies, and take up their abode in the deserts

and in caves. Living in such retreats, many of them became so

habituated to retirement, that they preferred to remain so even in

later days, when they might have again appeared in public. In this way

it was, that they formed themselves into recluses.

Although this sect has not been noticed in the scripture history of

the Jews, still they formed a considerable party among them, as

mentioned by Josephus. The Essenes appear to have been rather peculiar

in their mode of living. They loved to be in solitude and retirement,

and were devoted to a contemplative life. They were singular in their

piety, humility, and devotion. It is supposed by some of the ancient

writers, that among this sect it was that the Hebrew philosophy and

metaphysics chiefly flourished, because they showed but little regard

for worldly pleasures--as wealth, honors, or vain-glories. They were

remarkable for their patience, moral conduct, and for their strict

observance of the Sabbath according to the law of Moses.

They were exemplary in their manner of worship, for they would not

speak of any worldly affairs after the sun had risen, until they had

performed their religious duties as customary in those days. In the

present day, nothing is known of this sect; the probability is, that

in the lapse of time, they became mixed up among the rest of their

brethren in their various dispersions throughout the world.

From the account given of the doctrines of this sect by Philo and

Josephus, that they believed in the immortality of the soul; that they

held the scripture in great reverence; they offered no sacrifices, but

sent presents for the support of the temple at Jerusalem.

Their quiet, pious habits, rendered them remarkable. They remained

neutral amidst all the political changes, and were thus respected by

all parties of their own nation, as well as those of the heathens.

They lived chiefly in Palestine and in Egypt.

CHAPTER VI.

The Herodians.

The Herodians were considered by some to be a political party, and by

others, a religious sect. Josephus appears to have passed over this

sect in silence, which leads us to suppose that he did not consider

them very formidable. The opinion, however, of most ecclesiastics, is,

that they derived their name from Herod the Great, and that they were

distinguished from the Pharisees, and other Jews, by their agreeing

with Herod's scheme in putting himself and his dominions under the

power of the Romans, and complying with many of the heathen usages and

customs.

In their zeal for the Roman authority, they were directly opposite to

the Pharisees, who considered it unlawful to submit to, or to pay

taxes to, the Roman emperor. The Pharisees encouraged this opinion,

because they were forbidden by the law of Moses to set over them a

stranger to be their king. The Herodians were also distinguished,

having adopted some of the idolatrous worship of the heathens, which

had been introduced among them by Herod the Great, when he built a

temple in honor of Cæsar, near the head of the river Jordan; and

erected a magnificent theatre at Jerusalem, in which he introduced the

pagan games, and placed the figure of a golden eagle over the gate of

the holy temple.

Herod also furnished the temples, which he reared in the several

places out of Judea, with images for idolatrous worship, in order to

gain favor with the emperor of Rome; though, at the same time, to the

Jews he pretended to do it in opposition to his own will, but in

obedience to the imperial ordinance. In all these schemes the

Herodians acquiesced, and encouraged their master in his work of

iniquity.

It is also probable, from some account in ancient history, that the

Herodians were chiefly of the sect of the Sadducees, who were very lax

in the performance of their religious duties. This sect was, however,

after a very few years, lost in oblivion, and up to the present day,

nothing more is known of them.

CHAPTER VII.

The Galileans, or Gaulonites.

A sect among the ancient Jews, so called from their founder or leader,

Judas of Galilee. It is supposed that this party seceded from the

Pharisees, and formed themselves into a new sect.

This Judas, considering it to be improper for his countrymen to pay

tribute to strangers, excited them to oppose the edict of the emperor,

Augustus, who had decreed that a census should be taken of all his

subjects.

He declared his reason for this opposition to be, that God alone

should be honored as the supreme master, and not any earthly monarch.

This Judas was in company with one Zadoc, a Sadducee, and they

publicly taught that such taxation was forbidden by the law of Moses.

The tumults which they excited were, however, for a time suppressed;

but their disciples were active in propagating this doctrine. This

caused a secession from the body of the Pharisees, declaring it to be

unlawful to pay for infidel princes. In all other respects, they held

the same doctrine as the original Pharisees; but apart from them,

they performed the duties of sacrifices, and all other forms of

worship peculiar among them in those days.

It is generally supposed that this sect of Galileans ultimately

embodied among themselves most of the other sects which appeared at

that time; and it is even credited, that the zealots, particularly

mentioned at the siege of Jerusalem, were of this faction.

CHAPTER VIII.

The Karayeem, or Karaites.

The Karaites trace their pedigree from the ten tribes who were carried

away captive by Salmanassar, and settled themselves in Tartary. They

derive their name from the word Kara, which signifies scripture, they

having adhered to the scripture only as the rule of their faith and

religion. Hence they were called Karayeem. They reject the Talmud and

the Mishna, as also all other traditions, and confine themselves

strictly to the written law--the word of God, as they term it--and

content themselves with the literal sense of the text, which admits of

no comment, according to their opinions. The translation of the bible

in use among them, is in the Turkish language, which in all

probability proceeds from their constant intercourse with the

Mahomedans.

During the time of the celebrated Hillel, and his cotemporary,

Shammai, who were the president and vice president of the Sanhedrin of

those days, the disciples of these two eminent divines became

divided, and formed two parties. They were in constant disputes,

owing to the different opinions entertained by each party on the

several religious subjects. Those who were of the same opinion as the

Karaites, agreed with the school of Shammai; whilst those who were

zealous advocates for tradition, joined the school of Hillel. Though

the name Karaites be thus modern, this sect boasts of their high

antiquity; for they say they are the true followers of Moses and the

prophets, as they undoubtedly are, on account of their adhering so

closely to the scripture.

This sect differs from the rest of the Jews in this respect--they

expound the scripture, after its having been read in the synagogue in

Hebrew, in the language of the country in which they dwell; and they

read most of their prayers after the same manner, both in private and

in public. At Constantinople, where many of them are living, their

translation is in modern Greek; whereas, in Caffa, it is in the

Turkish language. They are found chiefly in the Crimea, Lithuania, and

Persia, at Damascus, Constantinople, and Egypt.

They are proverbial for honesty and integrity, and said to be men of

great learning, piety, and true religious principles.

Their doctrines chiefly are as follow:

They believe in the immortality of the soul, and in rewards and

punishments hereafter. They believe, also, with the rest of Israel,

that the Messiah is yet to come, with the same hope and fervency of

spirit as all Jews of the present day.

They are exemplary in their observance of the Sabbath, and the

festivals, according to the strict letter of the law, as contained in

the bible.

The celebrated traveler, Benjamin of Tudela, who made himself famous

in the twelfth century, visited all the synagogues in the east, where

he became acquainted with all the customs, manners, and ceremonies of

the different parties. He relates that he met some Karaites at

Damascus, in Syria, and in Egypt; that they all appear to have adopted

one uniform mode of worship and religious practices; that they met

with great encouragement in the Ottoman empire, owing to their

unanimity of feeling in synagogue worship, and their general conduct

in religious affairs. In Constantinople, where they are pretty

numerous, they hold an equal position. It was here that Elijah ben

Moses composed his astronomical tables for the capital of the Ottoman

empire. It was here, also, that the learned Rabbi, Judah Alpoka, the

noted Karaite, published his work, the "Gate of Judah," in which he

deplores the unfortunate state of his sect, which, he says, had lost,

by plunder and other persecution, about three hundred volumes of

books, composed in Arabic by their doctors, and translated into

Hebrew.

This historian further informs us, that this sect is to be found in

Syria, and as far to the east as Nineveh, from which place, some years

ago, one of the Karaites came to Frankfort, in Germany. He brought

with him some books, which he valued at a very high price. He then

visited Poland, Muscovy, and Lithuania, where many of them are

residing at this day. This proves to us the folly of the vulgar

notion, that this sect are extinct in the west. Doubtless, there are

still many Karaites in these countries who trace their origin from the

Tartars.

Our historian further informs us that, in the course of his travels,

he met in Damascus two hundred Karaites, four hundred Samaritans, and

about three thousand Pharisees, and that none of these sects would

intermarry; and consequently, they remain to this day distinct and

separate, so far as regards their religious intercourse and forms of

worship. In all other respects, however, they are friendly with each

other, and mix together in society as citizens of the world.

CHAPTER IX.

Of the Synagogues among the Jews.

The term synagogue signifies simply an assemblage of persons, which

name was applied to places or houses in which the people met for

religious worship. Among the Israelites of old, the word synagogue was

used in its primary sense; as when they speak of the great synagogue,

or the court of the seventy elders, which was instituted in the days

of Moses, the legislator, to superintend the political affairs of the

nation. The number of seventy became, in later days, increased to one

hundred and twenty.

Synagogues were originally instituted as chapels of ease, for the

convenience of those persons who lived far distant from the temple,

and could not, therefore, attend regularly to divine service. In the

later ages of the Jewish state, synagogues became very numerous, even

in Jerusalem, where the temple stood.

The silence of the old testament respecting synagogues, and the

absence of any other authentic account, have induced most historians

to conclude that synagogues were not generally in use before the

Babylonish captivity.

It appears to be the current opinion of many who have written on the

subject, that synagogues were first built during the days of Ezra and

Nehemiah. They directed that in every town and city throughout the

land, where ten men could be assembled, synagogues should be erected

for divine worship, which consisted of prayers and praises, reading

the scripture, and expounding the same, in the language of the country

in which the people lived.

The Israelites having, during their long captivity in Babylon,

neglected the study of the Hebrew language, which was their

vernacular, the result proved that the bible became less understood by

them. It was on this account that Ezra read the law to the people in

Hebrew, and the meaning of the text was given in Chaldee by the

Levites; and thus it was, that the people were enabled to comprehend

the true and proper meaning of that portion of the law when read

publicly every Sabbath in the synagogue. Hence the origin of preaching

in the synagogue, which was considered one of the objects for which

the synagogue was instituted.

After the Babylonish captivity, the erection of synagogues among the

Israelites proved of great utility to the people in general, as the

frequent public reading of the law was the only means of preserving

the true religion of the Jew, and of diffusing the knowledge of the

holy law of God. It cannot be denied, that it had been partially

forgotten during the long and severe captivity; that many of the rites

and ceremonies had fallen into disuse, in consequence of the many

cruel persecutions which were inflicted upon the people, which

unfitted them for the performance of God's holy law.

The regulations for divine service were as follow. Two days in each

week, besides the Sabbath and other festivals, were appointed for this

service in the synagogue, viz: Mondays and Thursdays. The hours for

the daily prayers were at the time of the morning and evening

sacrifices. These hours were devoted to prayer in the temple as well

as in the synagogues, as also to private devotion in the respective

homes of the people.

In addition to these two seasons of prayer, the ancient Hebrews prayed

at the beginning of the first night watch, while the evening sacrifice

was still burning on the altar; as we find recorded of king David in

the book of psalms, who prayed morning, noon, and evening. It is also

mentioned of Daniel, that he prayed three times a day.

The priests and the Levites were devoted to the service of the temple;

but in the service of the various synagogues, persons of any tribe

were appointed, if found competent, by the elders who were the rulers

of the synagogue.

The synagogues were also used in olden times as courts of justice,

more especially in ecclesiastical affairs. The great council of the

nation, called the Sanhedrin, whose department was in the temple at

Jerusalem, was vested with the power of deciding between life and

death. Its authority extended over all the synagogues in Judea, as

also over all other places, where the people resided near Jerusalem.

The great synagogue consisted of one hundred and twenty elders, among

whom were the three later prophets, Hagai, Zacharia, and Malachi. This

conclave continued in succession till the days of Simon, the just, the

high priest in Jerusalem, who was the last of this school. He was

designated the just, because of his devotion and unfeigned piety to

his God, and his upright conduct towards his fellow creatures. This

conclave were zealously engaged in restoring the holy religion of

Israel to its former excellence, which had undergone many corruptions

during the captivity and other persecutions which the people endured

subsequent to that period. They published correct copies of the bible,

and taught the same to the people, in order that they should

understand the religion which they professed to follow.

Then it was that the worship of the synagogue consisted of three

parts--the reading of the scripture, prayer, and preaching. By the

scripture, is understood the pentateuch, portions from the prophets,

and Hagiographa. The pentateuch is divided into fifty-two portions,

for the fifty-two weeks in the year; one of these portions is read

every Sabbath till the whole pentateuch is finished; in addition to

the reading of the law, a chapter from the prophets is read, which

dates its origin to the following fact.

In those days, when Antiochus Epiphanes destroyed all the books in the

possession of the Jews, he prohibited also the reading of the weekly

portions of the law on the Sabbath. The elders then, as a substitute,

selected chapters from the prophets, corresponding, in some measure,

with the context of the weekly portions of the law. This practice was

continued until Judas Maccabees had conquered Antiochus, when the

reading of the law was resumed. To commemorate this event, the

practice of reading the said portions of the prophets, on Sabbaths and

festivals, has been continued among the Jews, and is now in use in all

Jewish orthodox synagogues.

Under the head of synagogues, we must notice that the Jews had schools

wherein the children were taught to read the law; as, also, academies,

in which the rabbins and doctors made comments on the law, and taught

the traditions to their pupils. These academies were furnished with

many tutors, of whom one was appointed as president, and under whose

name the academy was denominated. Of this character, were the two

famous schools of Hillel and Shammai, as also the school of the

celebrated rabbi, Gamliel, whom we shall have to introduce to the

notice of the reader hereafter, when we speak of the compilers of the

Mishna and the Talmud. The subject of prayer will form the contents of

the next chapter.

CHAPTER X.

Of the origin and introduction of Prayer among the Jews.

The bible informs us that, even in the earliest ages of the world,

there existed in the human breast a spontaneous bursting forth of

grateful feeling towards God, the benefactor of mankind.

The first specimen we meet with is in the days of Seth, the third son

of Adam. "Then began men to call upon the name of the Lord." The same

expression is used in the history of the patriarch Abraham, who built

altars and prayed to God. His example was followed by Isaac and Jacob,

and their immediate descendants. This "calling on the name of the

Lord," is what we now understand by the term prayer.

From the several verses in Genesis, which speak of the prayers offered

up by the patriarchs, the Talmud infers that the morning prayer was

first introduced by Abraham, afternoon prayer by Isaac, and that of

the evening by Jacob; and, therefore, it is concluded that prayer was,

from the earliest period, held as a regular and stated duty.

After the release of the Israelites from Egyptian bondage, they were

initiated into a holy communion by divine revelation on Mount Sinai.

The mode of worship then, consisted of regular daily sacrifices, as

described in the bible; additional offerings for festivals, or

propitiatory, as those offered for sins and transgressions. These last

were always accompanied with suitable prayers and confessions.

In this manner, the sinner had to make confession when he brought an

offering in expiation of his sins. On the day of atonement, when the

high priest presented the offering to the Lord, he had to make

confession on behalf of himself and the congregation.

In Deuteronomy, chapter the twenty-sixth, fifth verse, we find a

particular form of thanksgiving and confession to be used by the

people, when they offered up the first ripe fruits to the Lord in the

temple at Jerusalem.

All other addresses to the Almighty appear to have arisen as occasions

required. Of this class, we find several instances, such as Moses,

Joshua, Hannah, Hezekiah, and others.

Nothing, however, more clearly points out the fact where prayer become

an established custom, than the devout and emphatic prayer to the

Almighty by king Solomon, at the dedication of the temple at

Jerusalem, which he had raised to the honor and glory of the God of

Israel.

The language used by the royal sage on that occasion, so strongly

proves the assertion that prayer became an established custom, that we

cannot refrain from introducing to the reader the following extract.

"That thine eyes may be open toward this house, night and day, even

toward the place of which thou hast said, my name shall be there; that

thou mayest hearken unto the prayer which thy servant shall make

toward this place. And hearken thou to the supplication of this

servant, and of thy people Israel, when they shall pray toward this

place; and hear thou in heaven, thy dwelling place, and when thou

hearest, forgive."

The royal sage then proceeds to particularize the nature of prayers

most likely to be used; as private injuries, national subjugation,

want of rain, famine, or pestilence, even the prayer of a stranger not

of the people of Israel, &c. Surely, a specimen such as this, must

prove an established custom among them to consider it a duty to pray

to God for favors conferred, and solicit his protection in the hour of

trouble and distress.

The temple at Jerusalem was certainly the consecrated place of regular

prayer and sacrifices, for all Israelites who were within its reach;

yet, as many lived at too great a distance from this sacred spot,

private devotion was no doubt regularly practiced among them. We can

trace, in history, many accounts of the existence of places purposely

devoted to daily prayer and regular worship. The prophets, of whom we

read, at Damascus, Shiloh, Bethel, and Jericho, had, no doubt, a

regular form of prayer; for, at Jericho, there was an assemblage

called the sons of the prophets.

After the destruction of the first temple, the Jewish nation was

driven to Babylon, and from there they became scattered about the

neighboring heathen countries. The occasions for prayer and

supplication must have increased in such a state of slavery and

persecution. Hence their addresses to the Almighty must have become

more sincere and more constant. The reflection on their former state

in society, compared with that in which they were now placed, must

have caused in the people a strong feeling of devotion, leading on to

the use of regular and earnest prayer. Then it was, that prayer was

the sole solace of the people, while under such persecution.

The prophet Daniel suffered himself to be cast into the lions' den,

because he persisted in praying three times a day towards Jerusalem,

in defiance of the king's edict, which prohibited any person from

worshipping any other God but the idol set up by the king.

In the days of Daniel, it is found that the pure Hebrew used by the

Israelites had become much corrupted by the intermixture of the

Chaldee and other languages, with which they became conversant by

their being so closely united with the strange nations. This caused

the holy tongue to be in a great measure forgotten. Nehemiah complains

of this, and says: "Their children spake half in the speech of Ashdod,

and could not speak in the language of the Jew, but according to the

language of the several people."

Ezra, the scribe, who lived in those days, looked on this matter with

considerable grief. He was fearful that the people would entirely

neglect their holy worship on account of the want of a proper

knowledge of the sacred language. And he further saw the consequences

would be, that when the people did pray, they would fail to select

proper expressions to convey their feelings and sentiments. Ezra,

therefore, in conjunction with his conclave, collected, composed, and

compiled the prayers in the pure and original Hebrew. They were so

arranged as to be suitable for any occasion of private and public

devotion, both for the morning and the afternoon, in reference to the

regular daily sacrifices offered up in the temple. Also, an additional

form of prayer, called "Moosoph" in Hebrew, for those days on which

the additional sacrifices had been offered; such as Sabbaths,

festivals, and the new moon; also, for the evening sacrifice which

burned all night on the altar; likewise, the Nengelah, or concluding

prayer of the day of atonement. These are the prayers which have been

handed down to the posterity of the Jews throughout the known world.

Ezra and his conclave, who performed this great work, were called "the

men of the great assembly or synagogue." The Talmud, Maimonides, and

other eminent Jewish authorities, inform us that this synod was

composed of one hundred and twenty persons of great piety and

learning, among whom were the prophets, Hagai, Zacharia, Malachi,

Ezra, Nehemiah, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azaria, together with many

other great men, whom we shall notice hereafter.

These prayers were in daily use among the people during the second

temple; for in the Mishna, when speaking of the order observed in the

daily sacrifices in the temple, it is stated that the prefect who gave

the instructions, regularly said to the officiating priests, "repeat

ye one blessing," which they did; then the ten commandments, and the

shemang. He again said, "repeat ye with the people these blessings,"

which they did, many of which are in daily use among all orthodox

Jews. Besides, as we have before noticed, many Israelites lived at

great distances from the temple, and, therefore, it is not reasonable

to suppose that God's chosen people should be altogether without some

regular formulæ of prayer.

Any person who examines the prayers in daily use among the Israelites,

must become sensible of their excellence, and the grateful expressions

and high wrought admiration in which they are composed. They are

adapted to every situation in life, whether in sorrow or in joy, in

grief or in mirth. No one who views the wondrous creation; no one

possessed of the slightest spark of gratitude for favors bestowed; nor

he who looks forward with hope for relief in the hour of distress, or

sickness, can possibly have any language better suited to his

feelings, under any circumstances, and on every occasion.

Nothing, perhaps, has tended so much to keep Israel distinct from

every other nation in the world, as their religious customs and

observances; but more especially so, their language, the sacred

original, in which the Lord of hosts manifested himself to his

favorite creature; the language in which they pray, and which, in

truth, is the only relic of their former glory and paternal heritage.

It is the continuance of praying in the Hebrew, which forms, as it

were, a communion for their dispersed brethren, from whatever country

or clime they may migrate, and constitute themselves into a

congregation; a language peculiarly their own--venerable for its

antiquity, and sacred from its first promulgation, as being the true

channel of divine revelation.

The reader will please understand that our observations, as well as

the historical accounts, can only have reference to those prayers and

supplications which were composed for the Jew by the men of the great

synagogue, as already explained. Alas! that any innovation should have

been suffered to mar the beauty of those holy compositions!

There are many more of a sacred character, such as known by the name

of "Peyutem," or poetical compositions, which are read in the

synagogue on the festivals and other special days. These are of much

later date, and have been introduced, from time to time, into the

Jewish liturgy, by men eminent for their learning, piety, and

devotion. They were written under peculiar circumstances of distress

and persecution, during the varied dispersion of the nation, more

especially in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.

It was then that the Jews found consolation in the dark storm of

persecution, in pouring out their souls in prayer and religious

devotion, which they did spontaneously on the different occasions

which presented themselves. Their extempore effusions were so

characteristic of their pitiful situation, that they made an indelible

impression upon the minds, not only of their composers, but also upon

those to whom they were recited. To commemorate such events, these

compositions were committed to writing. In honor to the authors, the

several congregations among whom these pious men lived, introduced

them into the festival prayers, and other marked days. These have

become embodied in the regular festival and Sabbath prayer book, and

have been in constant use among the German and Polish Jews up to the

present day. The Portuguese Jews, however, have an entire different

formula. Theirs is more ancient than either the German or Polish. It

is worth notice, though strange, indeed, that the German Jews, who, in

a great measure, omit the recital of these Peyutem, were the very

people among whom they were principally composed. It is, however, not

our province to discuss here the expediency of such proceedings: we

have only to treat of facts; the reader can judge for himself.

Some few exceptions, however, exist. Many of the Peyutem, above

mentioned, claim a much earlier date, and are from the pen of some of

the most holy men of the ancient race of Israel. These compositions

will be found in the additional service of new year and day of

atonement; also, those prayers called propitiatory--as the

_Selechous_, recited previously to and during the penitential days.

They have in all ages been admired for their beauty of diction, and

sublimity of language, and are highly calculated to inspire the reader

with profound awe and veneration, when addressing them to his creator.

It remains now only for the Hebrew language to become a primary object

of study among all classes, so that they may learn to appreciate the

beauty of God's own language, and thus to be prepared with devotion

whenever engaged in prayer, either in private or in public. If such

were the case, those who labor in the good cause would be fully

repaid, when, by their exertions, they should succeed in awakening the

dormant feelings of the negligent to such a duty of prayer as may be

acceptable to the creator of mankind. Then will the intelligent mind

become sensible of the excellence of the ancient and holy liturgy of

the chosen people of God.

CHAPTER XI.

Of the Ureem and Thumeem.

"And thou shalt put in the breast-plate of judgment the Ureem and

Thumeem." Exodus, 28, 30. What the Ureem and Thumeem were is not

distinctly explained in the bible.

That they were not the twelve precious stones contained in the

breast-plate, as some have erroneously imagined, is quite clear; for

we do not find that God directed Moses to make the Ureem and Thumeem,

as he did when he said, "And thou shalt make the breast-plate," &c.,

&c.

It is plain from the text itself, that they were something in addition

to the breast-plate, and put therein, after it was finished, by Moses

himself; and therefore God says, "And thou shalt put into the

breast-plate of judgment the Ureem and Thumeem."

From this fact, it is evident that there was something additional

placed in the breast-plate by Moses; and for this reason, it is

supposed that it was made double, that it might the more conveniently

hold them. It now remains to inquire what the Ureem and Thumeem in

reality were, and what the particular use of them. As to the former,

there are various opinions among the learned. Many celebrated

Christian divines have ventured many erroneous definitions on the

subject. According to the opinions of the most erudite and pious

Hebrew doctors and rabbins, the following appears to be the most

reasonable view of the case.

It was, say the rabbins, the Tetragrammaton, or ineffable name of the

Deity, which Moses was commanded to place in the breast-plate, and was

consecrated to holy purposes. It was vested with divine power to give

an oracular reply from God to any counsel being asked of him by the

high priest, during the time in which he wore it. Now, as the answer

came immediately from God, it was therefore properly designated

"asking counsel of God." As to the Ureem and Thumeem, it was

especially to ask counsel of God on such momentous occasions only, in

relation to the Jewish nation.

In the Mishna of _Yoomah_ are explained three express conditions

necessary to be observed in the asking of counsel by the Ureem and

Thumeem.

FIRST.--Concerning the person inquiring. He must not be a private

person. He must be either the king, the president of the Sanhedrin,

who presided over the whole nation, the general of the army, or some

other noble prince, or governor in Israel.

SECOND.--Concerning the nature of the question. It must not be

respecting the affairs of private persons; but such only as relate to

the public interest of the whole nation, either of church or state.

THIRD.--Concerning the person who presents the question. He must be

the high priest, clothed in his pontifical robes, and his breast-plate

with the Ureem and Thumeem.

The learned Maimonides observes in his celebrated work, "Moreh

Nevoocheem," or a "_guide to the perplexed_," part second, chapter

forty-five, that the Ureem and Thumeem was a degree of the divine

inspiration. Speaking of the different degrees or orders of prophecy,

he says: "And thus every high priest who inquired by the Ureem and

Thumeem was of this order, as already mentioned."

The divine presence rested on him, and he spoke by the holy spirit,

that is, he delivered his answers with the assistance of the holy

inspiration. According to this opinion, it was but one degree below

the spirit of prophecy. All the learned and eminent men among the Jews

say, that the manner of asking counsel, and receiving the answer

thereto, was as follows.

The person who inquired did not make the request in an audible tone;

but in such a way as one who is at his devotion pronounces the words,

sufficiently loud to be heard by none but himself.

The question being made, the priest looked into the breast-plate, and

on perceiving some letters on the stone of the same glistening, he, by

combining them together, obtained the answer. We shall best exemplify

the foregoing by the following passage from the book of Judges.

"Now, after the death of Joshua, it came to pass that the children of

Israel asked the Lord, saying, who shall go up for us against the

Canaanites first, to fight against them." The reply was: "_Yehuda

Yangaleh_" or "Judah shall go up;" for as soon as the question was

propounded, the priest looked into the breast-plate, and seeing the

name of Judah appear prominent, he was assured that Judah was the

tribe. The priest looked again, and beheld the _Yod_ shine, the

_Ngain_ from the name of _Simeon_; then the Lamed from another name,

and the _Heh_ from another; these four letters being put together made

the word "_Yangaleh_" which signifies, "_He shall go up_." When the

priest found that no more letters glistened, he knew immediately that

the answer was completed. Hence the reason why they are called

_Ureem_, which signifies _Light_, from the shining of the letters; and

_Thumeem_, or perfection, as the answer was thus complete and

perfected.

This fact distinguished the Jewish oracles from the pretended heathen

oracles, which were always delivered in an enigmatical and ambiguous

manner. The Jewish oracles were always clear and explicit, never

falling short of perfection, either in the manifestation or the

certainty of the truth thereof.

During the existence of the second temple, the Ureem and Thumeem were

not consulted; for when the ark and coverlid, the cherubim and the two

tables of stone, disappeared at the destruction of the first temple,

the breast-plate with the _Ureem_ and _Thumeem_ shared the same fate.

Notwithstanding that on the return of the Jews to Jerusalem, they had

the pontifical robes, with the breast-plate with four rows of stones,

engraved with the names of the tribes of Israel; yet no question was

ever asked, and consequently no communication ever received from the

_Ureem_ and _Thumeem_. Two reasons are assigned for this.

FIRST.--Because the said _Ureem_ and _Thumeem_ were instituted to ask

counsel of the Lord of such things which concerned _all_ the tribes of

Israel, and the common interest of the whole nation. Now, there being

at that time the tribes of Judah and Benjamin only, these oracles

could not _be_ consulted, the common interest of the nation having

then ceased.

SECONDLY--And possibly the principal reason, was, that the

_Tetragrammaton_, or ineffable name of the Deity, which Moses put

between the folds of the breast-plate, was wanting. This being the

most important part, and the very essence of the whole--when the cause

ceased, the effect also ceased.

CHAPTER XII.

Of the Mishna, or Oral Law.

The Pentateuch, or written law, was communicated by God to Moses, and

by him to the people of Israel at different times, and adapted to the

various seasons, places and circumstances during the forty years'

sojournment in the wilderness.

The mode adopted in instructing the Israelites in the wilderness in

the divine law was as follows: Every passage or chapter of the written

law, whether historical or preceptive, was written by Moses, as

received from God himself, which he placed before his council or

senate, called, afterwards, Sanhedrin, as well as before the whole

body of the people. This council consisted of seventy elders, or

senators, the most learned and pious among the nation, of whom Moses

was the president. Every chapter of the law was explained by Moses

according to the oral tradition, which he received coeval with the

written law. The agreement of these two was proved in such a way as to

show that the oral law is the true and genuine spirit and sense of the

Pentateuch; that they are so intimately and inseparably connected

with each other as to be considered as one and indivisible.

Aaron, the high priest, was honored with the appointment of repeating,

for the instruction of the people, all the learning taught by his

brother Moses. Aaron was succeeded by his sons. Then came the elders

who gathered together all the Israelites and placed them in their

several academies for the study of the law. Every individual of Israel

was permitted to make memoranda of the oral law, in order to assist

the memory, for personal and private convenience, but the public

instruction was taught orally. This oral tradition was transmitted

from Moses down to the days of the celebrated Rabbi, Judah the Prince,

son of the learned Simon the Just, about a hundred and fifty years

after the destruction of the second temple. After the death of Moses,

Joshua the son of Nun, his successor, taught the said law in his

Sanhedrin, and delivered it to the elders who succeeded him; and in

like manner the tradition of the Mishna was successively transferred

from generation to generation, and was concluded by Rabbi Judah, above

named, who flourished in the reign of the Emperor Antoninus, by whom

he was honored with the title of Prince, and invested with a supremacy

of power for his office. It was generally believed in those days that

there never rose up in Israel any man like unto him, in whom so much

piety, wealth and glory were united.

It was in consequence of his extreme piety and devotion to spiritual

purposes only, and divesting himself of all worldly cares and

pleasures, that he was designated Rabbinu Hakodesh, or the Holy Rabbi.

This pious man, acting as president of the Sanhedrin, consulted his

colleagues, who, perceiving the decline of literature, such as

contained in the oral law at that period, and fearful of the

consequences thereof to the nation at large, took into their serious

consideration the necessity of adopting some plan by which such

tradition should not be entirely forgotten. They saw and felt that the

many sufferings and persecutions inflicted upon their co-religionists

would ultimately be the cause of the loss of that knowledge which was

so dear to them as God's own people. That it would be impossible for

future generations to understand the practical part of the divine

precepts as embodied in the Pentateuch. It was therefore with holy

zeal that they judged it proper to collect and compile all the oral

tradition explanatory of the written law and commit the same to

writing, in order that it should be handed down to posterity. This is

the same Mishna now in existence among the Jews at this day. It is

written in short sentences and aphorisms, and generally considered to

be in pure Hebrew, with some few exceptions. It contains full

elucidations of the Pentateuch, as admitted by the most eminent Jewish

doctors of all ages, who testify that without such elucidations the

written law would have remained a sealed book to the world at large.

In the following chapter we shall treat of the Gemara, or Completion,

usually called the Talmud, the same being a commentary on the Mishna.

For the present, we shall content ourselves by laying before our

readers a succinct account of the contents of the Mishna.

The Mishna is divided into six general heads, called in Hebrew,

Sedoreem, orders or classes. The first is styled Zeroeëm, which

signifies _seeds_, and is subdivided into eleven sections.

FIRST--BEROCHOUT, OR BLESSINGS.--This section treats of the laws

directing the order of prayers and thanksgivings for the produce of

the earth, and for all other benefits conferred on man by the

beneficent creator; with the consideration as to time and place when

they are to be said or repeated.

SECOND--PYOH, OR CORNER.--This section treats of those laws which

direct the leaving of the corner of the field, as the portion for the

benefit of the poor, as commanded in the book of Leviticus.

THIRD--DEMAI, OR DOUBTFUL.--This treats of such things of which there

exists some doubt, as to tithes having been paid for them, the

Israelites not being allowed to eat of anything until it had been

tithed.

FOURTH--TERUMOUS, OR OBLATIONS.--This section points out such things

of which a portion was to be set apart as devoted to the use of the

priests.

FIFTH--SHEVINGIS, OR SEVENTH.--This section explains the laws of the

seventh year, called the Sabbatical year, during which period the land

was to remain at rest, and lie fallow; and during which time all

debts were remitted and obligations canceled.

SIXTH--KILLAYIM, OR MIXTURES.--This portion lays down the laws which

prohibit the mixing or joining of things together of an opposite or

different nature or species; as, the sowing of various kinds of seeds

in one and the same spot of ground; or suffering cattle of different

kinds to engender; or the grafting a scion of one species of plant on

the stock of another of a different character.

SEVENTH--MANGSIRE REESHOUN, OR FIRST TITHE. This section signifies the

first tithes, and treats of the laws of the said tithes which shall be

apportioned to the Levites.

EIGHTH--MANGSIRE SHYNEE, OR SECOND TITHES. This treats of the laws of

the second tithes, which were to be taken up to Jerusalem, and there

to be eaten, or to be redeemed, and the produce expended at Jerusalem

in peace offerings.

FIFTH--CHALAH, LOAF, OR CAKE.--This section speaks of the laws

relative to setting apart a cake of dough for the priests; of the

description of dough the cake should be, and what kind of dough was

prohibited from being used for the purpose.

TENTH--ORLAH, OR UNCIRCUMCISED.--This section explains the law

touching the illegality of eating the fruit of any tree until the

fifth year of its growth. As follows: During the first three years of

its bearing fruit, it must not be eaten; the fourth year it was holy

to the Lord; and on the fifth year, it was permitted to be eaten by

the owner thereof.

ELEVENTH--BICKUREEM, OR FIRST RIPE FRUITS. This section treats of the

manner in which the first ripe fruits were to be offered up in the

holy temple at Jerusalem.

The second general head or class is called _Seder Moed_, or order of

festivals. It is so denominated because it treats of all those laws

which were made concerning festivals and days of solemn observance.

This second class is divided into twelve sections.

FIRST--SABBATH, OR REST.--This is so called because it treats of all

the laws respecting the Sabbath. This division contains twenty-four

chapters.

SECOND--EYRUVEEN, OR MIXTURES, OR ASSOCIATIONS.--This section shows in

what manner food might be conveyed from house to house on the Sabbath

day. All the inhabitants of the court or place in which the

association was formed, were allowed so to do. It also explains the

rules laid down for any journey to be made on the Sabbath.

THIRD--PESOCHIM, OR PASSOVER.--This portion treats of all the laws,

customs, and ceremonies, to be observed at the offering up of the

paschal lamb on the eve of the festival of Passover.

FOURTH--SHEKOLEEM, OR SHEKELS.--This treats of the half shekels, which

every Israelite, whether rich or poor, was bound to pay every year

towards defraying the expenses of the daily sacrifices offered up on

the altar in Jerusalem.

FIFTH--YOUMOH, OR DAY.--This section treats of the great and solemn

day of atonement; pointing out the ceremonies of the day, and the

duties of the high priest on that holy occasion. It also speaks of

the sacrifices which were to be offered up as expiations for the sins

of the people.

SIXTH--SUCCOH, OR TABERNACLE.--This portion treats of the feast of

tabernacles. It points out in what manner the tabernacle should be

built; the use of the palm tree, the citron, the myrtle, and the

willow of the brook, which were ordered to be taken and used on the

said festival.

SEVENTH--YOUM TOUV, OR FESTIVAL.--It is called, also, Bytsoh, or Egg,

being the word with which it commences. This section contains the laws

and regulations for the due observance of the festivals of the Lord.

It points out what work may, or may not, be lawfully done on any of

the festivals which are called holy days of convocation, on which all

manual labor or traffic is prohibited.

EIGHTH--ROUSH HASHONO, OR NEW YEAR.--This treats of the laws and

solemnities of the sacred day of the new year; such as the sounding of

the _shouphar_ or _cornet_; of the prayers and regular service of that

holy occasion. It describes, also, the ceremony for the observance at

the appearance of the new moon, by which all the holy days were

regulated by the Sanhedrin during the existence of the second temple.

NINTH--TANGANEES, OR FAST.--This division treats of the different

fasts held throughout the year, and the manner in which they are to be

observed by every Israelite. These fasts are held on different

occasions for various reasons, and purposes; such as days of

repentance, humiliation, and of calamity and misfortune which befel

the nation in the several ages of persecution.

TENTH--MEGILLOH, OR ROLL OF THE BOOK OF ESTHER.--This section treats

of the feast of Purim, and directs how the roll shall be written and

read on this festival. It speaks of many other rules and regulations

to be observed on this feast, which commemorates the miraculous

deliverance of the Jewish people from the hands of the wicked Haman,

who contemplated the destruction of the whole nation. It also treats

of the laws concerning the synagogue, and the reading of the holy law

on the several days of solemn and religious observance throughout the

year.

ELEVENTH--MOED KOTON, OR LESSER FESTIVALS. This treats of such work as

may or may not be done during the middle days of the passover and

tabernacle holidays. It is, therefore, called Moed Koton, as the

middle days of the said festivals are considered less holy than the

first and last two days. It contains, also, the laws regulating the

conduct of mourners.

TWELFTH--HAGIGAH, OR FESTIVAL OFFERINGS. This section specifies the

laws relating to the offerings made on the different festivals; the

description of the persons; how they are to be qualified, and in what

manner they are to appear before the Lord on the three great festivals

in every year, when all the Israelites that possibly could, were

expected to be in attendance at the holy city of Jerusalem.

The third general head, or class, is called Nosheem, or women. This is

subdivided into seven sections.

FIRST--YEVOMOUS, OR MARRIAGE.--This section is so called, as it treats

of the laws by which one brother is expected to marry the relict of

his deceased brother. It shows how, and when, the obligation shall

take place; the duties and the ceremonies to be observed at the

performance of the same.

SECOND--KESUVOUS, OR DOCUMENTS.--This speaks of the laws relating to

marriage contracts, and dowries, and of estates, whether real or

personal, which may fall to some married women; how the same shall be

disposed of, by, or allotted to, the said party or parties.

THIRD--NEDOREEM, OR VOWS.--This treats of such vows which, when made,

become binding, and by what persons such vows shall be made; how vows

are considered null and void, since the husband has the power of

confirming or annulling the vows of his wife. This law is very

particularly specified, as to how such may be done; and the class of

vows which fall under the control of the husband, and those which do

not.

FOURTH--NOZEER, OR NAZARITE.--This section treats of those laws which

guide the different classes of Nazarites who take upon themselves the

vows of abstinence.

FIFTH--SOTAH, OR TO TURN ASIDE.--This treats of the enactments

relating to trials occasioned through jealousy between man and wife;

the nature of the punishment inflicted on the woman, if it be proved

that she had been guilty of the crime of adultery.

SIXTH--GITTEN, OR LETTER OF DIVORCE.--This treats of the laws of

divorce. It explains when, and under what circumstances, a divorce may

be granted. It directs also all the formulæ to be used and observed in

all cases of divorce.

SEVENTH--KEDUSHEEN, OR BETROTHING.--This treats of the laws, customs,

and ceremony of betrothing; the forms, rites, and regulations to be

observed at the solemnization of the marriage according to the laws of

Moses and Israel.

The fourth general head, or class, is called Nezeekeen, or Damages.

This class is divided into eight sections; the first of which is again

subdivided into three separate sections, as follow.

FIRST--BOVOH KAMMA, OR FIRST GATE.--This first section treats of all

such damages, which may be recovered for injuries done, either by man

or beast.

SECOND--BOVOH MEZIAH, OR MIDDLE GATE.--This treats of the laws of

usury. It explains what is, and what is not, considered an act of

usury. It speaks also on matters of special trust; of letting or hire,

and such like transactions between man and man.

THIRD--BOVOH BOSROH, OR LAST GATE.--This treats of the laws relating

to commerce, copartnership, buying and selling; also, the laws of

inheritance, and the right of succession.

The above three sections are called by the Talmud and Mishna, gates,

because, in the East, the courts of law were held within the gates of

the city.

SECOND--SANHEDREEN, OR SENATE.--This speaks of the great senate, as

also of the minor courts of judicature; of the causes for trial, and

the nature of the punishment inflicted for the several crimes; the

four kinds of death, as the penalty for capital offenses. It

describes, also, very minutely, the mode to be adopted by the Judges

in the examination of witnesses.

THIRD--MACCOUS, OR PUNISHMENT.--This portion treats more especially of

that which may constitute false testimony, or inadmissible evidence;

the laws relative to the forty stripes inflicted on the delinquent;

the reason why the rabbins directed that only thirty-nine stripes

should be inflicted instead of forty, as stated in the bible; also,

the manner in which the said punishment should be administered. It

relates, likewise, the regulations to be observed by such persons who

were compelled to seek shelter in the cities of refuge.

FOURTH--SHEVUNGOUS, OR OATHS.--This section explains the laws to be

observed in the administration of an oath; in what cases an oath shall

or shall not be submitted to the contending parties; who shall or who

shall not be considered qualified to take the oath.

FIFTH--ADOYOUS, TESTIMONIES OR EVIDENCES. This treats of the decisions

of the many important cases, collected from the evidence and testimony

of the most eminent and learned rabbins and doctors of the great

Sanhedrin of olden times.

SIXTH--AVOUDOH ZOROH, OR IDOLATRY.--This section is so called, as it

treats of all manner of idolatry. It is also entitled the "_the

worship of the planets_." It explains the manner and form of the

different modes of worship, as practised by the idolatrous nations,

with the view of preventing the Israelite from becoming contaminated

by them.

SEVENTH--OVOUS, OR FATHERS.--This section contains the history of

those holy fathers who, in their respective ages, successively

received by tradition the oral law; from the days of Moses, the great

lawgiver, down to the period when it was compiled and committed to

writing by the celebrated rabbinu Hakodesh. It contains, also, many of

the wise sayings, aphorisms, and moral maxims of the learned men, and

is therefore called the "Ethics of the fathers."

EIGHTH--HOUROYOUS, OR PRECEPTS.--This section is so called, because it

treats of the punishment and penalty to be inflicted on those who

should presumptuously act against, or teach anything in opposition to,

the decrees and decisions of the great Sanhedrin at Jerusalem.

The fifth general head, or class, is called Kodosheem, or holy things.

It is subdivided into eleven sections.

FIRST--ZEVOCHEEM, OR SACRIFICES.--This section treats of the order to

be observed in offering up the cattle for sacrifices, and points out

their nature and quality. It also relates the time and the place; and

specifies by whom they were to be killed and brought up as an offering

upon the altar of the Lord.

SECOND--MINOCHOUS, OR MEAT OFFERINGS.--This portion treats of the

oblations of oil, flour, and wine, proper for each offering; and of

the two waive loaves, which were to be made of fine flour, such as

were offered up, on the festival of pentecost.

THIRD--CHOOLIN, OR PROFANE.--This section points out that which is

clean, and that which is unclean; what may and what may not be

lawfully eaten; and the law which prohibits the killing of the dam and

its young, both in one day. It also shows the law prohibiting the

eating of the "sinew which shrank;" and the law forbidding the taking

of the dam with its young. It, moreover, embraces the laws

appertaining to the killing of cattle and fowl for domestic use; and

who may, and who may not, be permitted to kill the animals for food to

be eaten by Israelites.

FOURTH--BECHOUROUS, OR FIRST BORN.--This section treats of the laws

relating to the first born of both man and cattle; pointing out in

what manner, and at which period, they were to be redeemed, either

with money, or brought up as an offering to the Lord. It speaks also

of the tithes of all manner of cattle.

FIFTH--EYRACHIN, OR VALUATION, OR ESTIMATION.--This section treats of

the manner in which things devoted to the Almighty are valued, so that

they may be redeemed and applied to ordinary purposes; as also how

the priest shall value a field, devoted or sacrificed to the Lord by

its owner.

SIXTH--TEMUROH, OR EXCHANGE.--This portion explains how far it may be

lawful to exchange one sacred thing for another; as, whether an animal

which had been consecrated as an offering to be sacrificed to the Lord

might be exchanged. In most cases, where an animal had been

consecrated to the Lord, and then exchanged, both the animal and its

substitute became sacred.

SEVENTH--KERISUS, OR EXCISIONS.--This section relates to offenses

which, if wantonly committed, were punished by the offender being cut

off from among the people, called _Kohrice_. It points out, at the

same time, what offenders were liable to this punishment. It likewise

explains how those who had offended through accident, had to bring a

sin or trespass offering.

EIGHTH--MENGELOH, OR TRESPASS.--This portion treats of the nature of

the trespass made by converting such things which have been

consecrated and devoted to holy purposes, to profane or unholy

matters.

NINTH--TOMEED, OR CONTINUAL OFFERINGS.--Herein are specified the daily

sacrifices, and the description as to how, and in what manner, they

were to be offered upon the altar of the Lord.

TENTH--MIDDOUS, OR DIMENSIONS.--This book is so called, because it

speaks of the dimensions and proportions of the temple. It describes

the mount on which the temple stood, and the full extent of the outer

court. This was considered requisite to be known; for whoever had

become unclean, from any circumstance whatever, was prohibited from

entering the temple on pain of excision.

ELEVENTH--KONEEM, OR NESTS.--This section speaks of the birds, such as

pigeons or turtle-doves, which were brought as offerings by the poor,

instead of the more expensive, which they were unable to bring. The

smaller value was equally acceptable to the God of mercy and kindness.

The sixth general head, or class, is entitled Taharous, or

purifications. It is divided into twelve sections.

FIRST--KYLEEM, OR VESSELS, UTENSILS.--This book is so called, because

it treats of the pollutions incident to vessels, and how they are to

be purified from such uncleanness. It treats also of the manner in

which garments of every description may be purified, in the event of

their becoming polluted or defiled by uncleanness of any kind.

SECOND--OHOLOUS, OR TENTS.--This section treats of the manner in which

houses become polluted; the nature of such pollutions; and how far

those who enter such dwellings may thereby become contaminated, and

how they may be purified.

THIRD--NEGOIM, OR PLAGUES, OR DISEASES.--This book explains all the

laws relative to the plague of leprosy; whether on man or beast,

dwellings or garments. It shows how and in what manner infection took

place; and how the things or persons so afflicted may become

purified.

FOURTH--POROH, OR HEIFER.--This section speaks of the laws relating to

the red heifer; how the said heifer should be burned to ashes, in

order to make the water for purification; and in what manner all

defilements, contracted by the touch or contact of a dead body, could

be purified by means of the ashes of the red heifer.

FIFTH--TAHAROUS, OR PURIFICATIONS.--This portion treats of all those

laws pertaining to such defilements which may be contracted otherwise

than by the touch of a dead body; and of the manner purification may,

and can take place.

SIXTH--MIKVOOUS, OR BATHS.--This section treats of the laws and

regulations for baths to be used for purification by ablutions; of all

persons who may have from any cause whatever become unclean. Herein is

also specified the manner in which the bath should be constructed, and

the quantity of water required for every ablution.

SEVENTH--NIDDOH, OR SEPARATION.--This portion explains all the laws

relating to the pollutions and purifications of women after

child-birth, and on every occasion of uncleanness.

EIGHTH--MACHSHEREEN.--This section explains in what manner seed or

fruit became susceptible of defilement or pollution through the

admixture of liquids.

NINTH--ZOBEEM, OR ISSUES.--This portion treats of the laws relating to

the impurities arising from the issues of the body; and points out how

and when they are deemed unclean; and how and in what manner either

persons or things may become affected by their pollution.

TENTH--TIBBUL YOUM, OR PURIFICATION OF A DAY.--This portion speaks of

persons who may become unclean, and require ablution to purify them;

which purification cannot be considered complete until the setting of

the sun on the same day when the purification shall take place.

ELEVENTH--YODOYEEM, OR HANDS.--This section treats of the laws and

regulations for cleansing the hands from any uncleanness; and the

custom and ceremony to be observed in washing the hands on the

different occasions.

TWELFTH--UKTSEEM, OR STALKS.--This last section is so called, because

it explains how the touching of the stalks of any sort of fruit may

convey pollution to the fruit itself.

SYNOPSIS OF THE FOREGOING MISHNA.

No. 1.--Seder Zeroeem contains 11 sections.

No. 2.--Seder Moed contains 12 sections.

No. 3.--Seder Nosheem contains 7 sections.

No. 4.--Seder Nezekeen contains 10 sections.

No. 5.--Seder Kodosheem contains 11 sections.

No. 6.--Seder Taharous contains 12 sections.

--

Total 63 sections.

CHAPTER XIII.

Of the Gemara, or Completion, which is usually styled Talmud.

In the foregoing chapter we described the manner in which the Mishna

was compiled, together with its contents, from its first delivery by

Moses till the time of its being committed to writing by Rabbi Judah

the Prince. We shall now proceed in regular order to explain what the

Talmud is, and how it was composed by the several learned men among

the Jews both in Jerusalem and in Babylon.

The compilation of the Talmud ranks among the most ancient Hebrew

writings. It consists of two distinct heads--the Mishna and the

Gemara, and both together form the Talmud.

The Mishna, as already explained, chiefly contains the oral or

traditional laws transmitted down to posterity from the time of Moses

the Lawgiver, to that of Rabbi Judah the Prince or Nassi.

The Gemara consists of expositions and comments on the Mishna, as also

various other subjects connected with Jewish literature, and more

especially Jewish theology. It contains also treatises on moral

philosophy, ethics, mathematics, astronomy and chronology, and many

other branches of the different sciences known in those days. The

Gemara or expositions on the Mishna was commenced in the days of the

Rabbins, Gamaliel and Simeon, the two sons of Rabbi Judah the Holy,

about the year 3980 of the creation, and was completed and compiled

into one body by Rav Ashi, President, and Raviny, Vice President, who

are considered the actual compilers of the Babylonian Talmud. This

took place about the year 4260.

The authors of the Talmud in general are styled Amooroim, dictators,

as they dictated the several explications of the Mishna, as discussed

in the different schools, and which are all found in the Talmud. The

comments and expositions are known by the name of Gemara, which

signifies completion, because therein is fully explained all the

traditional doctrines of the Jewish law and its religion. The Mishna

is the text, the Gemara the comment, or glossary, and both together

form the Talmud.

There are two Talmudim. The first is styled Talmud Yerushalmi, or

Jerusalem Talmud. This was compiled by Rabbi Jochanan in five sedorim

or divisions. This Talmud does not contain the whole of the Mishna. It

was completed about the year 4060. The second Talmud is called Talmud

Bably, or Babylonian Talmud, which was completed about two hundred

years after the other Talmud. The Talmud Yerushalmi is the least

esteemed of the two, and consequently less studied and quoted by the

learned among Israel. It is the Babylonian Talmud which is usually

studied and consulted in all points of jurisprudence, as connected

with all religious affairs, both in, and out, of the synagogue. It is

therefore to be understood, that whenever the Talmud is simply

notified, it means the Babylonian Talmud; as the other Talmud is never

quoted, unless particularly and expressly mentioned.

The Talmud Bably is arranged in the following order. The Mishna forms

the text, and the Gemara is annexed as the comment or glossary. The

same order is observed as with the Mishna, although it must be

observed that the Gemara appears only on thirty-six sections, whereas

the whole of the Mishna contains sixty-three sections, as explained in

the foregoing chapter. The order of the Talmud is as follows:

No. 1.--Seder Zeroeem contains 1 section.

No. 2.--Seder Moed contains 11 sections.

No. 3.--Seder Nosheem contains 7 sections.

No. 4.--Seder Nezekeen contains 8 sections.

No. 5.--Seder Kodosheem contains 8 sections.

No. 6.--Seder Taharous contains 1 section.

--

Total 36 sections.

CHAPTER XI.

APPENDIX.

Having given a brief description of the Mishna and the Talmud, and

their contents, we now direct the attention of the reader to the

following observations, as a summary to the preceding two chapters.

The Pentateuch, or Five Books of Moses, is generally understood by the

term "written law," and the Talmud as the oral or traditional law. The

oral law was handed down from Moses to Joshua, from the elders to the

prophets, and from them to the Great Synod, which consisted of one

hundred and twenty of the most learned men of the age, and in like

manner from time to time, until the days of Rabbi Judah, already

mentioned. This great man, seriously contemplating the state of his

nation as regarded their religious affairs, and perceiving that those

who were learned in the law were gradually diminishing in number,

feared that the knowledge of the oral law might ultimately be

forgotten, and with it the essential portion of the law of Moses. In

the true spirit of devotion and piety, this Rabbi collected all the

doctrines and precepts which had been taught orally, down to that

period, and with the assistance of his pious colleagues, committed

them to writing, and arranged them in the order of the Mishna, as

already described. After the Mishna had been written, and presented to

the nation at large, it was received by them with a general and

unanimous consent. It was universally approved, and was held by them

as an authentic document, delivered to Moses by the Almighty, while on

the mount, as an explanation of the written law. The prevailing

opinion among the people then was, that the Mishna had been handed

down by tradition, and they were confirmed in such opinion by the

conviction that the same had been taught to them in their youth in the

various schools and academies which were established for such

purposes. It was then considered expedient by the learned in those

days, that some further explanation should be given, in order to

render the Mishna more intelligible to the general class of readers.

With this view, some of the most eminent among the Jewish doctors,

taught in the schools the oral law together with the signification

thereof, and in this way they illustrated all the most abstruse and

difficult passages by useful and instructive commentaries. These

illustrations and glossaries increased from time to time, which formed

the Talmud, such as it is at present in the possession of the

Israelites. It abounds with aphorisms and ethics, which were

introduced by the Rabbins and Doctors who composed the Talmud, in the

course of their discussions. It was in this manner, that they

supported the opinions advanced by them on the various subjects upon

which they treated. These subjects were frequently illustrated by

moral tales and allegories, such being the tutelar system prevalent

among most of the oriental nations in those days.

In the said Talmud the Rabbins taught also the various arts and

sciences, such as known in those times, although it may be conceded

that they may not have reached to such perfection as in the present

enlightened age; nevertheless the principle was known by the

Israelites of old, and practically applied by them as far as necessity

demanded. It is well known that astronomy, geometry, architecture,

physics, natural philosophy, as well as many of the other sciences,

were in high cultivation both before and after the Babylonian

captivity.

The building of the tabernacle in the wilderness--the beautiful temple

of Solomon,--the superb edifice erected by Herod the Great, may

certainly be advanced as specimens of the science of architecture, in

which must naturally be included that of geometry. It cannot be denied

that the Jews were also famous in hydraulics, aqueducts, etc.,

military tactics and war implements, engineering, agriculture, etc.

That astronomy was successfully cultivated by the Israelites of old,

is proved by the perpetual chronological calendar which was formed and

brought to perfection in the days of the Talmudical doctors. This

calendar is composed both of the lunar and solar revolutions. Though

it may not be strictly the province of this chapter to treat upon this

subject, the reader will excuse the digression, in order to introduce

a short extract of this calculation to show the basis upon which the

same is founded, and prove that a knowledge of astronomy existed in

those days, by the teachers of the Talmud. According to the Mosaic

Law, the Israelites are directed to calculate the year and compute

their holy days according to the lunar year. Twelve lunar, _synodical

revolutions_, _i.e._ 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes and 3 seconds,

compose one simple year. Thus we make sometimes 353, 354, 355 days,

allowing for fractions. Yet the _Epactem_ of 10 days, 21 hours, 11

minutes and 20 seconds, in which the solar year exceeds the lunar,

might be the cause, that the holy days would be removed from their

respective seasons,--which would be the case, when calculating by the

lunar only. So that in a period of seventeen years the feast of

Passover would be in the autumn instead of the spring, and the feast

of tabernacle in spring instead of the autumn. On this account it was

that the Jewish chronologists took care to remedy this defect, by

forming alternately, sometimes to compose the year of thirteen lunar

months, as 383, 384, 385 days, for which reason they adopted a period

of 19 years, in which they formed seven complete years,--as the 3, 6,

8, 11, 14, 17, 19, complete of thirteen lunar months, and the interval

twelve years, _simple_, of twelve lunar months only; and in this

periodical calculation of 19 years, according to the above rotation

of twelve _simple_ and seven _complete_ years, the _lunar_ and _solar_

years then agree, without any variation whatever.[A] Hence it is that

the Jewish calculation is very exactly and astronomically contrived,

for it has never failed since its first introduction, now nearly

fifteen centuries. This is a sufficient proof that the science of

astronomy was known to the ancient Israelites.

We have already stated, that the Talmud contains many allegories,

aphorisms, ethics, etc., which, it must be observed, are not to be

interpreted in their literal sense, but as being intended to convey

some moral and instructive lesson,--such being the system peculiar to

oriental nations. This system not having been clearly understood by

many of the Jews and Gentiles in both ancient and modern times, has

led to the belief that the whole of the Talmud, as it now exists, is

of divine origin. Now in justice to the authors of the Talmud, it must

be stated, that they never intended to convey any such idea; their

object was simply to render their discussions and dissertations

intelligible to their coreligionists of those days, and that it should

be carefully handed down to posterity. With this view it was, that the

compilers of the Talmud left the work in its original and genuine

state, with all the arguments and disputations as given by the authors

in the various ages, so that they might not be charged with having

interpolated it with ideas of their own, foreign to the views and

intentions of the original authors of the work. This is sufficient to

show that the _whole_ of the Talmud never was considered by the

learned, as having a divine origin; but _those_ portions of the

Mishna, illustrative of the written law, as already explained, were

received as divine, having been successively transmitted by oral

tradition, from Moses to Rabbi Judah, the Prince, and by him placed

before the world and handed down unalloyed to succeeding generations.

In coming ages, the learned among Israel, desirous that the study of

the Talmud should not be entirely lost, have added comments and

glossaries, in order to render the work as easy as possible to the

comprehension of the student. The Talmud contains, not, as has been

said, the narrow-minded sentiments of bigots, but the devout and

conscientious discussions of men deeply impressed with the love of

divine providence, and anxious to inculcate that love in others by

precept and observation.

It was wisely remarked by the celebrated Luzzato, "that the ancient

Rabbies were the incorrupt reporters of the ceremonials and rites of

the Jews, and _no innovators!_ that they did not attempt to grasp a

subject they could not comprehend, nor seek to hide by sophistical

arguments, eloquently clothed, a truth that was apparent." _No!_ for,

says the Venetian sage, they spoke of things to the study of which

their whole lives had been devoted, and their piety gave weight to

their opinions.

We are aware, however, that we are open to severe criticisms; but we

trust that our remarks may neither shock the ear of the more

enlightened portion of the Jewish nation, nor incur the displeasure of

those, who still believe it to be a crime to urge a word respecting

this time honored production. Much has been said on this subject.

Whilst some have labored incessantly to enforce the divinity of the

Talmud--others again, either from prejudice or other unholy motives,

have set at nought the entire composition, and condemned it as useless

in the present age. How far the latter may be justified in the

promulgation of such sentiments, may be easily ascertained by a glance

at Judaism at the present, in view of the strife and contention

between the Orthodox and the Reform, with but little benefit to

Judaism in general. The reader will look "on this picture and on that"

and decide for himself.

We might quote many authorities of high standing among the Jewish

literati, such as existed formerly in the schools of Jamnia, Tiberias,

Surah, Pombeditha, etc.; and in subsequent ages, those unrivalled

Luminaries that appeared in Spain and France, Germany and Poland, who

have recommended the study of the Talmud as a guide to the perfect

understanding of the holy writings. On the present occasion we prefer

citing that which has been said of its merits by other divines,

differing from the Jew in faith.

A celebrated Christian divine of the Catholic church who flourished in

the fourth century, Aurelio Augustino, in a work called "The City of

God," makes the following remarks:

"For, indeed, that nation, that people, that state, that republic, the

Israelites, to whom was given the eloquence of God, in no way

confounded the pseudo-prophets with their true prophets. But by a

unanimous consent, and differing in nothing among themselves, they

recognized the latter as the depositaries of the sacred writings, and

considered them the authors. These true prophets were philosophers,

that is, lovers of wisdom: being themselves wise men, they were

theologians, prophets, and teachers of probity and piety. Whoever

therefore lives and grows wise according to their doctrines, lives and

grows wise not according to the doctrines of men, but according to the

_doctrines of God_, who spoke through them."

"He further states, that as the love of virtue, with which these

philosophers were deeply imbued, is the foundation of true belief, and

the basis of all religion, so their works, coming from so pure, so

enlightened, and so pious a source, are entitled to be received, not

only by Jews, but by men of all creeds, as guides to the true

knowledge of God and to that state of spiritual bliss, which it should

be our sole aim in this life to attain," for which reason, in his

first book, "_De Arcanis Catholicæ Veritatis_," he strongly urged the

propriety of having the Talmud translated into Latin, that it might be

studied in the schools of Italy.

Peter Galatino, a learned Franciscan monk, who flourished in the early

part of the sixteenth century, was known to be a great persecutor of

the Jews. Yet in speaking of the sacred writings and Jewish

literature in general, he expressed himself nearly in the following

terms: That he regarded the Talmud as a divine work, and that he

considered every part of it as perfect, and adorned with excellent

moral instruction, adapted both for the guidance of our active and

contemplative life, and entitled on account of its inspired authors,

to be regarded as a work of extreme piety and goodness.

The above quotations are worthy of consideration. Let those Jews then,

who would attempt to cast a slur upon the Talmud, look for one moment

at these remarks, and pause while reflecting, that they were made by

Catholics, ere they proceed in their attacks upon a work which could

command such expressions from those whose religion was so widely

different, but whose reason could not refuse to yield to the cogent

proofs the divine book in itself contained.

FOOTNOTES:

[A] See the end of the book for an explanation of the Jewish months and

years.

OF THE JEWISH MONTHS AND YEARS.

Time is the duration of things; it is divided into years, months,

weeks, days, hours, minutes, and seconds. A year is the space of

twelve months, which is the time the sun takes in passing through the

twelve signs of the Zodiac. The Zodiac is a circle showing the earth's

yearly path through the heavens. On this circle are marked the twelve

signs, which are numbers of stars, reduced by the fancy of men into

the form of animals, and from these forms they take their name. A

month is the time the moon occupies in going round the earth. There

are two kinds of months, Lunar and Solar. Lunar months are calculated

by the moon; solar months are reckoned by the sun. The Hebrews make

use of lunar months which consist alternately of twenty-nine and

thirty days. The sacred volume directs them to make their computations

by lunar months. The plan adopted by them at this day is that which

was so admirably arranged by the celebrated and learned Rabbi Hillel,

the Prince. The difference between the solar and the lunar months

would occasion, in a period of seventeen years, the passover to occur

in the autumn month called Tishree, instead of Neson, the spring

month; and thus the feast of tabernacles would be in Neson instead of

Tishree. To avoid such imperfections in their calculations, the

Rabbins have arranged that every third year shall consist of thirteen

lunar months instead of twelve. This additional month is called an

intercalary month, and the year in which it occurs is called leap

year. By this arrangement it will be found that, in the course of

nineteen years, there are seven leap years, as follow:

The third, sixth, eighth, eleventh, fourteenth, seventeenth, and

nineteenth. The moon was more regarded by the Jews than the sun,

because by the new moon all their festivals and fasts were regulated.

The new moon was always the beginning of the month. Persons were

appointed to watch its first appearance and represent the same to the

Sanhedrin, who immediately made it known to the whole of the nation.

The new moon was celebrated by the sound of trumpets, and an extra

sacrifice was offered in the holy temple.

The ancient Jews had originally no particular names for their months.

It is found occasionally in the Bible that names were given to some of

the months. These names were made use of as descriptive of the season

in which such month occurred; as we find by Moses the legislator, who

called the name of the first month Abib, it being the spring time of

the year. The present names of the Hebrew months are Chaldaic, and are

said to have first been made use of by the nation during the

captivity of Babylon. History informs us that these names were used

both by the Chaldeans and the Persians. The Jews always reckon their

day from evening to evening, because, in the account of the creation

of the world the evening is mentioned before the morning; and thus it

is that the Sabbaths, festivals and fasts commence from the previous

evening. They have no particular names in Hebrew for the days of the

week; they are called first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and

the seventh is called _Sabbath_.

The term week owes its derivation to the Hebrew word _Shovuang_, which

signifies seventh, on which day God rested from his labors. In former

times the Jews had three sorts of weeks:

First--Weeks of Days, which were reckoned from Sabbath to Sabbath.

Second--Weeks of Years, which were reckoned from one sabbatical year

to another. The sabbatical year happened every seventh year. This year

was called _Shemittah_, or year of release. Third--Weeks of seven

times seven years, or forty-nine years, and the fiftieth year was

called the year of _Youvile_, or Jubilee. The Jubilee was celebrated

on the day of atonement, and was proclaimed by the sounding of rams'

horns and seven trumpets. The Jubilee allowed the same privileges as

the sabbatical year. On both these occasions the ground was not

cultivated, but suffered to lie at rest, in order to recruit its

fruitful powers. All Hebrew slaves were set at liberty, and all lands

or houses, that may have been sold or pledged, returned to the

original owners.

It is thus plainly shown that the sabbatical year was evidently

appointed to inculcate humanity, fellow-feeling, and brotherly love.

At these periods the sovereignty of the Almighty was publicly

acknowledged by the restoration of all property to its original and

proper owner! Brotherly love was exercised by setting at liberty all

bondsmen: thus showing that all men are equal in the eyes of the the

Lord; and humanity was promoted by the care which was taken of the

poor and the stranger.

PRAYER IN BEHALF OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

The following prayer is read in the Synagogue in Lodge street,

Cincinnati, on Sabbaths and festivals, the same having been composed

by the Rev. H. A. Henry, Minister of the said Synagogue, at the request

of the Board of Trustees of the congregation, as a substitute for the

Hebrew prayer formerly used by them, in accordance with the custom and

practice of the various European congregations.

PRAYER.

Almighty God and Supreme Governor of the Universe. Thou who art

enthroned on high, and condescendest to look down, on earth, O! bless

and prosper in thine abundant goodness, this _happy_ country--this land

of _freedom_--which thou hast destined to be our resting-place--_the

United States of America_. Grant, O Lord, that virtue, truth, charity

and mercy may flourish in these States. O! bless the inhabitants of

this land! Grant that nought but peace and happiness may surround them

both at home and abroad. Deliver them from all dangers and

misfortunes! Endue them with the spirit of love and affection for each

other, that they may live as brethren, as the children of the Universal

Father of all mankind for ever and ever.

Pour forth, O Lord, thy blessings toward their excellencies the

President and the Vice-President of the United States. May they be

favored with health and vigor, and may all their efforts for the

well-doing of the people prove prosperous. May righteousness and

justice flourish in their days. O! banish all errors from their minds,

and fashion their hearts according to thy infinite and gracious

providence.

O! shed thy grace, O God, upon the Governor of this State, and the

Mayor and Common Council of this City. Teach them to judge the people

truly. Instruct them in the path they should tread, that their

administration may prove wise, steady and prosperous.

Send forth thy salvation, O Lord, into this City, and unto all its

inhabitants. O! spread over them thy pavillion of peace, and remove

from them all sorrows--all troubles--protect them and shield them from

all harm. Incline their hearts unto wisdom and piety, that they may

serve thee in holiness of life and purity of soul.

And we, thy chosen people, Israel! O! satisfy us with thy goodness!

Let us also rejoice in thy salvation! Guide us, O Lord, by thy

unerring Providence, that we may find grace in thy sight, and favor in

the eyes of the world. O may our daily supplications ascend thy throne

of Grace, that we may live in peace with all mankind, and seek the

welfare of the land where thou in thy mercy hast directed our course.

In their days, and in our days, may Judah be saved, Israel dwell in

comfort, and the Redeemer come unto Zion! O! may such be thy Divine

Will, and let us say--Amen.

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