of the Foundling Hospital were improved through him with the amazing
sum of £10,299. The organ in its chapel, and the MS. score of his
“Messiah,” were a present and a donation to the foundation from him. He
left an amiable private as well as a good public character behind him.
His character as a composer is too well appreciated by the British
public to require any remarks from our feeble and inharmonious pen.
SEALING-WAX, SEALS, &c.
Besides metals, five other mediums are enumerated by ancient
writers, wherewith letters and public acts were sealed, viz., _terra
sigillaris_, cement, paste, common wax and sealing-wax. That the
terra sigillaris was used by the Egyptians, we have the evidence of
Herodotus, and which, by inference, is strengthened by that of Moses
who speaks of seal-rings or signets, whence we may safely infer, that
they had a medium of some sort, wherewith they sealed. This _lacuna_
Herodotus supplies, affirming it in direct terms, and assigning a name
to the substance they used for that purpose.
This circumstance was only rendered questionable by Pliny, who alleges
the Egyptians did not use those things.
Herodotus thus expresses himself: “The Egyptian priest bound to the
horns of cattle fit for sacrifice pieces of papyrus with sealing-earth,
on which they made an impression with the seal; and such cattle could
only be offered up as victims.”
Lucian speaks of a fortune-teller who ordered those who came to consult
him, to write down on a bit of paper the questions they wished to ask,
to fold it up, and seal it with clay, or any other substance of a like
kind.
Such earth appears to have been employed in sealing, by the Byzantyne
emperors; for we are told that, at the second Nicene Council, image
worship was defended by one saying, “No one believed that those who
received written orders from the Emperor, and venerated the seal,
worshipped on that account the sealing-earth, the paper, or the lead.”
Cicero relates that Verres, having seen in the hands of his servants
a letter written to his son from Agrimentum, and observing on it an
impression in sealing-earth, he was so pleased with it that he caused
the seal-ring with which it was made to be taken from the possessor.
Also, the same orator, in his defence of Flaccus, produced an
attestation sent from Asia, and proved its authenticity by its being
sealed with Asiatic sealing-earth; with which, he told the judges,
all public and private letters in Asia were sealed: and he showed on
the other hand, that the testimony brought by the accuser was false,
because it was sealed with _wax_, and for that reason could not have
come from Asia. The scholiast Servius relates, that a sybil received a
promise from Apollo, that she should live as long as she did not see
the earth of the island of the Erythræa, where she resided; that she
therefore quitted the place, and retired to Cumae, where she became old
and decrepid; but that having received a letter sealed with Erythræn
earth, when she saw the seal, she instantly expired.
No one, however, will suppose that this earth was used without
preparation, as was that to which is given the name of _creta_ chalk;
for, if it was of a natural kind, it must have been of that kind
called _potter’s clay_, as that clay is susceptible of receiving an
impression, and of retaining it subsequent to hardening by drying. It
is believed that the Romans, under the indefinite term _creta_, often
understood to be a kind of potter’s earth, which can be proved by many
passages in their numerous writers. Columella speaks of a species
of chalk of which wine-jars and dishes were made, of which kind it
is conjectured Virgil speaks when he calls it adhesive. The ancient
writers on agriculture give precisely the same name to marl, which was
employed to manure land: now, both chalk and marl, in their natural
state, are extremely inapplicable to the purpose for which we are led
to believe the _terra sigillaris_ was used; therefore, admitting the
Roman _creta_ was composed of them, those substances must naturally
have undergone some laborious process, in order to render them proper
for the purpose to which they were applied.
Notwithstanding none can feel a higher respect for Professor Beckmann,
to whom we are indebted for many of the preceding observations, than we
do, yet strongly as we are influenced with this impression, we cannot
help observing, consistent with that duty we owe to the public, that we
cannot divest ourselves of the opinion that he is only trifling with
the public feeling, perhaps for the ostentatious display of his own
learning: so many objections of so little weight are raised, that he
really appears to write for the purpose of raising new objections to
passages, which, in our comprehension, are extremely simple. We cannot
help applying to him a passage which occurs in a song of the Swan of
Twickenham, who sings:--
“Gnawed his pen, then dashed it on the ground,
Striking from thought to thought, a vast profound.
Plunged for the sense, but found no bottom there,
Yet wrote, and floundered on in mere despair.”
We would not be illiberal or capricious, nor do we presume to any extra
portion of intelligence; yet, we think we can in a few words discuss
the topic, and perhaps, satisfactorily, on which he has employed so
many pages. Those terms which have troubled the professor with learned
difficulties really appear to us susceptible of an easy interpretation,
and applicable to both or either of the senses in which they are
used, as are any words in the language of ancient Rome. Accordingly,
we find the term _creta_ implies either chalk, fuller’s clay, loam,
white paint, or Asiatic earth, termed creta Asiatica; and, in brief it
appears a mere generic name for any kind of earth, raised from below
the surface of the soil: this is its true sense. But there cannot be a
question, from what is known of the preparation of clay and earth for
_terra cotta_ and other plastic purposes, which undergo a variety of
washings, kneadings, &c., that similar preparations were requisite,
in order to bring it to so curious, so delicate a purpose as that to
which the terra sagillaris was applied. And _fosse_, in the sense used
by Varre, admits of nearly a similar description, it appearing as a
pronomen for the same thing; and indicates either peat, marl, loam,
chalk, or any earthy substance which may be raised from below the
terrestrial surface.
We have evidence every day in our fruit shops, that in certain
countries this kind of earth is yet employed for closing up jars of
dried fruits brought from Oporto, Smyrna, and other countries; as these
appear to be composed of white chalk of a texture somewhat similar to
common mortar. The warmth of the atmosphere, where it is used, soon
hardens and prevents the passage of air to the contents; the jars
themselves being oftentimes only dried in the sun.
Thus it appears that prepared earths were first used for the purpose
of sealing; their adhesive, or, as Virgil has it, their tenacious
qualities, being wonderfully improved for manual labour. Next, paste
was employed, prepared from dough.
To paste succeeded common wax, sometimes slightly tinctured with a
green tint, the effect of endeavouring to give it a blue colour, as
vegetable blues turn green by the process of heat employed in melting;
whilst mineral or earthy blues all sink to the bottom, from superior
gravity. This was the material employed in sealing public acts in
England, as early as the fifteenth century. We have an anecdote of the
Duke of Lancaster having no seal to ratify a deed between him and the
Duke of Burgoyne, but from what appears in the attestation, which, with
the instrument itself, according to the general custom of the day, runs
in rhyme thus:
“I, John of Gaunt,
Doe gyve and do graunt,
To John of Burgoyne
And the heire of his loyne
Sutton and Putton
Untill the world’s rotten.”
The attestation runs thus:
“There being no seal within the roof,
In sooth, I seal it wyth my tooth.”
A good example is this of the simple brevity of the time, and a severe
lecture upon the eternal repetitions of our modern lawyers, whereby the
limitations and special uses of deeds are made, perhaps, not according
to the necessities of the case, but are lengthened from selfish
purposes.
The Great Charter, which gives an assurance of the rights of
Englishmen, is sealed with white wax; as may be seen in the British
Museum.
The first arms used as a seal in England, were those of the tyrannical
subjugator of English rights, William, commonly called the Conqueror,
and they were brought from Normandy.
Although Fenn, in his collection of original Letters of the last half
of the fifteenth century, published in London, 1787, has given the size
and shape of the seals, he does not apprise us of what substance they
were composed. Respecting a letter of 1455, he says only, that “the
seal is of red wax,” by which, it is presumed, he means common wax; and
though, perhaps not equal in quality to such as is now used, yet it was
made of nearly similar materials. Tavernier, in his Travels, says, that
in Surat gum-lac is melted and formed into sticks, like sealing-wax.
Wecker also gives directions to make an impression with calcined gypsum
and a solution of gum or isinglass. Porta, likewise, knew that this
might be done, and, perhaps, to greater perfection with amalgam of
quicksilver.
Among the records of the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, are some letters of
1563, sealed with red and black wax. In the family of the Rhingrave,
Philip Francis von Daun, the oldest letter sealed with wax, known in
Germany, is found, of the date of August 3, 1554; it was written from
London, by an agent of that family, of the name of Gerrard Herman. The
colour of the wax is dark red, and very shining.
The oldest recipe known in Germany for making sealing-wax, was found
by M. Von Murr, in a work by Samuel Zimmerman, citizen of Augsburg,
published in 1759. The copy in the library of the university of
Gottingen is signed by the author himself.--“To make hard sealing-wax,
called Spanish wax, with which, if letters be sealed, they cannot be
opened without breaking the seal; take beautiful clear resin, the
whitest you can procure, and melt it over a slow coal fire. When it is
properly melted, take it from the fire, and for every pound of resin,
add two ounces of cinnabar, pounded very fine, stirring it about. Then
let the whole cool, or pour it into cold water. Thus you will have
beautiful red sealing-wax.
“If you are desirous of having black wax, add lamp-black to it. With
smalt or azure, you may make blue: with white-lead, white; and with
orpiment, yellow.
“If, instead of resin, you melt purified turpentine in a glass vessel,
and give it any colour you choose, you will have a harder kind of
sealing-wax, and not so brittle as the former.”
It may be remarked, that in these recipes for the fabrication of
sealing-wax there is no mention of gum-lac, which is known at present
as a chief ingredient in the composition of this article.
Zimmerman’s sealing-wax approaches very near to the quality of that
known as _maltha_, whence we may conclude, that the manufacture of it
did not originally come from the East Indies. The most ancient mention
of sealing-wax occurs in a botanical work, treating of the history of
aromatics and simples, by Garcia ab Horto, published at Antwerp in
1563, where the author, speaking of gum-lac says, that those sticks
used for sealing letters are made of it; at which time sealing-wax was
common among the Portuguese, and has since been manufactured chiefly in
Holland.
M. Spiess, principal keeper of the Records at Plessenberg, says,
respecting the antiquity of _Wafers_, in Germany, that the most
ancient use of them he has known, occurs in a letter written by D.
Krapf, at Spires, in 1624, to the government of Bayreuth.--The same
authority informs us that some years after, the Brandenburg factor at
Nuremberg sent such wafers to a bailiff, at Osternohe. During the whole
of the seventeenth century, wafers were not used in the Chancery at
Brandenburg, and only by private persons there.
Seals, it appears, from certain passages of Egyptian history, parallel
with, and perhaps anterior to the Israelitish ingress, were formed or
cut in emeralds, the native produce of that country. Other precious
stones, metals, steel, lead, and a variety of materials, but chiefly of
a hard and precious kind, have been always employed for that purpose.
BLACK-LEAD PENCILS.
The period when this semi-metallic substance was introduced, for
the purpose for which it is now applied, cannot with certainty be
ascertained, as no record is found of the transaction: by the common
expedient of inference, however, we certainly may conclude, it was in
very remote ages; for transcribers of MSS. upwards of one thousand
years ago, used a substance somewhat resembling it in effect.
But, perhaps, the antiquity of the use of black-lead pencils cannot
be so well determined from diplomatiques, as their frequency might
be proved from mineralogical writers. The first mention of this
discovery occurs in the works of Gesner, who, in his “Book of
Fossils,” published in 1565, says that the British people had pencils
for writing, with wooden-handles inclosing a piece of lead, which he
believed to be an artificial composition; and it was called _stimmi
Anglicanum_; which seems to import that it was a British production;
and we should consider, from the name of British antimony being given
to it, that it might have been Cumberland black-lead.
About thirty years afterwards, Cæsalpinus gave a more perfect account
of it:--he says it was a lead-coloured, shining stone, as smooth as
glass, and appeared as if rubbed over with oil; it gave to the fingers
an ash-grey tint, with a plumbeous brightness; and, he adds, pointed
pencils were made of it, for the use of painters and draughtsmen. A
closer description of the substance than this cannot be discovered.
Somewhere about three years afterwards, a still more perfect
description was furnished by Imperatis; who says, “It is much more
convenient for drawing than pen and ink, because the marks made with
it appear distinct upon a white ground, also, in consequence of
its brightness, show themselves on black, and can be preserved or
rubbed out at pleasure. This mineral is smooth, appears greasy to the
touch, and has a leaden-colour, which it communicates with a metallic
brightness. It can resist, for a long time, the strongest fire, and
even from it requires more hardness; it has, in consequence, been
thought to be a species of _talc_. This, in the arts to which it
is applied, is a property which greatly enhanceth its value, being
manufactured into crucibles, &c., with clay. These vessels are capable
of enduring the strongest heat of a chemical furnace.”
Sometimes this lead is foliaceous, and may be crumbled into small
pieces or scales; but frequently found denser and more strong. This
latter is what writing pencils should be made of; but the former being
more frequently found, and, also, coming from the refuse of the
workmen, is too often mixed up with some glutinous substance, and there
is every reason to suppose it to be enclosed in the groove in a plastic
state; these pencils are commonly hawked about our streets by pedlars
and Jews; of purchasing which people should be cautious, as they are,
in general, utterly worthless.
Robinson, in his Essay towards a natural History of Westmoreland and
Cumberland states, that, at first, the country people round Keswick
marked their sheep with black-lead. Afterwards, they discovered the
art of employing it in their earthenware, and also to preserve iron
from rust. The same writer says, the Dutch use it in dyeing, to render
black more durable; and that they buy it in large quantities for that
purpose. But their application of it for dyeing, we should consider as
highly questionable.
The mode of eradicating black-lead by means of an elastic gum, called
caoutchouc, or, Indian-rubber, was, we have been informed, first
discovered in England somewhere about sixty years ago.
COLOURED GLASS.
The manufacture of glass we find was quite common in Ethiopia, Syria,
Assyria, and other Eastern countries, in the earliest ages of the
world, as Diodorus Siculus informs us, who says, the Ethiopians
enclosed in glass, the bodies of their parents and friends; we
doubt, however, that on this point, the historian was deceived. But
it really appears probable that soon after the art of making glass
was discovered, the idea of communicating to it some colours would
easily present itself. This probability appears increased, when it
is recollected that much care is requisite to render glass perfectly
colourless. As the various metallic particles with which stone and
sand abound, (these being the chief ingredients of which glass is
composed, and which gradually give tints in fusion,) will almost
unavoidably communicate some hue or other, therefore the perfection of
glass is to have it perfectly colourless.
But with respect to coloured glass; so frequently have people been
imposed upon by having coloured glass sold to them for valuable stones,
that some conscientious authors have very laudably and carefully
abstained from lending the benefit of instruction in its manufacture,
by publishing the method.
The Egyptian artists were so famous in the manufacture of glass, that
the Romans were content to receive this article from the glass-houses
in Alexandria, and did not interfere in endeavouring to procure the art
themselves, until the latter part of the empire.
We read that an Egyptian priest made a present to the Emperor Adrian
of several beautiful glass cups, which sparkled with many colours; and
such value did that august personage place upon these toys, that he
ordered them to be used only on high feasts and solemnities.
Strabo relates, that a glass manufacturer of Alexandria informed him
that an earth was found in Egypt, without which the valuable coloured
glass could not be made. It has been thought by some, the glass earth
here meant was a mineral alkali which was readily found in Egypt,
serving to make glass; but this author speaking expressly of coloured
glass, it has been suggested as probable, the alkali above named could
not have reference to what the artisan intended to imply, but that it
must be referred to some metallic earth or manganese.
One Democritus is named by Seneca, as having discovered an art of
making artificial emeralds; but it has been conjectured that what the
philosopher meant was the art of communicating colour to natural
rock crystal, or colouring glass already made, so as to resemble
stones, which is a process performed by cementation. Directions have
been furnished for this purpose by Porta, Neri, and others; but it is
discovered that the articles so coloured are liable to such accidents
in the process, that it is next to impossible to render things of any
size tolerably perfect, so as to bear cutting afterwards.
In the Museum Victorium at Rome, there are shown a chrysolite and an
emerald, both perfectly well executed, and thoroughly transparent,
without a blemish.
We have not from the ancients an account of what process they employed;
but it must be evident that nothing less than metallic calces could
have been used; and for this evident reason, that any other substance
could not have resisted the influence of the necessary heat. The last
century has, however, produced certain artists in northern European
nations, who have adopted a method of employing the precious metals, to
communicate a tincture to glass in the process of making, where iron,
&c. were originally only used; and their endeavours have been attended
with singular success.
By means of an amalgam of gold, or a solution in _aqua regia_, and
precipitated with a solution of tin, the metal then assuming the
appearance of a rich purple coloured powder; so prepared, it is mixed
with the best _frit_, and then called the precipitate or gold calx of
Cassius, the inventor of gold purple, or mineral purple.
This precipitate communicates a rich ruby coloured purple, so perfect
that it is impossible to discover the deception, without the substances
be tried by the usual means--cut with a diamond or a prepared file.
We have had in England some very eminent artists in the practice of
staining glass, and also for making artificial representations of
various precious stones.
Although the professed object of alchemy has now met with that
contempt it merited--because, notwithstanding the immense sums which
have been expended, the time lost, and unprofitable labour employed
in the unavailing search after what probably never will be found--yet
the labour lost and money expended has not been totally useless, since
it has served to open the seals which secured chemical science to the
modern world; and which is the chief, if not the sole advantage it can
claim over antiquity for superiority of information.
Painting on glass, but, perhaps, staining had been a more appropriate
expression, or, properly speaking, in enamel, with the preparations
for colouring in mosaic work, may, to a certain extent, be justly
considered as branches of the art of colouring glass; in all which
there is no colour more difficult to be attained than a beautiful red;
it now is, and ever has been, most difficult, consequently the dearest
colour. The presumed ignorance of ancient artists in preparing this
colour has afforded some reason, it is said, to suppose the ancients
knew of no other substance proper for that purpose but calx of iron,
or manganese. To this we may reply, many specimens are found which
show they were not so ignorant in that art, and that it is more than
probable the same jealousy which is found to exist in modern days among
artizans might prevent our sagacious predecessors from publishing the
secrets of their respective professions to the world. We contend, that
as the materials must then have had existence, which have been since so
successfully employed, pray what was the reason the ancients should not
avail themselves of their benefit? In all the higher speculations of
science and arts, where the great and superior energies of genius were
requisite, this perfection in the ancients far surpassed any exertions
which have been since achieved by the moderns. To instance one artist
and one art solely, we name the great Praxiteles, so famous in the art
of statuary, whose works were a model of perfection.
ETCHING ON GLASS AND GLASS CUTTING.
Without entering into the history of the lapidary’s art, we only
propose to speak of those things which ancient and modern authors have
said upon the art of engraving on glass, observing, that it was an art
anciently known to both the Greeks and Romans; although it appears
extremely probable, that from their expressed ignorance of many of
those properties which modern chemistry has discovered to belong to
matter, they were ignorant of the art of etching on glass.
From antique specimens still preserved, a doubt cannot for a moment
be suffered to exist on our minds, but that the art of engraving upon
glass was familiar to the Greek artists, who formed upon glass both
linear figures, and in relievo, by the same means as are now employed
for nearly the same purpose, if we can place any confidence in an able
and learned lapidary, Natter, who has established, that the ancients
employed the same kind of instruments for this purpose, or nearly such
as are now in use; abating, perhaps the use of diamonds, and the dust
of that precious material, for which it is conceived they used emery
powder, and the dust of glass.
From what is related by Pliny, it certainly appears that they used the
lapidary’s wheel, an instrument moving in a horizontal direction over
the work-table.