THE ALMOND.
Amygdalus, _Tournefort_. Name supposed to be derived from _amysso_,
to lacerate, because of the prominent sharp, knifelike margin of one
edge of the deeply pitted, wrinkled nut. Martius, an Italian
botanist, suggests that the name came from the Hebrew word _shakad_,
signifying vigilant, or to awake, because after the rigors of winter
the almond tree is one of the earliest to hail the coming of spring,
with its flowers. The common English name is from the Latin
_amandola_, corrupted from _amygdala_. In French it is _amandier_;
in German, _mandel_; Portuguese, _amendoa_; Spanish, _almendro_;
Italian, _amandola_, _mandalo_, _mandorla_, etc.; Dutch, _amendel_;
Chinese, _him-ho-gin_.
Under the natural classification of plants the almond belongs to the
order _Rosaceae_, and in the tribe _Drupaceae_. Linnaeus placed the
peach and almond in the same genus, and they are now generally
considered to be only varieties of one species,--the wild almond
tree is probably the parent from which all the cultivated peaches
and nectarines have descended. In most of our modern botanical works
these fruits are classed as a sub-section of _Prunus_, the plum.
They are mainly deciduous shrubs, or small trees. The flowers are
variable, both in size and color; but in the almond they are usually
somewhat larger than in the peach, almost sessile, and from separate
scaly buds on the shoots of the preceding season, appearing in early
spring, before or with the unfolding leaves, the latter being folded
lengthwise in the bud. Leaves three to four inches long, tapering,
finely serrate, with few or no glands at the base of the blade, as
seen in many varieties of the common peach. Fruit clothed with a
fine dense pubescence in both peach and almond; but in the latter
the pulpy envelope becomes dry and fibrous at maturity, cracking
open irregularly, allowing the rough and deeply indented nuts to
drop out; while in the peach the pulpy part becomes soft, juicy and
edible, the reverse of the almond. The nectarine is only a
smooth-skinned peach.
=History of the Almond.=--As with most of our long-cultivated fruits
and nut trees, very little is now known of the early history or
origin of the almond, and even its native country has not been
positively determined, although it is supposed to be indigenous to
parts of Northern Africa and the mountainous region of Asia.
Theophrastus, who wrote a history of plants about three centuries
before the Christian era, mentions the almond as the only tree in
Greece that produces blossoms before the leaves. From Greece it was
introduced into Italy, where the nuts were called _nuces graecae_, or
Greek nuts.
Columella, about the middle of the first century of our era, was the
earliest Roman writer to mention the almond as distinct from the
peach. From Italy this nut was slowly disseminated, making its way
northward mainly through France, reaching Great Britain as late as
1538 (_Hortus Kewensis_). But its cultivation has never extended in
Britain, beyond sheltered gardens and orchard houses, owing to the
cool and otherwise uncongenial climate, and the same is true of
Northern France and other regions to the eastward in Europe. But in
the south of France, also in Italy, Spain, Sicily, and throughout
the Mediterranean countries, both in Europe and Africa, the almond
thrives, and has long been extensively cultivated. These nuts are an
important article of commerce, immense quantities being exported by
Spain, mainly from Valencia, while the so-called Jordan almond comes
from Malaga, as very few are raised in the valley of the Jordan.
Bitter almonds come principally from Mogador in Morocco.
As for almond culture in the United States, very little is to be
said further than that, while we have few experiments to refer to as
having been made east of the Rocky Mountains, not one of our great
pomologists, in their published works, has ever given any reason for
the almost entire neglect of this nut. Mr. Wm. H. White, author of
"Gardening for the South" (1868), throws no light upon the subject,
merely describing a few of the well-known varieties of the almond.
Downing's "Fruit and Fruit Trees of America," Thomas' "American
Fruit Culturist," Barry's "Fruit Garden," and a score of other
standard pomological works may be consulted, without obtaining
therefrom any information in regard to the culture of this nut
further than to be assured that the hard-shelled varieties are hardy
in the North wherever the peach tree thrives, and the thin, or paper
shelled, succeed only in warm climates. All these authors agree in
saying that the propagation and cultivation of the almond is the
same as practiced with the peach.
Coming down to recent years for information in regard to almond
culture, we find H. E. Van Deman, pomologist to the Department of
Agriculture, dismissing the subject in his report for 1892, as
follows:
"I only mention this nut to state to all experimenters that it
is useless to try to grow the almond of commerce this side of
the Rocky mountains, except, possibly, in New Mexico and
southwestern Texas. This is thoroughly established by many
reports from those who have tried it in nearly every State and
for many years past. It is too tender in the North and does not
bear in the South. In California it is an eminent success.
"The flavor of the hard-shelled almond, so far as I have tested
it, is little or no better than a peach kernel, and is therefore
practically worthless. The tree of this variety is about as
hardy as the peach, and bears quite freely. The attention paid
to the almond in the Atlantic and Central States might well be
given to other nuts."
This is certainly a very easy way of disposing of the cultivation of
a nut which has so long figured among our importations from European
countries; besides, no experiments are cited, experimenters named,
or reasons given why almond culture is a failure in the Southern
States. But fortunately there are men in the South who are able and
ready to give reasons for their opinions and statements, in regard
to the cultivation of crops or plants with which they have become
familiar through personal experience. When I asked Mr. P. J.
Berckmans, Augusta, Ga., president of the American Pomological
Society, for information on this point, he promptly replied as
follows:
"The reason that almonds are not cultivated in Georgia and other
Southern States is because of their early blooming, as spring
frosts usually destroy all the blossoms. We have tried many
varieties of the soft-shell without success. The hard-shell will
occasionally bear a crop of fruit, as it blooms later, and the
blooms seem to resist cold better than the other varieties. In
middle Florida soft-shell almonds are sometimes successful, but
they have been tried so sparingly that I cannot obtain any
satisfactory reports."
Admitting, as we do, that President Berckmans' long experience in
the cultivation of nut and fruit trees in the South enables him to
speak with authority on this subject, still, we have some
encouragement for continuing experiments with the almond in regions
known to be favorable for the cultivation of its near relative, the
peach. Furthermore, experiments seem to be wanting with the almond
in the more elevated regions of the northern line of Southern
States, also in Maryland, Delaware and southern New Jersey, near the
seacoast, or other large bodies of water, which, as is well known,
have considerable influence in retarding the early blooming of fruit
trees, as well as warding off late spring and early autumn frosts.
It is scarcely reasonable to suppose that a region of country as
extensive as that of one-half of the Middle and all of the Southern
States, with a range of climate admitting of the successful
cultivation of such hardy fruits as the apple and pear, and from
these down to the pineapple and cocoa-nut, should not yield a
locality or localities admirably adapted to the cultivation of the
half-hardy almond tree. It is no doubt true that there are extensive
regions in the South where late spring frosts are exceedingly
troublesome, and sometimes disastrously so, to fruit growers; but
even these have their limits, as shown in the vast quantity and
variety of fruits annually produced in the Southern States. But
great local variations in climate are natural to all countries in
the temperate zone, and we frequently find the most favorable and
the unfavorable for fruit culture within a few miles of each other.
If there are not thousands and tens of thousands of acres of land
located in favorable positions between Virginia and Florida, adapted
to produce the commercial almond in some of its varieties, then we
must confess that the study of climatology is of little use to the
pomologist. Furthermore, all the varieties of the so-called
hard-shelled almonds which thrive in our northern States are not
worthless, neither are the kernels of all of them "bitter," and even
if they were, they would still be worth cultivating, else we would
not import such vast quantities from Morocco to supply the demand.
If none of the thin-shelled varieties heretofore tried in the South
are successful, it is time that either our experiment stations or
individual horticulturists made some attempt to produce those that
are adapted to that region of country. But until we have some more
definite information than heretofore disseminated, in regard to
almond culture in the South, it is safe to conclude that failures in
the past have been due mainly to want of judgment, or knowledge of
varieties and of positions for the orchard, with, perhaps, some
neglect in care and cultivation.
In California almond culture has been pushed with vigor for several
decades, but at first with rather indifferent results, because
growers depended upon noted European varieties, which, as experience
proved, were not adapted to the soil and climate of the country. In
a paper read before the American Pomological Society at its session
held at Sacramento, Cal., Jan. 16-18, 1895, Prof. E. J. Wickson, of
the University of California, alluded to this subject of almond
culture in the State as follows:
"In no branch of this effort for improved varieties has our
success been more marked than in the development of seedling
almonds. The achievements of A. T. Hatch in this line are too
well known to require but a passing allusion. It is not too much
to say that this work rescued almond culture to California. When
he began, the almond, because of almost universal failure of the
old varieties, was a jest and a byword in our horticulture.
Nine-tenths of all the almonds planted during the preceding
twenty-five years had gone for firewood or were carrying the
foliage of the prune to conceal their hated stems. At the
present time, through the dissemination of Mr. Hatch's
varieties, the almond, in all regions decently adapted to the
tree, is productive and profitable and has a future."
[Illustration: FIG. 1. A CALIFORNIA ALMOND ORCHARD.]
That almond culture in California is rapidly becoming an important
and successful industry, we have an ocular demonstration in the tons
of these valuable nuts received from there in the past few years,
and placed on sale in Eastern markets. If one man, by his individual
efforts, can revolutionize or establish a great industry in a region
as large as the State of California, it is not too much to expect
that something of the kind could be done elsewhere, with the
combined efforts of several men. If the varieties heretofore tried
in the East are unsuited to the climate, it is certainly within the
range of probabilities that others better adapted to surrounding
conditions can be produced. The native grape, raspberry and
strawberry have had a history similar to the almond, but now all are
extensively and successfully cultivated.
=Propagation of the Almond.=--The propagation of the almond is
identical with that of the peach: that is, from seed to procure new
varieties, or by budding the more desirable ones, when obtained,
upon seedling almond, peach or plum stocks. The half-wild
hard-shelled almond is probably the most congenial and best stock
for this purpose, but seedlings of the peach are most generally
employed because the most abundant and cheapest. Under certain
conditions, such as cold, heavy, moist soils, and where rather
dwarfish trees are desired, the plum may be employed with advantage
as a stock, but it is not to be recommended for general orchard
culture. In mild climates seedlings of the best of the soft-shelled
varieties may be raised and planted in orchards without budding, but
the nuts from such trees are likely to be somewhat variable in size
and quality, although the trees will usually prove to be as healthy
and productive as those subjected to artificial modes of
propagation. If, however, the grower desires a uniform product, he
must resort to the usual means of obtaining it; that is, multiplying
superior or distinct varieties by budding, either upon peach, almond
or other stocks. It is advisable, as well as exceedingly important,
for all who intend or feel inclined to cultivate almonds in regions
where the adaptation of this nut has not been fully established by
years of practical experience, that seedlings should be raised in
large numbers, and from these a selection be made to meet the
requirements of the climate and other conditions under which they
are to be propagated and grown. If spring frosts have been
heretofore inimical to the cultivation of the almond, then the
production of late-blooming varieties would be a remedy. There will
also be variations in the season of ripening; some may come on too
early, others far too late for special localities, but all these
faults or variations may be readily overcome by raising seedlings,
and then selecting for propagation those coming nearest fulfilling
the requirements of local conditions or circumstances. It is by such
experiments and means that fruit culture has reached its present
position in this and all other countries, where it is practiced as
an art or industrial pursuit. Varieties that have become exceedingly
popular and profitable in one locality or country, may not have
succeeded elsewhere, and this holds good with all cultivated plants.
In making experiments with the almond in regions where it has not
been cultivated, but under conditions which appear to be favorable,
I would certainly advise testing the well-known varieties first, and
if these fail, then see what can be done in the way of producing new
ones adapted to the locality and climate.
=Raising Seedlings for Stocks.=--In warm or moderately mild climates
the nuts, whether peach or almond, may be planted soon after they
are gathered in the fall, but should the weather continue warm and
moist the nuts will sometimes sprout prematurely and the young
sprouts get frosted later in the season, and for this reason it is
better to store them in a cool room, packed in dry sand or soil,
until the approach of steady cold weather, and then plant. Having
lost choice kinds of nuts from being in too great haste in getting
them into the ground in the fall, I am prompted to give this warning
to those who have had no experience in raising nut trees. If not
convenient to plant in the fall, nuts of all kinds may be packed in
barrels, boxes, or similar vessels, mixed with or stratified with
sharp sand or light soil, then stored in a dry, cool place,--a very
cool cellar will answer, but in my experience, out of doors is
preferable,--and in the shade of some evergreen tree or on the north
side of a building, and there banked over with earth just sufficient
to keep the nuts at an equably low temperature. It is advisable to
have a few small holes in the bottom of the barrels or boxes, to
insure proper drainage, should any considerable amount of water get
in at the top; but this will not occur if the vessels are properly
covered with boards when placed in position for winter.
It must also be kept in mind that mice, squirrels and chipmunks are
fond of almonds and other kinds of edible nuts, and if placed where
these little rodents can find them, they are sure to take a share,
or perhaps the entire store, before their visits are discovered. I
have known field mice to dig down under boxes of nuts, enlarge the
holes left for drainage, and spend the winter among the chestnuts
which I had put away for planting in spring. The safest way is to
place fine wire netting on the bottom of the box, and then cover it
with the same. Owing to the abundance of mice and other little
nut-eating animals, I have never dared to plant out nuts in the
fall, and so have always stored them in sand, but out of doors
during the winter, and well covered with earth. In other localities
it may be safe to sow in autumn, and if protection from vermin is
required, coat the nuts with gas tar, the same as practiced by
farmers in protecting seed corn against the attacks of crows and
other corn-pulling birds. One pint of warm tar will be sufficient
for a bushel of nuts, and the application is readily made by placing
the nuts in a barrel, pouring the tar on them, and stirring with a
stick until every nut is coated. To prevent the tar sticking to the
hands in planting, dust the nuts with dry wood ashes, land plaster,
or fine dry sand.
If peach stones are to be planted for stocks they may be put into
the ground as soon as ready in autumn, because they are rarely
disturbed by vermin; or if more convenient, mix with common soil,
and in heaps, in the open ground, and leave in this position until
spring, then pick out as they begin to sprout, and plant. The
hard-shelled almond may be treated in the same way, only they are
not to be handled quite as roughly as peach stones, and for
protection it is best to put them in barrels or boxes, as described
above.
When ready for planting take out the nuts and drop them in shallow
drills, one every ten or twelve inches, then cover with about two
inches of soil. It is to be supposed, of course, that a seed bed has
been prepared, by thorough working over and enriching, if necessary,
in advance of planting. The distance between the drills or rows
should be sufficient to admit of cultivating the plants with a horse
or mule, and cultivator, during the summer, and if this is done and
the soil stirred often enough to keep down all weeds, the stocks
should become large enough to admit of budding the first season; if
not, then this operation must be deferred until the following year.
But in case the seedlings are raised from choice varieties and to be
left in their natural condition for fruiting, they may be lifted
when one or two seasons old and set where they are to remain
permanently.
=The Season for Budding.=--So much depends upon climate, location,
and variation of seasons, that no special date or time can be given
for budding trees of any kind, but it is always to be done while the
stocks are in active growth, because the bark must part freely from
the wood underneath, in order to admit of inserting the bud under
it. If the buds are set too early in the season there is danger of a
premature growth; that is, of pushing out a shoot in the fall
instead of remaining dormant until the following spring. Under
certain conditions, however, and for special purposes, it may be
advisable to force the buds as soon as they have formed a union with
the stock, but as a rule, in the propagation of hardy and half-hardy
trees, it is better to keep the buds dormant during the cool or cold
winter months.
Here in the Northern States we usually begin to look over our stocks
during the latter part of July or first week in August, and note
their progress and condition. Should they show the least signs of
cessation of growth, we begin budding them, and push the work as
rapidly as possible. If the season is a wet one the stocks may
continue to grow and remain in good condition for budding until the
middle of September; but in a dry season they may cease to grow in
August, and it is these variable conditions which gives to the close
observer and man of experience such an advantage over the novice in
the propagation of plants. It is better to begin budding too early
than to be a few days too late.
The operation called budding consists in taking a bud, with a small
portion of the bark adjoining, from one plant, and inserting it in
another, or in some other part of the same plant from which it was
taken. The physiological principles which govern the operation are,
that there must exist an affinity between the plant from which the
bud is taken and the one upon which it is to be placed, and the
nearer the relationship the more readily will it unite and the more
perfect the union. For instance, the cultivated peach and almond are
supposed to be of the same origin, and descendants of one original
species; consequently there is a close relationship between the
varieties of both sections, and their seedlings may be employed
indiscriminately for stocks. The next nearest relatives in the
family line are the plums (_Prunus_), some of which answer very well
as stocks for the almond, although very rarely used for this
purpose. The next group in the line of botanical relationship are
the cherries (_Prunus cerasus_), but these are too far removed to be
employed as stocks for either the peach or almond.
[Illustration: FIG. 2. BUDDING KNIFE.]
[Illustration: FIG. 3. YANKEE BUDDING KNIFE.]
For budding are necessary a small knife for preparing the buds for
insertion and making an incision in the bark of the stock to admit
them; and a quantity of some material to tie around the stock, so as
to hold the bud in place. Budding knives are made after various
patterns; one that is commonly used has an ivory or bone handle,
made very thin at the end, that is used to peel the bark from the
stock where the bud is to be inserted (Fig. 2). Another form of
budding knife is made with a horn handle, and a small tapering piece
of ivory fastened in the end. These knives, of various shapes and
sizes, can be had at the seed stores; but another and quite a
different form of budding knife is shown in Fig. 3, and is known as
the "Yankee budding knife." It is merely a small one-bladed pocket
knife with a thin blade, round at the end. The cutting portion
extends about one-third around the end of the blade and two-thirds
of its length, leaving the lower part dull. Although this form of
budding knife has been in constant use in some of the older
nurseries in this country for nearly a century, it does not appear
to have been manufactured for the general trade, but only on special
orders for nurserymen. It is so simple a knife, however, that with a
little grinding almost any small one-bladed pocket knife can be
transformed into one of these handy budding knives. The rounded end
of the blade is used for lifting the bark, and for rapid work it is
far more convenient than any form of knife that must be reversed in
the hand every time a bud is inserted. In addition, a polished bit
of steel is smoother and far less likely to lacerate the alburnous
matter between the bark and wood than the best piece of bone or
ivory. It may be said, however, that it is immaterial what form of
knife is employed, provided it has a keen edge and is dexterously
used.
[Illustration: FIG. 4. PREPARED SHOOT.]
The material most commonly used in times past for tying in the bud
is the inner bark of the linden or basswood tree, usually called
bass, and always to be procured in the form of mats, or as prepared
from our indigenous basswoods and kept on sale at the seed stores.
Recently, however, another excellent tying material has come into
use, known in the trade as raffia or roffia. It is the cuticle of
the Jupati palms. One species (_Raphia taedigera_) is a native of the
lower valley of the Amazon and Orinoco, and another (_R. Ruffia_) of
Madagascar and adjacent islands. Raffia is somewhat softer and more
pliable than the ordinary bass, although it does not hold its form
quite as well; but it is so cheap, soft and strong, that it has
become very popular, and is extensively used for budding and many
other purposes. But if none of these tying materials are at hand,
the inner bark of the persimmon, corn husks, cotton twine, woolen
yarn, or even strips of old muslin and calico may be employed with
equally as good results, although not as handy and convenient for
such purposes. The amateur, with only a few stocks to bud, can
readily improvise implements and materials for doing the work, even
if they are not of the regulation type. In selecting buds, the young
shoots of the present season's growth are preferred, and these
should be taken from the most healthy and vigorous branches of
bearing trees, if possible. The leaves should be immediately
removed, not by breaking or pulling off with the hand, but by
severing the leaf-stalks with a knife, as shown in Fig. 4. If the
leaves have fallen from the twig, the buds may be too ripe, with
some kinds of plants, but with the almond, and where only a few
leaves near the base have dropped, all may be used with fair
success. If there are any soft and immature buds on the upper part
of the shoot, or any undeveloped ones at the base, they should be
rejected. Success in budding depends very largely upon the condition
of the stocks at the time the operation is performed. Unless the sap
is flowing and in sufficient abundance to allow the bark to part or
peel readily from the wood underneath, the bud is certain to fail.
If the buds used should happen to be a little over-ripe or wholly
dormant when placed in direct contact with the living tissues and
the juices of the stock, they will absorb moisture and nutriment,
and be as likely to unite and live as under opposite conditions.
[Illustration: FIG. 5. INCISION FOR BUD.]
In performing the operation of budding, the following rules may be
observed: Take the twig from which the buds are to be removed, in
the left hand, with the small end pointing under the left arm;
insert the knife-blade half an inch, or a little more, below the
bud, cutting through the bark and a little into the wood; pass the
knife under the bud, and bring it out about the same distance above
it, taking off the bud with the bark, and a thin slice of wood
attached, as at _c_, Fig. 4. Then, if using the Yankee budding
knife, or one of similar form, let the forefinger clasp the lower
part of the blade, make the horizontal incision in the stock first,
and from this an incision downward about an inch long,--or it may be
twice this length without doing any harm,--being careful not to cut
too deep. Lift up the edge of the bark by passing the back of the
end of the blade (without removing it) up to the horizontal
incision. Lift the bark on the other side in the same manner, the
two incisions making a wound in the stock resembling the letter T,
as shown in Fig. 5. If other forms of budding knives are used, the
thin end of the ivory handle is thrust under the bark, raising it
sufficiently to admit the bud. The budder holds the bud between the
thumb and forefinger of his left hand while making the incision in
the stock; and as the knife leaves it he places the lower point of
the bark attached to the bud under the bark of the stock before this
falls back into place, and thrusts it down into position. If the
upper end of the bark attached to the bud does not pass completely
under the bark of the stock, it must be cut across, so as to allow
that which remains with the bud to fall into place and rest firmly
on the wood of the stock, as shown in Fig. 6.
When the bud is in position and fitted to the stock, as shown, wind
the raffia, or other material used, around the stock, both above and
below, covering the entire incision, leaving only the bud and part
of leafstalk uncovered. Of course experienced propagators have their
own individual systems and modes of operation, but the above may be
taken as a safe guide for the amateur budder. The ligatures should
be loosened or removed as soon as the bud has become firmly united
with the stock, which will usually be in ten or fifteen days, if at
all. When the buds have failed, others may be inserted, provided, of
course, the stocks are in condition to admit of the operation.
Exceptions, however, may be made where the budding has been done so
late in the season that the stock has ceased to grow by the time the
buds have taken, and in such cases the ligatures may be left on
later and removed any time before winter. In cold climates the snow,
ice and water are likely to get in around the bud if the ligatures
are not removed. But where the stocks are vigorous and the buds set
early, there will be danger of the ligatures cutting into the bark
as the stocks swell or increase in diameter, unless they are
loosened or entirely removed.
[Illustration: FIG. 6. BUD IN POSITION.]
Under ordinary circumstances budded stocks should not be headed back
until the following spring, and then should be cut off two or three
inches above the inserted bud; and when this pushes into growth, all
suckers and sprouts below and above it should be rubbed off as they
appear, for the object is to throw the entire strength of the stock
into this one bud, and when this has made a growth of two or three
feet the short stump of the stock above the base of the shoot may be
carefully removed with a sharp knife. This is usually done the last
of July or first of August, which gives time for the healing of the
wound before the close of the growing season. Sometimes it may be
necessary to place small stakes by the side of these shoots for
their support and to prevent breaking at the point of union with the
stock; but this will rarely be necessary, except in very exposed
situations.
If the young trees make a fairly good growth they will be ready for
planting out in the orchard the following spring, and one-year-old
almond trees are usually preferable for transplanting than older. It
is not advisable to prune these young trees during the growing
season the first summer, but allow all the side shoots or branches
to grow unchecked, for by so doing we secure a more stocky plant, if
not as tall a one, than we would if trimming up was practiced. But
when the trees are taken up for transplanting, in the late fall or
early spring, then they may be pruned and the lateral branches cut
off close to the main stem, leaving a naked rod, and if low-headed
trees are desired (and they usually are), cut back the main stem to
about three feet from the ground. If the young trees have made a
growth of from four to six feet, then prune away the lateral
branches to a hight of three feet or a little more, and cut in all
branches above this point to within four to six inches of the main
stem, leaving the buds on these stumps to form the head of the tree.
Four or five branches at the top of the stem will be sufficient for
the foundation for an open, round-headed tree, or in what may be
termed a vase form, which is the best for almonds.
=Soil and Exposure for Almonds.=--The almond requires a warm, rather
light and well-drained soil. Cold, heavy clays, and low, moist
soils, whether light or heavy, are always to be avoided for the
almond and closely allied trees. That the soil should be moderately
rich is, of course, a condition required with all cultivated nut and
fruit trees, but over-stimulation may result in excessive and
immature growth late in the season, this leaving the twigs in such a
state that they will be unable to resist even a few degrees of
frost, to which they may be subjected the ensuing winter. In what
are generally termed mild climates, or where the temperature seldom
goes more than four to six degrees below the freezing point, hardy
trees, if they have made a late growth, are often injured more than
they would have been in a colder climate, with early matured wood.
There are many kinds of what we consider very hardy trees and shrubs
here in the North, that are very likely to be winterkilled or
severely frosted when grown at the South, simply because the
conditions are such that they do not ripen up in time to resist the
cold.
In touching upon the subject of location for an almond orchard east
of the Mississippi, I should be inclined to relegate this valuable
nut to semi-tropical Florida, were it not for the fact that almost a
score of ornamental species and varieties of the same genus,--to say
nothing of the widely cultivated peach,--flourish over a very wide
range of country and climate, and nowhere better than near the
Atlantic ocean in the Middle and some of the Northern States. It is
also generally conceded that several of what are called hard-shelled
varieties thrive and bear fruit in nearly all of our best
peach-growing regions. From all that I have been able to learn of
almond culture, and with my own limited experience with this nut,
experiments are wanting to prove that it cannot be successfully
cultivated in the peach-growing region of the Eastern States. I will
not say "profitably" cultivated, for this is a rather vague term
when applied to horticultural operations of any kind. Success is not
synonymous with profit; in fact, it is frequently quite the
opposite, and an abundant crop may mean glutted markets and a
corresponding loss to the producer. But, to return to location, the
principal cause of failure in almond culture, where it has been
tried in the older States, seems to be the early blooming of the
trees and subsequent destruction of the embryo fruit by frosts. To
avoid this, high, open, airy situations, and even the north side of
hills, would certainly be preferable to southern slopes and
protected locations, especially in the South or where the
temperature in winter does not go low enough to kill the wood of the
previous season's growth. Theoretically, we might suppose that there
are many locations favorable to almond culture in the elevated
regions of North Carolina and Tennessee, as well as in the northern
tier of counties in Alabama and Georgia. But in the absence of
carefully conducted experiments in these regions, we have only to
wait for their consummation at some future time, to prove the truth
or falsity of our theory.
In the rich, warm valleys of New Mexico, Arizona and California,
congenial locations are plentiful, inasmuch as almost every variety
of climate is at hand, with a temperature ranging from that of
perpetual summer to the opposite extreme, and all to be found within
a few miles, and frequently to be found in the same county. Under
such conditions, it rests with the would-be cultivator to decide
upon the kinds of fruits desired, then to seek a location best
adapted to his purpose.
If, as claimed,--but not proven,--there are no limited or extended
areas fitted for almond culture east of the Mississippi river, there
are certainly plenty of such west of it, awaiting the industrious
and intelligent nut culturist. Almond orchards have been planted in
California and Arizona, and the quality of the nuts, as well as the
quantity, is very satisfactory; but a greater number and more
extensive orchards are needed to meet the home demand.
=Planting and Pruning.=--In planting and pruning the almond tree the
same system should be adopted as with its near relative, the peach.
One-year-old budded trees are preferred for planting in an orchard,
to older, except in the case of seedlings, then two-year-old may be
selected, because these are seldom larger than one-year budded
trees. The trees should be set fifteen to eighteen feet apart,
varying the distance according to variety, soil, and other local
conditions, and it is best to place them in rows and at right
angles, in order to admit of cultivating both ways, as it is termed,
thereby saving as much hand labor as possible. For the first two or
three years after planting, all weeds and grass should be kept away
from the stems and over the roots, either by frequent hoeing, or
covering with a mulch. The best way, perhaps, to prevent the growth
of weeds, is to use the land among the trees for some low-growing
crops, such as beans, tomatoes, melons or potatoes, then see that
the workmen, when hoeing these crops, hoe up the weeds and grass
about the trees at the same time. We might reasonably suppose that
the most careless cultivator of trees would think of this, but,
unfortunately, extended observation proves quite the contrary, and
it is scarcely possible to go through any very extensive
fruit-growing region without seeing many such instances of neglect.
A square yard or more of tough sward is frequently left for years
undisturbed about the stems of all the trees in an orchard, while
the little annual plants growing near by, and not worth, at an
extreme valuation, five cents each, are cultivated with the greatest
care.
The first pruning of the trees should be done at the time of
transplanting from the nursery rows, as directed on a preceding
page, and from the top of the stem only three or four shoots allowed
to grow the first season, all others being rubbed off as soon as
they appear, or when they have made a growth of two or three inches.
These three or four upper branches are to become the foundation of
the future head of the tree, and should be allowed to grow unchecked
the first season; the next spring cut back one-half to two-thirds of
their original length. This pruning will force out strong side or
lateral shoots near the base, thus giving a sturdy foundation to
build upon later, the pruner keeping in mind that the weaker the
growth the more severe should be the pruning. Better leave a few
strong buds, from which vigorous shoots will be produced, than a
great number succeeded by many feeble twigs. If blossoms and fruit
appear on the young two-year-old trees, a limited number may be left
to mature, although no considerable crop ought to be gathered before
the third year.
In after years a somewhat different system of pruning may be
adopted, keeping in view the fact that the fruit buds and fruit are
always produced on the young shoots of the previous season's growth,
and for this reason an annual renewal of such parts of the tree is
absolutely required, in order to secure a good crop on trees of any
age. In some localities and countries it may be possible that almond
trees produce a crop every year; but this is scarcely to be expected
anywhere. Consequently a system of pruning should be followed which
will conform to the variations of circumstances and conditions; and
this brings us to the consideration of--
=The Proper Time to Prune.=--If the growth of the trees and their
fruiting were always uniform, then we might readily adopt some
invariable system and season for pruning; but as we are dealing with
uncertainties, our rules must be equally flexible and variable. If
the season is favorable, and the trees bloom freely and fruit sets
abundantly, we may proceed to prune as soon as the embryo nuts are
as large as peas,--but only cutting back some of the largest bearing
shoots, and thinning out others here and there, just enough to
equalize and evenly distribute the crop through the head of the
tree. But in case the frost or cold of winter has destroyed the crop
for the season, then as soon as this is discovered, prune and cut
back all the shoots and branches sufficient to insure a vigorous
growth of young bearing wood for the ensuing year. Under this system
of pruning we fix the time as after blooming in the spring, in order
to have our work correspond to circumstances and conditions, and
where there is a crop in prospect the pruning is comparatively
light; but if there is to be no fruit, or but little, then one
should aim to produce an abundance of bearing shoots for the
following season. In other words, we prune severely in non-bearing
years, whether they occur alternately or otherwise; but this system
is only applicable to trees like the almond and peach, which produce
their fruit on the shoots of the preceding year's growth.
VARIETIES OF THE ALMOND.
Almonds are usually divided into three groups, viz.: Bitter,
hard-shelled, and soft, or paper-shelled. In each there are many
varieties, although they are rarely known in market except by the
general name of the group to which they belong. If they are soft,
hard or bitter, this is sufficient designation for commercial
purposes, with, perhaps, the addition of the name of country in
which they were grown, or that of the city or seaport from whence
exported.
=Bitter Almond=, _Amygdalus communis amara_.--The varieties of this
group are not specifically distinct, and some have soft, thin
shells, while others are thick and hard; but the kernels are very
bitter, hence the name. But in the countries where these almonds are
most extensively cultivated, as in the South of France, Austria,
Spain and Greece, the trees are generally raised from the nut, and,
as might be expected, the crop produced under such conditions is
exceedingly variable, the nuts being large or small, and the shells
of various degrees of hardness, with an occasional tree producing
both bitter and sweet kerneled nuts. These wilding trees are, in the
main, more hardy than the improved varieties, hence are largely
employed as stocks for the better sorts, as well as for the plum and
apricot. It is also claimed that, as a rule, the bitter almond trees
bloom later in the spring than those of the other two groups, and
for this reason are not so liable to be injured by spring frosts.
The trees are hardy in all of our most favorable peach-growing
regions of the Middle and Northern States, but some of the varieties
ripen rather too late for localities north of the latitude of New
York city. All this, however, and other obstacles, will soon
disappear, whenever the time arrives for our horticulturists to take
up almond culture and pursue it with half the zeal they have the
cultivation of the peach and many other kinds of fruits.
=Hard-Shelled Almond=, _A. c. dulcis_, or sweet-kerneled
almond.--The varieties of this group, as a whole, differ from those
of the next only in the firmness of their shells, which are
moderately firm, with a slightly rough and deeply pitted surface, as
shown in Fig. 7. Varieties of this group are fully as large as, and
perhaps a little longer than the thin-shelled, and the kernels are
fully as valuable when removed and sold as shelled almonds. It may
require a little more labor to crack and remove the kernels for
market, but the difference is scarcely worth taking into
consideration by the grower.
The common sweet, hard-shelled almond thrives in peach-growing
regions as far north as Central New York, and I well remember of
seeing trees loaded with these nuts, in my boyhood days, in the
western part of the State. The late Patrick Barry, in the Fruit
Garden, when referring to this nut, says: "This is a hardy and
productive tree, succeeding well in the climate of Western New York,
and still farther north. Nut very large, with a hard shell and a
large sweet kernel; ripe here (Rochester) about the first of
October. The tree is very vigorous, has smooth, glaucous leaves, and
when in bloom in the spring is more brilliant and showy than any
other fruit tree."
[Illustration: FIG. 7. HARD-SHELLED ALMOND.]
Nearly every one of our noted horticulturists who have said anything
about almond culture in the North, agree with Mr. Barry in regard to
the beauty of this tree and its productiveness; but it is well to
keep in mind that it is no more to be depended upon than the peach,
and the barren years will far outnumber the bearing ones. But the
almond is probably as certain here as in France, where it is
cultivated extensively as an article of commerce, although a full
crop once in about five years is about all that is expected. We can
probably do much better than this, especially if proper attention is
given to the production of new varieties adapted to our climate, as
has been done in California with the almond, and here in the East
with the peach and many other kinds of fruits; and when such have
been secured, proceed to multiply them in the usual mode of budding
upon seedling stocks.
=Soft, or Brittle-Shelled=, _A. c. fragilis_.--In this group we have
many distinct varieties, besides others which are known by local
names, but have no permanent and pronounced distinguishing
characteristics that would aid in separating them, should this be
desired. The most common form, widely known as the sweet-kerneled
thin-shelled (Fig. 8), is one of the oldest in cultivation in
European countries. The flowers usually appear with the leaves, or
before they unfold, and are large and of a pale rose color. The tree
is rather tender for latitudes north of Philadelphia, but succeeds
southward, and westward to the Pacific, if late frosts do not come
to destroy the flowers or embryo nuts.
[Illustration: FIG. 8. THIN-SHELLED ALMOND.]
=Large Fruited Almond=, _A. c. macrocarpa_.--This is an old French
variety, and perhaps most widely known as the Sultana, although the
latter name is often applied in market to almost every variety of
sweet almond. The leaves of the genuine variety are much broader
than those of the preceding groups, and are smooth and deep green.
Flowers very large and showy, of a pale rose color, and always
appear in spring before the leaves, and for this reason it has long
been cultivated in England as an ornamental tree. Fruit large,
depressed or flattened at the base, but pointed at the top. Shell
rather hard and firm, and will withstand rough handling and
transportation long distances. Kernel very sweet and tender, hence
highly prized everywhere. There are several sub-varieties; one,
known as the Pistache almond, is highly esteemed for the table, on
account of its delicate flavor, although it is very small and not
popular for commercial purposes.
=The Peach Almond=, _A. c. persicoides_.--This is another old
variety, described by Du Hamel about the middle of the last century,
under the name of _Amandier-Pecher_, or peach-leaved almond. Leaves
similar to those of the common peach. Fruit ovate, obtuse; husk
slightly succulent; shell of a yellowish color, and the kernel
sweet-flavored and excellent. Du Hamel says the fruit varies widely,
even upon the same tree or branch, some having a dry, thin husk,
while on others it is soft and fleshy, somewhat like that of the
peach. As the almond and peach are of the same species, it would not
be at all strange if an occasional variety raised from the seed of
either class should diverge towards, or even pass completely over to
a closely allied group.
From the varieties found in the forementioned groups we must seek to
find, or produce therefrom, those which will succeed in this country
wherever it may be thought desirable to attempt the cultivation of
this nut. So far as my knowledge extends, no attempts have, as yet,
been made to produce distinct American varieties in the Eastern
States, as with its near relative, the peach, but all the almonds
thus far cultivated here are of well-known foreign varieties.
Perhaps the demand for almond trees has not been sufficient
heretofore to encourage very extended experiments in this direction,
but I cannot believe that our people will continue for another
century to import millions of pounds annually of almonds if it is
possible to raise them in this country. That it is possible on the
Pacific coast has already been fully demonstrated, but we want to
see the field greatly enlarged, and give the people of the Eastern
States a share in what is evidently soon to become a large and
profitable industry.
=Ornamental Varieties of the Almond.=--These are only referred to
because some of the many in cultivation belong to the groups
producing the most valuable nuts, but the greater part of the purely
ornamental varieties are worthless for other purposes. _Amygdalus
cochinchinensis_ grows to quite a large tree in its native country,
or thirty to forty feet high; flowers small, white, produced in long
racemes; tender._ A. orientalis_, a small shrub, with grayish or
hoary leaves, and small rose-colored flowers; sometimes cultivated
under the name of _argentea_, or Silvery almond. _A. incana_ (hoary)
is another dwarf species, from the Caucasus, with solitary red
flowers. _A. nana_ and _A. pumila_ are oriental species of very
dwarf shrubs, with either red or white flowers. The double-flowering
varieties of these have long been inhabitants of our gardens.
=Properties and Uses.=--For domestic purposes the almond is highly
esteemed wherever it is known, and is employed in hundreds of
different ways in the preparation of appetizing dishes and dainties
for the table. In countries where this nut is in cultivation, it is
brought to the table in the half-opened green husk, for at this time
the kernels are just passing from the milky stage, and are
considered more readily digested than later, or when fully ripe. But
it is only when they are fully mature that they are gathered for
market, and after thorough drying they are placed in strong sacks
and distributed among dealers in all parts of the world. But only
certain varieties are exported in this condition, and principally
those with very thin shells, because these are most in demand, for
the table and dessert, where the almond is not a home product. Other
sweet varieties, whether with very hard or very tender shells, are
cracked and only the kernels exported. The importation of shelled
almonds into this country is somewhat in excess of the unshelled,
and as they are of greater value per pound, the duty levied is
proportionally higher. There is also a great saving to the importer
and consumer,--not only in freight, but the extraction of the
kernels is done in countries where labor is abundant and cheap.
Whether the almond shells are used for any purpose in European
countries, or are considered as wholly a waste product, I have been
unable to learn, but it is asserted, and by men whose word is worthy
of credence, that almond shells ground into a fine golden colored
flour, is much used in this country for adulterating red pepper,
cinnamon and other spices.
Almonds are not only used extensively at all times and seasons, by
persons of all ages and sexes, at table and elsewhere, but they are
employed largely in the making of fancy confectionery with sugar, or
in the form of salted almonds, the kernels having been first
thoroughly steamed or scalded, to remove the skin, and then rolled
or dusted with fine salt. Prepared in this way they are usually
considered more readily digestible and healthful than in their
natural state.
Sweet almonds are also valued in the form of emulsions, as a
medicine in pulmonary disorders, and the oil of almonds is a common
standard article in the stock of druggists everywhere, as it enters
into the composition of cosmetics, syrups, pastes and powders of
various kinds.
The kernels of the wild bitter almond contain a poisonous principle
known as hydrocyanic or Prussic acid, which does not exist in the
sweet varieties, although found in their leaves and the bark of
their twigs. But as bitter almonds are not palatable, there is
little danger of anyone being poisoned from eating them, should
these nuts ever be cultivated here for any special purpose, as in
other countries.
=Insects and Diseases.=--Whenever the almond tree becomes common
here in orchards it will doubtless suffer from the attacks of the
same kinds of natural enemies as affect the peach. One of the most
widely distributed of these pests is the common peach-tree borer.
The parents of these borers are small, slender-bodied, bluish,
transparent-winged moths, the male somewhat smaller than the female.
These moths usually appear in this latitude during the month of
June, and the female deposits her eggs on the stems of the trees
near the surface of the ground, or a little below it if she can find
a convenient opening to suit her purpose. The eggs deposited soon
hatch, and the young larvae bore through the tender bark at this
point, and when fairly under it, branch off, cutting galleries
through the soft alburnum underneath. When a number of these borers
are at work on the same tree they sometimes girdle and kill it the
first season, especially if it is young or a small specimen. But if
the tree is not killed outright it will show, by the check to its
growth, that borers are at work. The borers continue feeding
throughout the remainder of the season, and up to the time freezing
weather sets in for the winter, and if not full grown at this time
they will finish their growth early in spring, then crawl to near
the outside, or just under the old bark, and there spin a thin
cocoon, in which they are transformed to the pupal stage, remaining
in this form for a few weeks, then issuing in the winged or moth
stage.
In the line of preventives and remedies there is nothing better than
clean cultivation about the trees, and annual examination of each
tree early in summer and the crushing of every borer found. The next
best thing, in the way of a preventive, is to wrap the stems from a
little below the surface of the ground to a foot or more above it
with heavy paper, cloth, or bark of some kind, to keep the moth from
laying her eggs on the bark of the tree. I have used common tar
paper for this purpose, not only because it is very cheap and does
not decay when exposed to the weather, but the exhalation or odor of
tar seems to be offensive to the moths. In the use of this material
I have never found that it was in the least injurious to the bark
underneath. Painting the stems with soap, cement, clay, or even
common mineral paints, will answer very well if a little care is
given to keeping down the number of insects by removing the larger
part of the borers with knife or gouge.
In recent years a pest known as the "shot-hole borer" (_Scolytus
rugulosus_) has appeared in many and widely separated localities, in
both the Eastern and Western States, attacking the almond, peach and
plum tree. It is supposed to have been introduced from Europe with
imported nursery stock, and thence rapidly distributed, by similar
means, through the country. In its perfect stages it is a minute
brown beetle, about one-twelfth of an inch long and one-thirtieth of
an inch in diameter. This pest appears about midsummer, boring
numerous minute holes through the bark and into the sapwood
underneath, and in this the female deposits her eggs, and from these
are hatched the little grubs found later feeding on the soft inner
bark and alburnous matter beneath it. From every hole made in the
bark a small globule of gum will soon appear, drying upon the
surface--thence onward until autumn--and glistening in the sun, an
immutable sign of the presence of a minute but destructive enemy.
When the beetles and their eggs are once in possession there is no
practical way known of removing them, and the best thing to be done
is to cut down and burn every infested tree, and just as soon as it
is known to be in this condition. There are also several indigenous
species of bark beetles, which will very likely attack almond trees
as soon as they are as abundant as peach trees, but all may be
destroyed with the same, or very similar weapons and materials.
What are called preventives consist mainly of substances to be
applied to the stems in a semi-liquid form, and of such a nature as
to be offensive to the beetles because of their odor, taste, or
because so hard that the insects cannot cut through them with their
mandibles. Common lime whitewash, soft soap, whale-oil soap, or a
thin mineral paint made of pure linseed oil, will answer very well
for this purpose if applied often enough to keep the bark constantly
coated.
Of the fungous diseases affecting the almond in this country, very
little is as yet known, although we may safely include under this
head all those that have been inimical to the peach, for the
transition from this tree to the almond would only be a natural
sequence. The peach-leaf curl (_Taphrina deformans_) would not be
far from home on the almond leaf, neither could we expect that
almond orchards would be wholly exempt from that mysteriously
distributed and uncontrollable disease known as "peach yellows."
In California an almond-leaf blight has already appeared and
seriously affected the trees in some of the orchards. It is caused
by a fungus known as _Cercospora circumscissa_ Sacc. This fungus
attacks the leaves and young twigs, causing the former to fall off
early in the season, thereby checking the growth of the tree and
preventing the maturing of the fruit. It is thought that remedies
may be applied to check this disease, and there will probably be
some form of copper solution employed for destroying it, as with
various species of fungi on other kinds of fruit trees.