See EDUCATION, MODERN: REFORMS, &c.: A. D. 1865-1886.
INE, Laws of (or Dooms of).
See DOOMS OF INE.
INEXPIABLE WAR, The.
See CARTHAGE: B. C. 241-238.
INFALLIBILITY, Promulgation of the Dogma of Papal.
See PAPACY: A. D. 1869-1870.
INGÆVONES, The.
See GERMANY: AS KNOWN TO TACITUS.
INGAGO, Battle of (1881).
See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1806-1881.
INGE I.,
King of Norway, A. D. 1157-1161.
Inge I. (called the Good), King of Sweden, 1090-1112.
Inge II., King of Norway, 1205-1207.
Inge II., King of Sweden, 1118-1129.
INGENUI.
LIBERTINI.
"Free men [among the Romans] might be either persons born free
(ingenui) and who had never been in slavery to a Roman, or
persons who had once been slaves but had been emancipated
(libertini)."
_W. Ramsay,
Manual of Roman Antiquity,
chapter 3._
INI, King of West Saxons, A. D. 688-726.
INIS-FAIL.
INIS-EALGA.
See IRELAND: THE NAME.
INITIATIVE, The Swiss.
See REFERENDUM.
INKERMANN, Battle of.
See RUSSIA: A. D. 1854 (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER).
INNOCENT II., Pope, A. D. 1130-1143.
Innocent III., Pope, 1198-1216.
Innocent IV., Pope, 1243-1254.
Innocent V., Pope, 1276, January to June.
Innocent VI., Pope, 1352-1362.
Innocent VII., Pope, 1404-1406.
Innocent VIII., Pope, 1484-1492.
Innocent IX., Pope, 1591, October to December.
Innocent X., Pope, 1644-1655.
Innocent XI., Pope, 1676-1689.
Innocent XII., Pope, 1691-1700.
Innocent XIII., Pope, 1721-1724.
INNUITS, The.
See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ESKIMAUAN FAMILY.
----------INQUISITION: Start----------
INQUISITION, The: A. D. 1203-1525.
Origin of the Holy Office.
St. Dominic and the Dominicans.
The Episcopal Inquisition.
The Apostolical or Papal Inquisition.
The Spanish Inquisition and its terrible rule.
Estimate of victims.
Expulsion of Jews and Moors.
"In the earlier ages of the Church, the definition of heresy
had been committed to episcopal authority. But the cognisance
of heretics and the determination of their punishment remained
in the hands of secular magistrates. At the end of the 12th
century the wide diffusion of the Albigensian heterodoxy
through Languedoc and Northern Italy alarmed the chiefs of
Christendom, and furnished the Papacy with a good pretext for
extending its prerogatives. Innocent III. in 1203 empowered
two French Cistercians, Pierre de Castelnau and Raoul, to
preach against the heretics of Provence. In the following year
he ratified this commission by a Bull, which censured the
negligence and coldness of the bishops, appointed the Abbot of
Citeaux Papal delegate in matters of heresy, and gave him
authority to judge and punish misbelievers. This was the first
germ of the Holy Office as a separate Tribunal. … Being a
distinct encroachment of the Papacy upon the episcopal
jurisdiction and prerogatives, the Inquisition met at first
with some opposition from the bishops. The people for whose
persecution it was designed, and at whose expense it carried
on its work, broke into rebellion; the first years of its
annals were rendered illustrious by the murder of one of its
founders, Pierre de Castelnau. He was canonised, and became
the first Saint of the Inquisition. … In spite of
opposition, the Papal institution took root and flourished.
Philip Augustus responded to the appeals of Innocent; and a
crusade began against the Albigenses, in which Simon de
Montfort won his sinister celebrity. During those bloody wars
the Inquisition developed itself as a force of formidable
expansive energy. Material assistance to the cause was
rendered by a Spanish monk of the Augustine order, who settled
in Provence on his way back from Rome in 1206. Domenigo de
Guzman, known to universal history as S. Dominic, organised a
new militia for the service of the orthodox Church between the
years 1215 and 1219. His order, called the Order of the
Preachers, was originally designed to repress heresy and
confirm the faith by diffusing Catholic doctrine and
maintaining the creed in its purity. It consisted of three
sections: the Preaching Friars; nuns living in conventual
retreat; and laymen, entitled the Third Order of Penitence or
the Militia of Christ, who in after years were merged with the
Congregation of S. Peter Martyr, and corresponded to the
familiars of the Inquisition. Since the Dominicans were
established in the heat and passion of a crusade against
heresy, by a rigid Spaniard who employed his energies in
persecuting misbelievers, they assumed at the outset a
belligerent and inquisitorial attitude. Yet it is not strictly
accurate to represent S. Dominic himself as the first Grand
Inquisitor.
{1751}
The Papacy proceeded with caution in its design of forming a
tribunal dependent on the Holy See and independent of the
bishops. Papal Legates with plenipotentiary authority were
sent to Languedoc, and decrees were issued against the
heretics, in which the Inquisition was rather implied than
directly named; nor can I find that S. Dominic, though he
continued to be the soul of the new institution until his
death, in 1221, obtained the title of Inquisitor.
Notwithstanding this vagueness, the Holy Office may be said to
have been founded by S. Dominic; and it soon became apparent
that the order he had formed was destined to monopolise its
functions. … This Apostolical Inquisition was at once
introduced into Lombardy, Romagna and the Marches of Treviso.
The extreme rigour of its proceedings, the extortions of
monks, and the violent resistance offered by the communes, led
to some relaxation of its original constitution. More
authority had to be conceded to the bishops; and the right of
the Inquisitors to levy taxes on the people was modified. Yet
it retained its true form of a Papal organ, superseding the
episcopal prerogatives, and overriding the secular
magistrates, who were bound to execute its biddings. As such
it was admitted into Tuscany, and established in Aragon.
Venice received it in 1289, with certain reservations that
placed its proceedings under the control of Doge and Council.
In Languedoc, the country of its birth, it remained rooted at
Toulouse and Carcassonne; but the Inquisition did not extend
its authority over central and northern France. In Paris its
functions were performed by the Sorbonne. Nor did it obtain a
footing in England, although the statute 'De Haeretico
Comburendo,' passed in 1401 at the instance of the higher
clergy, sanctioned the principles on which it existed. … The
revival of the Holy Office on a new and far more murderous
basis, took place in 1484. We have seen that hitherto there
had been two types of inquisition into heresy. The first,
which remained in force up to the year 1203, may be called the
episcopal. The second was the Apostolical or Dominican: it
transferred this jurisdiction from the bishops to the Papacy,
who employed the order of S. Dominic for the special service
of the tribunal instituted by the Imperial Decrees of
Frederick II. The third deserves no other name than Spanish,
though, after it had taken shape in Spain, it was transferred
to Portugal, applied in all the Spanish and Portuguese
colonies, and communicated with some modifications to Italy
and the Netherlands. Both the second and the third types of
inquisition into heresy were Spanish inventions, patented by
the Roman Pontiffs and monopolised by the Dominican order. But
the third and final form of the Holy Office in Spain
distinguished itself by emancipation from Papal and Royal
control, and by a specific organisation which rendered it the
most formidable of irresponsible engines in the annals of
religious institutions. … Castile had hitherto been free
from the pest. But the conditions of that kingdom offered a
good occasion for its introduction at the date which I have
named. During the Middle Ages the Jews of Castile acquired
vast wealth and influence. Few families but felt the burden of
their bonds and mortgages. Religious fanaticism, social
jealousy, and pecuniary distress exasperated the Christian
population; and as early as the year 1391, more than 5,000
Jews were massacred in one popular uprising. The Jews, in
fear, adopted Christianity. It is said that in the 15th
century the population counted some million of
converts—called New Christians, or, in contempt, Marranos: a
word which may probably be derived from the Hebrew Maranatha.
These converted Jews, by their ability and wealth, crept into
high offices of state, obtained titles of aristocracy, and
founded noble houses. … It was a Sicilian Inquisitor, Philip
Barberis, who suggested to Ferdinand the Catholic the
advantage he might secure by extending the Holy Office to
Castile. Ferdinand avowed his willingness; and Sixtus IV. gave
the project his approval in 1478. But it met with opposition
from the gentler-natured Isabella. … Then Isabella yielded;
and in 1481 the Holy Office was founded at Seville. It began
its work by publishing a comprehensive edict against all New
Christians suspected of Judaising, which offence was so
constructed as to cover the most innocent observance of
national customs. Resting from labour on Saturday; performing
ablutions at stated times; refusing to eat pork or puddings
made of blood; and abstaining from wine, sufficed to colour
accusations of heresy. … Upon the publication of this edict,
there was an exodus of Jews by thousands into the fiefs of
independent vassals of the crown—the Duke of Medina Sidonia,
the Marquis of Cadiz, and the Count of Arcos. All emigrants
were 'ipso facto' declared heretics by the Holy Office. During
the first year after its foundation, Seville beheld 298
persons burned alive, and 79 condemned to perpetual
imprisonment. A large square stage of stone, called the
Quemadero, was erected for the execution of those multitudes
who were destined to suffer death by hanging or by flame. In
the same year, 2,000 were burned and 17,000 condemned to
public penitence, while even a larger number were burned in
effigy, in other parts of the kingdom. … In 1483 Thomas of
Torquemada was nominated Inquisitor General for Castile and
Aragon. Under his rule a Supreme Council was established, over
which he presided for life. … In 1484 a General Council was
held, and the constitution of the Inquisition was established
by articles. … The two most formidable features of the
Inquisition as thus constituted were the exclusion of the
bishops from its tribunal and the secrecy of its procedure.
… In the autumn of 1484 the Inquisition was introduced into
Aragon; and Saragossa became its headquarters in that State.
… The Spanish Inquisition was now firmly grounded. Directed
by Torquemada, it began to encroach upon the crown, to insult
the episcopacy, to defy the Papacy, to grind the Commons, and
to outrage by its insolence the aristocracy. … The Holy
Office grew every year in pride, pretensions and exactions. It
arrogated to its tribunal crimes of usury, bigamy, blasphemous
swearing, and unnatural vice, which appertained by right to
the secular courts. It depopulated Spain by the extermination
and banishment of at least three million industrious subjects
during the first 139 years of its existence. … Torquemada
was the genius of evil who created and presided over this foul
instrument of human crime and folly.
{1752}
During his eighteen years of administration, reckoning from
1480 to 1498, he sacrificed, according to Llorente's
calculation, above 114,000 victims, of whom 10,220 were burned
alive, 6,860 burned in effigy, and 97,000 condemned to
perpetual imprisonment or public penitence. He, too, it was
who in 1492 compelled Ferdinand to drive the Jews from his
dominions. … The edict of expulsion was issued on the last
of March. Before the last of July all Jews were sentenced to
depart, carrying no gold or silver with them. They disposed of
their lands, houses, and goods for next to nothing, and went
forth to die by thousands on the shores of Africa and Italy.
… The exodus of the Jews was followed in 1502 by a similar
exodus of Moors from Castile, and in 1524 by an exodus of
Mauresques from Aragon. To compute the loss of wealth and
population inflicted upon Spain by these mad edicts would be
impossible. … After Torquemada, Diego Deza reigned as second
Inquisitor General from 1498 to 1507. In these years,
according to the same calculation, 2,592 were burned alive,
896 burned in effigy, 34,952 condemned to prison or public
penitence. Cardinal Ximenes de Cisneros followed between 1507
and 1517. The victims of this decade were 3,564 burned alive.
… Adrian, Bishop of Tortosa, tutor to Charles V., and
afterwards Pope, was Inquisitor General between 1516 and 1525.
Castile, Aragon, and Catalonia, at this epoch, simultaneously
demanded a reform of the Holy Office from their youthful
sovereign. But Charles refused, and the tale of Adrian's
administration was 1,620 burned alive, 560 burned in effigy,
21,845 condemned to prison or public penitence. The total,
during 43 years, between 1481 and 1525, amounted to 234,526,
including all descriptions of condemned heretics. These
figures are of necessity vague, for the Holy Office left but
meagre records of its proceedings.".
_J. A. Symonds,
Renaissance in Italy: The Catholic Reaction,
chapter 3 (part 1)._
ALSO IN:
_H. C. Lea,
History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages._
_J. A. Llorente,
History of the Inquisition,
chapters 1-12._
_W. H. Rule,
History of the Inquisition,
chapters 1-14._
_W. H. Prescott,
History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella,
part 1, chapters 7 and 17._
See, also,
JEWS: 8TH-15TH CENTURIES; and MOORS: A. D. 1492-1609.
INQUISITION: A. D. 1521-1568.
Introduction and work in the Netherlands.
See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1521-1555; 1559-1562; and 1568.
INQUISITION: A. D. 1546.
Successful revolt against the Holy Office at Naples.
See ITALY (SOUTHERN): A. D. 1528-1570.
INQUISITION: A. D. 1550-1816.
Establishment in Peru.
See PERU: A. D. 1550-1816.
INQUISITION: A. D. 1814-1820.
Restoration and abolition in Spain.
See SPAIN: A. D. 1814-1827.
----------INQUISITION: End----------