more close and compact than those of the loins; allowing of a wider
range for bending and turning in the loins than the back.
12. The sternum and ribs move upward, to assist the chest in the
expansion required for respiration; drawing the clavicles and the
shoulders upwards in full inspiration, and tend to a contrary motion on
expiration. Such movements also, characterise strong action and certain
passion, and very apparent in a naked figure.
13. In stooping to touch the ground, the thigh-bone forms an angle of
somewhere about 55 degrees with the average direction of the vertebræ.
14. The leg bends upon the thigh at an angle of about 75 degrees, and
the line of the _tibia_ forms, with the sole of the foot, when that is
elevated, an angle of 65 degrees.
15. The whole of this limb is susceptible of motion at the hip-joint
forwards to a right angle with its perpendicular position; and
backwards to an angle of 20 degrees. The leg will then continue to move
by itself to its own angle of 75 degrees with the thigh. Its extreme
motion does not exceed 45 degrees.
16. When the shoulders are quiescent, the clavicles usually meet in an
angle of 110 degrees at the sternum.
17. The utmost elevation of the upper joint of the arm generally forms
an angle of 155 degrees with the vertebræ, and about 125 degrees with
the line of its clavicle. The flexion of the fore-arm upon its upper
part is confined to an angle of nearly 40 degrees.
18. The whole arm is capable of moving forward or outward through
nearly 80 degrees, and backward to nearly the same angle with its
perpendicular station.
19. The actions of pronation and supination in the hand, range through
all intermediate degrees from a horizontal or perpendicular direction
to 270 degrees; but 90 degrees of its rotary motion in pronation comes
from the shoulder joint.
20. The palm of the hand admits of flexion and extension to 65 degrees
in each direction; its lateral motions are 35 outward, and 30 inward.
The flexion of the fingers at each phalanx is a right angle.
But it must be observed that in drawing the joints, very considerable
difference is found in their length, from inequality of action. The
elbow joint, when bent inward, lengthens the arm nearly one eighth; the
same general law operates on the knees, fingers, &c. When a man is at
rest, and standing on both feet, a line drawn perpendicularly between
the clavicles will fall central between his feet. Should he stand on
one foot, it falls upon the heel of that foot which supports his weight.
If he raises one arm, it will throw as much of his body on the other
side as nature requires to support the equilibrium. One of his legs
thrown back brings the breast forward, to preserve the gravity of the
figure: the same will be observed in all other motions of the parts to
keep the central gravitation in its proper place.
The equipoise of a figure is of two sorts: simple, when its action
relates to itself; and compound, when it refers to a second object.
The equilibrium of nature is constantly preserved; for in walking,
leaping, running, &c., similar precautions are taken. By the
flexibility of our bodies in striking, according to the proportionate
force meant to be employed, the body is first drawn back, then the limb
propelled forward, bringing with it the weight of the body.
In striking, lifting, throwing, &c., a greater proportion of force is
employed than may be necessary to effect the intended purpose. This is
mentioned because, in representation, the force employed in an action
should be marked in the muscle producing that action; if it be marked
rather stronger than may be necessary, the cause is obvious, for Nature
so employs her powers.
In studying this art, students should have selected for them the best
examples to copy from at first; then they should draw from the figure
as soon as possible, and if it be possible from the best specimens
of the antique. Their first drawings are recommended to be made with
chalk, and in large proportion; attention to these will communicate
ease and freedom to their future performances.
It will be likewise found necessary for them to draw upon geometrical
principles; this communicates a truth, which greatly adds to their
certainty and confidence, and ultimately to their ease.
This is mentioned, because it will be found that there is no portion
of the human frame, quiescent, or in an active state, but what is
susceptible of geometrical definition.
Experience and exercise communicate truths which produce certainty,
whence come ease and grace.
ARCHITECTURE.
This is a science most beneficial to humanity. It is very evident that
it must have an extremely ancient origin. The origin of this art is
presumed to have been imitated by man, from those natural caves and
recesses, which are discovered in various parts of the earth. For in
those, it is reported, the first men took shelter from the inclemency
of elemental strife, and to avoid the piercing contingencies of
ultimate and precarious uncertainty. The oldest buildings in the world
are accordingly said to be beneath the surface of the earth; among
which are reckoned the famous temple of Elephanta, in the Delta of the
Ganges; the Catacombs, in Egypt; and upon the surface of the earth, the
tower of Belus, at Babylon; the Egyptian Mausoleum, and the Druidical
Temples in Gaul and Britain.
Architecture may well be denominated one of those arts which
accommodate, delight, and give consequence to the human species;
while at the same time it is calculated to flatter pride, and gratify
vanity. If viewed in its full extent, it may be truly said to possess
a very considerable portion, not only of the comforts, but the
conveniences, the positive utilities, and many of the luxuries of life.
The advantages derived from _houses_ only are very great, being the
first step towards civilization, having great influence both on the
body and mind of man. Secluded from each other in woods, caves, and
wretched huts, the inhabitants of such recesses are generally found to
be men, indolent, dull, inactive, and abject; their faculties benumbed,
their views limited to the gratification of their individual and
most pressing wants. But when societies are formed, and commodious
dwellings provided, where well sheltered, they may breathe a temperate
air, amid summer’s scorching heat, and winter’s biting cold; sleep,
when Nature requires, in ease and security; study unmolested; converse
and taste the sweets of social enjoyments;--they are spirited, active,
ingenious, and enterprising, vigorous in body, and active in mind.
If benefits like these previously enumerated result from any art,
then will that of the architect claim a decided pre-eminence. When we
reflect on the almost infinity of useful purposes to which this art is
conducive;--that it erects us temples for the worship of our Creator,
the benevolent dispenser of all good things, that it provides us with
habitations, where ease and simplicity are agreeably combined;--that
it is conducive to our safety, comfort, and convenience, in uniting
different districts of the country by the facility of bridges, roads,
&c., is contributive to the gratification of our natural wants, and to
our safety.
As inhabitants of a great commercial country, the benefits we derive
from _naval_ architecture are unspeakably great; when we reflect that
it operates as a medium of communication between us, an insulated
people, and the whole earth, in its remotest colonies; that it serves
to convey between our people and the most distant nations the native
produce of the respective countries, with the effects of mutual
industry; that it clothes, feeds, and furnishes employment to thousands
of our fellow-countrymen; and, in a national point of view, our wooden
bulwarks have been the wonder of the world, and continues to afford
us protection from our enemies, should all other hopes fail. What can
surpass its utility in the latter point of view? what can exceed the
assistance derived from it? By the criterions formerly mentioned let
us determine. We shall find, that of all the arts the world has ever
boasted, there are but few, if any, that can claim a superiority.
There are no other designs, whether necessary or superfluous, so
certainly productive of their desired object, so beneficial in
consequences, or so permanent in their effects, as is the art of the
architect. Most other inventions which afford pleasure and satisfaction
soon decay; their fashion fluctuates--their value is lost; but the
productions of architecture command general attention, and are lasting
monuments, beyond the reach of ephemeral modes: they proclaim to
distant ages the consequence, genius, virtues, achievements, and
munificence of those they commemorate to the latest posterity. The
most obvious and immediate advantages of building are, the employment
of numerous ingenious artificers, industrious workmen, and labourers
of all kinds; converting materials of small value into the most noble
productions, beautifying countries, multiplying the comforts and
conveniences of life.
But not the least desirable effects of the architect’s art, perhaps,
remain yet to be noticed, in affording to the numerous train of
arts and manufactures, concerned to furnish and adorn the works of
architecture, which employ thousands, constituting many valuable
branches of commerce. Also from that certain concourse of strangers to
every country celebrated for stately structures, who extend your fame
into other countries, where otherwise, it would never have been heard
of; adopt your fashions, give reputation, and create a demand for your
productions in foreign parts; these are circumstances which certainly
should not be too lightly valued, and these circumstances result from
architecture.
At this day, the ruins of ancient Rome support the splendour of the
modern city, by inviting travellers, who flock, from all nations,
to witness those majestic remains of former grandeur. The same may
be said of many other countries famous for architectural remains.
Thus architecture, by supplying men with commodious habitations,
procures that health of body and energy of mind, which facilitates the
invention of arts: when by the exertion of their skill and industry,
productions multiply beyond domestic demand, she furnishes the means of
transporting them to foreign markets: whenever by commerce they acquire
wealth, she points the way to employ their riches rationally, nobly,
and benevolently, in methods honourable and useful to themselves, and
beneficial to posterity, which add splendour to the state, and yield
benefit to their descendants. She further teaches them to defend her
possessions, to secure their liberties and lives from attempts of
lawless violence or unrestrained ambition. So variously conducive to
human happiness is this art, to the wealth and safety of nations,--so,
naturally, does it demand that protection and encouragement which has
ever been yielded it in all well governed states.
The perfection of virtuous other arts we have beheld to be a
consequence of this; for when building is encouraged, painting,
sculpture, and every species of decorative art will flourish of
course. It should not, however, be imagined that the heaping of stone
upon stone can be of consequence, or reflect honour on individuals
or nations. The practice of architecture infers actual art to be an
essential preliminary; without this, and having some laudable end in
view, it is apt to raise disgust. This art is generally classed under
three distinct heads, viz., Civil, Military, and Naval Architecture.
In the first attempts of architecture it was extremely rude, as
might naturally be expected. It has, however, from time to time, as
improvements have advanced, been raised to relative importance, as the
education of the people progressed; and it certainly gives the best
record of the mental progress of every people which can be collected.
It has always been found to flourish best in free states, and when
the rulers have possessed genius, virtue, and good taste. The most
eminent era of Grecian architecture was when the Athenian republic was
under the direction of Pericles; at this period, also, existed the
first of statuaries, Praxiteles. Where that eminent artist and their
admirable architects were employed, in the words of Pausanius, “they
rendered the whole of Acropolis as an entire ornament.” There are
various characteristic distinctions to be made in the several orders of
architecture which distinguish the Grecian people. The Doric is eminent
for primeval simplicity; the Tuscan embraces more ornament; the Ionic
unites simplicity and elegance; but the sum of all excellence appears
to be united in the Corinthian. The Composite is also a most elegant
order, but appears to have added but little to the Corinthian elegance
and majesty. Various nations have a great diversity of architecture;
as the Egyptian, Persian (distinguished by human figures supporting
entablatures), Hindostanee, Arabasque or Marisquo, which are very
peculiar, generally having the walls to project most at the top, which
is indicative of the natural jealousy of all oriental people; they all
regarding their _women_ as their chief treasure, it appears meant for
their especial protection.
A greater simplicity does not appear anywhere than in the architecture
of the Druids, consisting of most extensive circles of immense stones,
chiefly raised perpendicularly, with occasionally a larger stone placed
upon the apex of two others horizontally.--There are in Great Britain
numerous remains of these constructions: the chief are Stonehenge, near
Salisbury; at Avebury, also in Wiltshire; Pomonca, in the Orkneys;
Rollright, in Oxfordshire. But the most eminent spot for Druid temples
was Mona, in Anglesea, in Wales. The reason for such apparently
unmeaning erections will be found in their peculiar belief, in the
religion they professed.
The Saxon is a very heavy order of architecture. It was used in this
kingdom much in the erection of religious edifices, and is frequently
found mixed with the Norman in such structures. The grand and most
obvious distinction is a semi-circular arch, with massy columns,
variously ornamented, and most frequently the columns which support the
same arch are diversely sculptured. The chief sculptures of this kind
in Britain, are Gloucester Cathedral; Malmesbury Abbey, Wilts; Sedbury
Church, Herefordshire; several churches in Rutland, Lincoln, Somerset,
Devon, and other counties.
There appears to us to be no order of architecture better calculated
for the purpose to which it is generally adopted, than the chaste and
pure Norman style, barbarously denominated Gothic. It affords a great
variety of light, airy beauty, and tasteful grandeur.
In this country, the Norman order succeeded the Saxon, and we lost
nothing by the exchange; for even now, that we have the entire benefit
of a choice of the purest Grecian (since its revival by Inigo Jones),
it is a matter of taste to be certain; but in our estimation, the
chaste Norman is to be preferred to the purest Grecian, for the
purposes for which it is intended; and if the means answer the ultimate
end, we submit this to be the proper criterion for preference. We find
it usually employed in religious edifices; it is pure, light, airy,
and cheerful: and we are of opinion that the service of gratitude
and thanks to the Creator demands a disposition of mind which these
feelings are best calculated to inspire.
Domestic architecture is various, and chiefly regulated by the various
purposes for which it is designed. Its characteristic is utility.
CHAIN-BRIDGES.
(See Frontispiece.)
It appears, from a description of bridges of suspension, communicated
by R. Stephenson, civil engineer, some time ago, to the “Philosophical
Journal,” that the first chain-bridge constructed in this country is
believed to be one over the Tees, forming a communication between the
counties of Durham and York. It is supposed, on good authority, to
have been erected about 1741, and is described in the “Antiquities
of Durham” as “a bridge suspended on iron chains, stretched from
rock to rock, over a chasm nearly sixty feet deep, for the passage
of travellers, particularly miners. This bridge is seventy feet in
length, and little more than two feet broad, with a hand-rail on one
side, and planked in such a manner that the traveller experiences all
the tremulous motion of the chain, and sees himself suspended over
a roaring gulf, on an agitated and restless gangway, to which few
strangers dare trust themselves.” In 1816-17, two or three bridges of
iron were constructed; the first, by Mr. Lees, an extensive woollen
manufacturer, at Galashiels, in Scotland. This experiment, although
made with slender wire, and necessarily imperfect in its construction,
deserves to be noticed, as affording a practical example of the
tenacity of iron so applied.--These wire bridges were suspended not
upon the catemarian principle so successfully adopted in the larger
works subsequently undertaken, but by means of diagonal braces,
radiating from their points of suspension on either side towards the
centre of the roadway. The unfortunate fabric next mentioned was
constructed on this defective principle. Among the earliest practical
exhibitions of this novel architecture in the United Kingdom, may be
mentioned the uncommonly elegant and light chain-bridge which was
thrown over the Tweed at Dryburgh, in 1817, by the Earl of Buchan, for
the accommodation of foot passengers. Its length, between the points
of suspension, was two hundred and sixty-one feet, being considered
the greatest span of any bridge in the kingdom. This useful structure,
the theme of such just applause, and which harmonised so finely with
the far-famed scenery of Dryburgh Abbey, was entirely destroyed by a
tremendous gale of wind, at the beginning of the year following its
erection.--This bridge was subsequently restored upon a more secure
system.
CLOCKS.
The invention of clocks, such as are now in use, is ascribed to
Pacificus, Archdeacon of Verona, who died in 846; but they were not
known in England before the year 1368. They were ultimately improved by
the application of pendulums, in 1657, by Huygens, a Dutch astronomer
and mathematician. Although Dr. Beckmann differs in some slight degree
from the previous relation concerning clocks, yet he says, “It is
sufficiently apparent that clocks, moved by wheels and weights, began
certainly to be used in the monasteries of Europe, about the eleventh
century.” He does not think, however, that Europe has a claim to the
honour of the invention, but that it is rather to be ascribed to the
Saracens; this conjecture, he confesses, is chiefly supported by what
Trithemius tells us, of one which was sent by the Sultan of Egypt to
Frederick II., in 1232. He thinks that the writers of that century
speak of clocks as though they had been then well known; he adds, that
in the fourteenth century, mention is made of the machine of Richard de
Wallingford, which has hitherto been considered as the oldest clock
known. The fabricator of this machine called it _Albion_.
It appears that clocks had been hitherto shut up in monasteries and
other religious houses, and that it was not till after this time
they were employed for more general purposes, as the convenience of
cities, &c. The first instance on record, that has been yet noticed,
occurs where Herbert, Prince of Carrara, caused the first clock that
was ever publicly exposed, to be erected at Padua. It was erected by
John Dondi, whose family afterwards, in consequence, had the pronomen
of Horologia assigned them, in remembrance of this circumstance: it
is also mentioned on the tombstone of the artist. The family of Dondi
now followed the profession of manufacturing clocks; for his son, John
Dondi, constructed one upon improved principles.
The first clock at Bologna was put up in the year 1356. Some time after
the year 1364, Charles V., surnamed the Wise, King of France, caused a
clock to be placed in the tower of his palace, by Henry de Wyck, whom
he had invited from Germany for the purpose, because there was then at
Paris no artist of that kind, and to whom he assigned a salary of six
sols per diem, with free lodgings in the Tower. Towards the end of that
century, probably about the year 1370, Strasburg had a clock. About
the same period, Courtray was celebrated for its clock, which the Duke
of Burgundy carried away, A. D. 1382. A public clock was erected in
the Altburg gate at Spire, in 1395, the works of which cost fifty-one
florins.
The greater part of the principal cities of Europe, however, at this
period, had clocks without striking. Clocks could not be procured but
at a very great expense: of this, an instance occurred in the city of
Auxerre, in the year 1483, when the magistrates being desirous of a
clock, but discovering that it would cost more money than they thought
themselves justified in expending on their own authority, applied to
the Emperor Charles VIII. for leave to employ a portion of the public
funds for that purpose.
In 1462, a public clock was put up in the church of the Virgin Mary at
Nuremberg.
At Venice a public clock was put in the year 1497. In the same century
an excellent clock was put up for Cosmo de Medici, by Lorenzo, a
Florentine.
Having thus mentioned their origin in various places, until they came
to ornament the religious houses, the palaces of kings, and the chief
European cities, it now remains for us to take some notice of their
existence in our own country for public use. From public documents
still extant, it appears that so great was their expense considered in
those early times of their introduction, that it was only the powerful
and the rich who could procure them. We discover that the first clock
for public and lay purposes in England was one erected on the north
side of Old Palace Yard, Westminster, on which was this inscription,
_Discite justitiam moniti_; which inscription is said to have been
preserved many years after the clock-house had been decayed.
It is asserted that this clock was placed in that situation, for the
purpose of being heard by the members of the courts of law; and the
occasion which produced its existence is thus recorded. It was the
produce of a fine levied upon the lord chief justice of the court of
King’s Bench, in the reign of Edward I. A. D. 1288, of whom it appears
by a book called the “Year-Book,” that this magistrate had been fined
800 marks for making an alteration in a record, wherein a defendant had
been fined 13_s._ 4_d._, and he, the chief justice, made it appear to
be 6_s._ 8_d._ instead of that, the larger sum.