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[Illustration: CHAIN BRIDGE. See page 68.]
A
HISTORICAL ACCOUNT
OF
USEFUL INVENTIONS
AND
SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES:
BEING A MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION AND
ENTERTAINMENT.
BY GEORGE GRANT,
AUTHOR OF “PANORAMA OF SCIENCE,” “THE HISTORY OF LONDON,”
ETC. ETC.
LONDON:
PARTRIDGE AND OAKEY.
MDCCCLII.
PREFACE.
It has been demonstrated that the desire of obtaining knowledge is one
of the most natural, and, at the same time, most ennobling attributes
of the human mind. There is at the present time a great number of
inquiring minds among the working classes of this kingdom, and a still
greater number of the young of all classes thirsting for information,
who in entering upon a course of general reading must be greatly at
a loss for many things which are familiarly alluded to in ordinary
conversation, with which everybody is understood to be acquainted, or
would have people to think so, but which, in reality, are only familiar
to persons who have been living for a considerable time in intimate
converse with the world.
The “Historical Account of Useful Inventions and Discoveries in
Science,” is intended in some measure to supply such information to the
anxious inquirer after knowledge. Of the numerous articles here treated
of, it will be perceived that each has been traced to its origin in
as lucid a style as possible, and in so doing we have endeavoured to
combine instruction with amusement. As a proof of this we need only
refer to the table of Contents.
CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Printing 11
Stereotype 25
Engraving on Wood 27
” ” Copper 28
” ” Steel 30
Lithography 32
Paper 36
Paper Hanging 41
Painting 45
Statuary 48
Drawing 55
Architecture 62
Chain Bridges 68
Clocks 69
Watches 74
Water Clocks 77
Spinning 80
Stocking Manufacture 84
Coaches 95
Saddles, &c. 104
Horse-Shoes 107
Gunpowder 111
Guns 114
Astronomy 119
Navigation 155
Light-Houses 159
Electricity 167
Electric Telegraph 169
Steam-Engines 171
Mills 195
Saw-Mills 211
Forks 214
Music 219
Sealing-Wax, Seals, &. 228
Black Lead Pencils 234
Coloured Glass 236
Etching on Glass, and Glass-cutting 240
Hydrometers 246
USEFUL INVENTIONS.
PRINTING.
Among the many arts and sciences cultivated in society, some are
only adapted to supply our natural wants, or assist our infirmities;
some are mere instruments of luxury, calculated to flatter pride,
to gratify vanity, and to satisfy our desires of every description;
whilst others tend at once to secure, to accommodate, delight, and give
consequence to man. Of this latter kind, Printing undoubtedly stands
pre-eminent; and if viewed in its full extent, it may be truly said to
possess a very considerable portion not only of the comforts, but the
conveniences and positive utilities of life. The advantages derived
from this invention must be acknowledged by all,--this art has proved
the principal step towards civilization: by it has Christianity been
propagated; and by its powerful means are we made acquainted with all
that is useful in knowledge, in art, and science. It would take the pen
of an inspired writer to enumerate all the blessings which flow from
it. It is a patent engine which possesses a preponderating influence
over the mind of man either for good or evil, according as it is used.
As we proceed we will have frequent occasion to express our feelings
in grateful eulogium, when considering the benefits resulting to
society from various ingenious inventions and discoveries; but when
we consider the advantages derived from the typographic art, it
appears like a vortex, drawing every other sensation into its deep
interest, and engulphing every consideration, so that we can think of
nothing but printing, and its extensive catalogue of benefits. This
interest is wonderfully increased, whether it be viewed on account of
its ingenuity, the extent of its benefits, or the benevolence of its
objects. In whatever point of view we behold it, whether as a medium
for giving the utmost facility to the despatch of the common concerns
of life; or as affording the eager mind of the philosophic inquirer
the ready means to gratify the inquisitive thirst of his knowledge;
in every species of mental intelligence, the rapid facility which it
affords to the multiplication of those mediums of communication, by
which knowledge is promulgated in every part of the earth. We are at
a loss for a term sufficiently comprehensive to express our sense of
the infinite importance of those advantages which accrue to mankind
from the invention of an art so replete with important consequences,
which we hourly perceive to emanate from typography. We need therefore
scarcely offer an apology for inserting a brief history of this divine
art in our pages.
The earliest specimens of printing which have been discovered, consist
in the stamped marks on the bricks and tiles used in building the tower
and city of Babel, and which may be dated as far back as two thousand
two hundred years before Christ. A number of these stamped clay
materials of Babel are still preserved in antiquarian repositories. It
is remarkable that they generally differ in shape and appearance, and
that the letters or words, which are in ancient character, seem to have
been stamped by the hand with moveable blocks. In Trinity College,
Cambridge, some curious specimens are preserved, one of which is a
round piece of clay, seven inches in height, and three in thickness
at the end, resembling a barrel, being thickest at the middle. This
interesting relic, this Chaldean book, is entirely covered with lines
of letters and words running from the one end to the other; from its
portable character it may be called a _pocket volume_, and one which
cannot be less than four thousand years old. It is mounted on a marble
pedestal, covered with a glass case, secured by an iron bracket, and
so contrived that the curious inspector may cause it to revolve on its
marble base; but the greatest care is taken of this valuable relic of
antiquity. It appears to have been printed by two moulds, and at the
middle of the circumference a small blank square has been left, in case
as it is supposed, room should be required for a portion of the clay to
escape in the action of compression.
Next to these extremely ancient stamped bricks, in point of interest
and antiquity, are specimens of the earliest engraving of letters on
stone. We are informed by various historical writers that Cadmus, a
Phœnician, who lived one thousand five hundred years before Christ, at
a period contemporary with Moses, and who was esteemed as the builder
of the city of Thebes, was the first who taught the Greeks the use of
alphabetic symbols, an art he most likely acquired from the Hebrews.
The most ancient specimen of an engraved inscription now known to
be extant, is the Sigean Inscription, so called from having been
disinterred upon a promontory named Sigeum, situate near the ancient
city of Troy, in Phrygia. It is engraved on a pillar of beautifully
white marble, nine feet high, two feet broad, and eight inches thick,
and which, from the inscription, served as the pedestal of the heathen
god Hermocrates. The letters used in this inscription are the capitals
of the Grecian language, though rudely cut, but read from right to
left like the Hebrew. This specimen of engraving must be about three
thousand years old.
Another not less interesting relic of the earliest age of printing is
found in a Roman signet ring or stamp, approaching in character to that
species of stamp now used by the post-office on letters. This curiosity
is preserved in the British Museum. It is the very earliest specimen we
possess of printing, by means of ink or any similar substance. It is
made of metal, a sort of Roman brass; the ground of which is covered
with a green kind of verdigris rust, with which antique medals are
usually covered. The letters rise flush up to the elevation of the
exterior rim which surrounds it. Its dimensions are, about two inches
long, by one inch broad. At the back of it is a small ring for the
finger, to promote the convenience of holding it. As no person of the
name which is inscribed upon it is mentioned in Roman History, he is
therefore supposed to have been a functionary of some Roman officer,
or private steward, and who, perhaps, used this stamp to save himself
the trouble of writing his name. A stamp somewhat similar, in the
Greek character, is in the possession of the Antiquarian Society, of
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
It will be perceived that however curious these relics of antiquity may
be, they do not bear any connection with the art of printing books. The
origin of this invention seems to be quite independent of a preceding
knowledge of impressing by means of stamps. What is, however, worthy
of remark, the art of printing books, though on a rude principle, was
known and in use among the Chinese, at least one thousand four hundred
years before it was invented in Europe. The printing of the Chinese
has never resembled anything of the kind in this country. From the
first it has been conducted without moveable types. Each page has
been, and continues to be, a block or cut stamp, which is thus useful
for only one subject--so that every book must have its own blocks. No
press is used. The paper being thin, when laid on the block receives
the impression by being smoothed over with a brush. There is reason
to infer that the art of printing, as thus practised by the Chinese,
may have originated through a knowledge of the still more ancient
Chaldean mode of printing by blocks on clay. But we may expect, from
the well-known ingenuity of the Chinese, and their (in general,) having
the organ of imitation so fully developed, that they will not much
longer continue this primitive method of printing, as an enterprising
practical printer has emigrated, with an excellent assortment of
presses, types, &c., from Edinburgh, to conduct his business in the
celestial empire. We wish him all success.
The discovery of the art of printing with moveable types, which took
place in the fifteenth century, in Germany, was considerably aided by a
fashion, which had been some time prevalent, of cutting blocks of wood
into pictures, or representations of scenes illustrative of Scriptural
history, and printing them on paper, simply by the pressure of the
hand, a brush, or cushion behind.
One of the earliest of these wood-cuts is still extant, and represents
the creation of man, as detailed in the book of Genesis. In the centre
of the picture stands a figure, intended for the Divinity, having the
appearance of an old man with flowing garments, a venerable beard, and
rays proceeding from the head; on the ground, before him, lies a human
being, intended for Adam, fast asleep; and from an opening in his side
is seen proceeding the slender figure of a female, meaning Eve, who is
taken by the hand by God, and is apparently receiving His blessing.
The execution of this, and cuts of a similar nature, is of the rudest
description, and is a striking testimony of the low scale of art at
the time. Pictures of this nature, which were bound up into books,
nevertheless, were the immediate forerunners of the great invention
itself. Books of prints, it will naturally be imagined, would soon be
found imperfect, for want of descriptive text; this, therefore, urged
on the great discovery. The manufacturers of the books, at first, cut
single sentences or words, and stamped them below the pictures; but
this not conveying a sufficient idea of the subject represented, an
anxiety arose to give a lengthened description on the opposite pages.
This it seems was, at length, accomplished; still the sentences were
all cut in a piece, and the notion of having separate letters, so as to
form words at pleasure, was unknown at that period. We will now proceed
to the introduction of the modern art of printing.
Ever since the typographic art has been introduced into modern
Europe in its present form, the best, and one of the most certain
criterions,--which prove the undoubted sense of our species,--exists
in the multiplicity of claims which have been made by several cities
for the honour of affording the earliest shelter to the infancy of this
art. It really appears to be a question yet undecided, to what city,
individual, or even era, to attribute this beneficial invention.
However, there is every reason to believe that in this art, as well as
in most others, the improvements which have subsequently taken place,
have benefited the art itself, as much as that has benefited mankind:
therefore, the question of its origin does not appear to us to be of so
much importance.
Amidst the claims of various individuals, Mr. Bouzer, in his “Origin of
Printing,” says, that this honour ought to be adjudged to one of the
three cities of Haerlem, Mentz, or Strasburg; of which, in his opinion,
the first named city has best established her legitimate right. “But it
appears,” to use his own words, “that all those cities, in a qualified
sense, may claim it, considering the improvements they have made upon
each other.”
The real and original inventor of the modern art of printing, as at
first used, and from whence the improved practice is descended, was
one Laurentius, of Haerlem; who, however, proceeded no further than to
cut separate wooden letters. There is every reason to believe that, at
first, these wooden forms were made upon the principle of the _forma
literarum_ of the Romans. This Laurentius, it appears, made his first
essay about the year 1430; he died ten years afterwards, having first
printed the “Horarium,” the “Speculum Belgicum,” and two editions of
“Donatus.”
The individual on whom history most generally places the honour of
being the earliest discoverer of the art of printing by means of
moveable letters, or types, was John Guttenberg, a citizen of Mayence,
or Mentz, who flourished from the year 1436 to 1466, in the reign
of Frederick III. of Germany. The ingenious Guttenburg was born at
Mayence, in the beginning of the fifteenth century, and removed to
Strasburg about the year 1424, or, perhaps rather earlier. Here he
became acquainted with the above-named Laurentius, with whom he
proceeded to Haerlem, and continued in the employment of Laurentius
for some time. However, he returned to Strasburg, where, in 1435, he
entered into partnership with Andrew Dritzehan, John Riff, and Andrew
Heelman, citizens of Strasburg, binding himself to disclose to them
some important secrets, by which they would make their fortunes.
The workshop was in the house of Dritzehan, who dying, Guttenberg
immediately sent his servant, Lawrence Beildick, to Nicholas, the
brother of the deceased, and requested that no person might be admitted
into the workshop, lest the secret should be discovered, and the
_forms_ stolen. But they had already disappeared; and this fraud, as
well as the claims of Nicholas Dritzehan, to succeed to his brother’s
share, produced a law-suit among the surviving partners. Five witnesses
were examined; and from the evidence of Guttenburg’s servants, it was
incontrovertibly proved that Guttenberg was the first that practised
the art of printing with moveable types in Strasburg; and that on
the death of Andrew Dritzehan, he had expressly ordered the forms to
be broken up, and the types dispersed, lest any one should discover
his secret. The words given in his order, which were supported by
documentary evidence, were these--“Go, take the component parts of
the press, and pull them to pieces; then, no one will understand what
they mean.” In the same document mention is made of _four forms_, kept
together by _two screws_, or _press spindles_, and of letters and pages
being cut up and destroyed.
It has been asserted that Guttenberg stole the types from Laurentius,
with which he repaired to Strasburg, and commenced business; but of
this we can find no corroboration. It has also been said that upon this
occasion, Guttenberg stole his own materials, but this is likewise
unauthenticated.
The result of this law-suit, which occurred in 1439, was a dissolution
of partnership; and Guttenberg, after having exhausted his means in
the effort, proceeded, in 1445, to his native city of Mentz, where he
resumed his typographic labours.
Being ambitious of making his extraordinary invention known, and of
value to himself, but being at the same time deficient in the means, he
opened his mind to a wealthy goldsmith and worker in precious metals,
named John Fust, or Faust, and prevailed on him to advance large sums
of money, in order to make further and more complete trials of the
art. Guttenberg, being thus associated with Faust, the first regular
printing office was begun, and the business carried on in a style
corresponding to the infancy of the art. After many smaller essays in
trying the capabilities of a press and moveable types, Guttenberg had
the hardihood to attempt an edition of the Bible, which he succeeded
in printing complete between the years 1450 and 1455. This celebrated
Bible, which was the first important specimen of the art of printing,
and which, judging from what it has led to, we should certainly esteem
as the most extraordinary and praiseworthy of human productions, was
executed with cut metal types, on six hundred and thirty-seven leaves;
and, from a copy still in existence in the Royal Library of Berlin,
some appear to have been printed on vellum. The work was printed in the
Latin language.
The execution of this--the first printed Bible--which has justly
conferred undying honours on the illustrious Guttenberg, was most
unfortunately, the immediate cause of his ruin. The expenses incident
to carrying on a fatiguing and elaborate process of workmanship, for
a period of five years, being much more considerable than what were
originally contemplated by Faust, he instituted a suit against poor
Guttenberg, who, in consequence of the decision against him, was
obliged to pay interest, and also a part of the capital that had been
advanced. This suit was followed by a dissolution of partnership; and
the whole of Guttenberg’s materials fell into the hands of John Faust.
Besides the above-mentioned Bible, some other specimens of the work of
Guttenberg have been discovered to be in existence. One in particular,
which is worthy of notice, was found some years ago, among a bundle
of old papers, in the archives of Mayence. It is an almanack for the
year 1457, which served as a cover for a register of accounts for that
year. This would most likely be printed towards the close of the year
1456, and may, consequently, be deemed the most ancient specimen of
typographic printing extant, with a certain date.
Antiquaries and Bibliomaniacs have found considerable difficulty
in ascertaining by what process Guttenberg manufactured types; but
it appears to be the prevalent opinion, that those which he first
used were individually cut by the hand; and being all made as near a
height and thickness as possible, they were thus put together in the
forms. The cutting of these types must have been a tedious, as well as
laborious, occupation. This ingenious man, however, soon discovered
the mode of casting his types, by means of moulds; for without this
great accessory to the art of printing, he conceived it was next to
impossible to carry on his business. The art of type-founding is
therefore given to John Guttenberg, in which it would appear he has had
no competitor for the honour; but, it is but justice to state that the
plan of striking the moulds with punches was a subsequent invention
of Peter Schoeffer, his successor, who became partner with Faust, and
afterwards his son-in-law.
That Guttenberg was a person of refined taste in the execution of
his works, is sufficiently obvious to every person who has had the
opportunity of seeing any of them. Adopting a very ancient custom
common in the written copies of the Scriptures and the missals of the
church, he used a large ornamental letter at the commencement of books
and chapters, finely embellished, and surrounded with a variety of
figures as in a frame. The initial letter of the first psalm thus forms
a splendid specimen of the art of printing in its early progress. It is
richly ornamented with foliage, flowers, a bird, and a greyhound, and
is still more beautiful from being printed in a pale blue colour, while
the embellishments are red, and of a transparent appearance.
What became of Guttenberg immediately after the unsuccessful
termination of his law-suit with Faust, is not well known. Like the
illustrious discoverer of the great Western Continent, he seems to have
retired almost broken-hearted from the service of an ungrateful world,
and to have spent most of the remainder of his days in obscurity. It
is ascertained, however, that, in 1465, he received an annual pension
from the Elector Adolphus, but that he only enjoyed this trifling
compensation for his extraordinary invention for a period of three
years, and died in February 1468.
John Faust, who as we have seen, obtained the materials of Guttenberg,
laid claim to the invention, which has been granted to him by
several. Having sufficient capital at his command, he pushed the
trade with great advantage to himself. In the Bibles which he printed
he frequently omitted the capital and initial letters, leaving them
blank for illumination in gold or azure; this was designedly done
for the purpose of imposing upon the public printed copies for M.S.
transcripts. The report which is in circulation concerning Faust,
appears to come in support of this assertion: it being said he was
at Paris, and offering a quantity of his Bibles for sale as M.S. The
French, considering the number of them, and also remarking the exact
similarity and accuracy of them, even to a single point, concluded it
was impossible for the most accurate copyist to have transcribed them
so correctly. They suspected him of necromancy, and either actually
indicted him, or threatened to do, as a magician; and by this means
obtained his secret: whence came the origin of the popular story of Dr.
Faustus, his dealing with the devil, and tragical death.
In 1462, when Mentz was plundered and disfranchised of its former
liberties, printing rapidly spread through a great part of Europe,
particularly its artizans in that branch of art, settled at Haerlem,
Hamburgh, and other places; from Haerlem it travelled to Rome in 1466,
when the Roman character was adopted in 1467, and soon perfected.
In the reign of Henry VI., the Archbishop of Canterbury sent R.
Turnour, master of the robes, and W. Caxton, merchant, to Haerlem,
to learn the art. These individuals privately prevailed upon one
Corselis, an under workman to come to England: and a printing press was
established at Oxford. This appears in a MS. chronicle still preserved;
it informs us, that the execution of the concern entrusted to Turnour
and Caxton cost 1500 marks; and that printing was established at Oxford
before there was any printer or printing presses in France, Italy, or
Spain.
The University of Oxford press was soon discovered to be too remote
from the seat of government, and too great a distance from the sea,
other presses were speedily established at St. Alban’s and the Abbey of
Westminster.
In 1467, printing was established at Tours, at Reuthlingen, and Venice,
in 1469; and it is likely at the same period at Paris, where several of
the German printers were invited by the Doctors of the Sorbonne, who
established a press in that city.
All important as the art of printing is acknowledged to be, yet
three centuries elapsed from the date of the invention before it was
perfected in many of its most necessary details. At first the art
was kept entirely in the hands of learned men, the greatest scholars
often glorying in affixing their names to the works as correctors of
the press, and giving names to the various parts of the mechanism of
the printing-office, as is testified by the classical technicalities
still in use among the workmen. From the great improvement of punching
moulds for casting types by Schoeffer, as formerly mentioned, till
the invention of italic letters by Aldus Manutius, to whom learning
is much indebted, no other improvement of any consequence took place.
It does not appear that mechanical ingenuity was at any time directed
to the improvement of the presses or any other part of the machinery
used in printing, and the consequence was, that till far on in the
eighteenth century, the clumsy presses, which were composed of wood and
iron, and slow and heavy in working, were allowed to screech on as they
had done since the days of Guttenberg, Faust, and Caxton, while the
ink continued to be applied by means of two stuffed balls, at a great
expense of time and labour.
At length, an almost entire revolution was effected in the printing
office, both in the appearance of the workmanship and the mechanism
of the presses. About the same period the art of stereotyping was
discovered, and developed a completely new feature in the history
of printing. One of the chief improvements in typography was, the
discarding of the long s, and every description of contraction; while,
at the same time, the formation of the letters was executed with more
neatness, and greater regularity.
Among the first improvers of the printing press, the most honourable
place is due to the Earl of Stanhope, a nobleman who will be long
remembered for his mechanical genius; besides applying certain lever
powers to the screw and handle of the old wooden press, by which the
labour of the workman was diminished, and finer work effected; he
constructed a press wholly of iron, which is known by his name.
Since the beginning of the present century, and more especially within
the last thirty years, presses wholly of iron, on the nicest scientific
principles, have been invented by men of mechanical genius, so as to
simplify the process of printing in an extraordinary degree; and the
invention of presses composed of cylinders, and wrought by steam, has
triumphantly crowned the improvements in this art. The alteration
effected by steam power has been as great in the printing business,
as in any branch whatever; for example, with the old wooden press,
it took a man two days to complete 1000 sheets, (that is, printed on
both sides); whereas the London “Times,” by means of the steam press
completes 24,000 in one hour! Almost every newspaper in the kingdom is
printed by cylinder-presses, although some are worked by hand instead
of steam; they are also used in other departments of the printing
business.
The introduction of steam-presses would have been of comparatively
little benefit, if it had not been furthered by another invention of a
very simple nature, now of great value to the printer. We here allude
to the invention of the roller for applying the ink, instead of the old
clumsy and inefficient balls. The roller, which is simply a composition
of glue and treacle, cast upon wooden centre-pieces, was invented by a
journeyman printer from Edinburgh, about thirty years ago, and was so
much appreciated by the trade, as at once to spread over the whole of
Europe.
Were it possible to conjure up the spirits of the illustrious
Guttenburg and his contemporaries within the office of the London
“Times,” or some other large printing-office, where everything is
conducted with rapidity, quietness, and order, John Faust might
well think that the printers of the nineteenth century had actually
consummated what he was only accused of in the fifteenth--completed a
compact with the devil!
As it would be a waste of time for us to pretend to describe the
various processes and materials required in this beautiful art, as
we are aware that, without actual observation, no conception can be
formed,--this we know from experience, and though we might, like many
others, have pretended to give a description, we are perfectly aware
that we would have been unintelligible to the majority of our readers,
and very deservedly laughed at for our trouble by any practical printer
who might happen to read our pages; as far as we have gone, however, in
giving a brief historical account of the art of printing, we have no
doubt it will be found correct, as have consulted the best authorities.
STEREOTYPE.
Stereotype, as we have mentioned in the former article, was introduced
about the middle of last century; and as it is so intimately connected
with the art of printing, we could not find a more appropriate place
than immediately following that noble art.--Earl Stanhope has been
named as the inventor; but for this we have not sufficient authority,
and it appears extremely doubtful; as stereotyping appears to have been
invented simultaneously, in various parts of England and Scotland,
by different persons; still it was upwards of sixty years before it
was brought to such perfection as to be applicable for any beneficial
purpose.
When properly made known, it was hailed with approbation by those more
immediately interested--the printers and publishers: but as experience
more fully developed its powers, it was found available only for
particular work. For the better understanding of this art, which is
comparatively little known, we will give a description of the process,
which we are enabled to do by the assistance of an experienced workman.
In _setting_ the types, they are lifted from the case, one by one,
with the right hand, and built in a small iron form, called a
_composing-stick_, held in the left hand of the compositor, who sets
line after line till the stick is filled, when he empties it upon a
_galley_, and commences again in the same manner, till he has got as
much up as will make a page; this page he ties firmly up, and places
upon a smooth stone, or cast iron table. In this manner he continues,
till he gets as many pages as will make a _form_, which consists of
4, 8, 12, or more pages, as the case may be. If this form is to be
worked off at press without stereotyping, the pages are all imposed
in one _chass_, and carried to press for working, and when the whole
of the impression is off, it is thoroughly washed, and carried back
to the compositor for distribution--that is, putting the types in
their proper places. When these pages are to be stereotyped, they are
_imposed_ separately, and carried to the stereotype foundry, where they
are examined, and all dirt taken from the face; they are then slightly
oiled, and a _moulding-frame_ put round each. The frame is filled with
liquid plaster of Paris, which is well rubbed into the face of the type
to expel the air. As soon as this plaster hardens, it is removed from
the page, and shows a complete resemblance of the page from which it is
taken. The mould is put into an oven to dry, where it remains till it
resembles a piece of pottery; it is then put into an iron pan, in which
there is a thin plate of the same metal, called the _floating-plate_;
it has also an iron lid, which is firmly screwed down, and the whole is
immersed in a pot of molten type-metal, which fills the pan by means of
small holes in the corners of the lid. The length of time it remains in
the pot depends upon the heat of the metal, but it is generally from
ten to fifteen minutes, when it is taken out, and put aside to cool.
On opening the pan, nothing is seen but a solid lump of metal, which,
when carefully broke round the mould, a thin plate is obtained from the
mass, exhibiting a perfect appearance of the page from which the mould
was taken.--This is called a stereotype plate, which in general is not
above the eighth of an inch thick, and is printed from in the same
manner as a page of types. Such is the process of stereotyping, which
has become pretty general throughout the trade, but is not much known
to the public.
ENGRAVING.
ON WOOD.
As we have shown in our article on Printing, Wood-engraving was in
fashion prior to the invention of printing. We are informed by Albert
Durer that Engraving on Wood was invented about the year 1520; he may
be a good authority in some matters, but in this he has committed a
mistake of nearly one hundred years; seeing that there is at least
an impression of one engraving on wood, the representation of the
Creation, which was in existence prior to 1430. It was undoubtedly a
piece of rough workmanship; but what could be expected at that early
period of the art? It has been, however, gradually improving ever
since, and it has now attained a point of excellence equal to any
of the fine arts, and calls forth the admiration of every lover of
the beautiful. It would be invidious to select any of the numerous
artists now flourishing--perhaps it would be difficult to make a
selection where so many are upon an equality; and we are of opinion
they themselves are more willing to accept the public approbation as
their reward, than any praise our pen could bestow. All we can do is
to recommend our readers to examine for themselves; they have abundant
opportunities in the numerous illustrated publications that are
daily issued from the press, and bestow that meed of praise upon the
respective artists they may deem proper.
The process of engraving on _wood_ is diametrically distinct and
opposite to that of engraving on _copper_ or _steel_; as in the former,
the shades are produced by the parts of the work which are made most
prominent, and obtrude upon the surface of the substance; whence its
chief merit has been regarded in leaving broad and well-proportioned
lights. The parts to produce this effect being of necessity excavated,
great art and a masterly judgment are necessary to effect this, and at
the same time not to weaken the substance, lest it should be injured in
the pressure necessary to produce an impression.
The substance usually employed for these engravings is wood of a close
grain; on this account box-wood is generally selected. The impressions
are obtained from wood-engravings upon exactly the same principle as
are the impressions from typography; and they can also be worked off
at the same time with the descriptive text. This is a superiority
which wood possesses over other engravings, and recommends itself to
publishers on account of the immense saving in the expense of a double
process in procuring copper-plate illustrations for typographical
works, and enables them to keep pace with the ruling passion of this
literary era--cheap publications.
ON COPPER.
The art of engraving on copper plates, for impressions, is alleged
to have been invented by Peter Schoeffer, one of the early printers,
and son in-law of John Faust, about the year 1450. The honour of this
invention is also claimed by a Florentine goldsmith of the name of
Finguires, who dates his invention in 1540. This artist having used
liquid sulphur to take an impression of some chasing and engraving he
had made, observed a blackness produced by the sulphur left in the
deepest parts of his work, whence he obtained an impression on paper.
But we have no hesitation in giving the preference to Schoeffer, who,
we have previously remarked, was of an ingenious turn, and assisted
Guttenburg in producing moulds for casting his types; in addition to
which, some of the books printed by him are ornamented with head
and tail-pieces, with other rude attempts at engraving; and likewise
because Schoeffer’s claim to the honour was acknowledged before
Finguires was born.
Of engraving there are various kinds; that called by connoisseurs, the
legitimate mode of engraving, is what is termed the _line_ or _stroke_
mode. Numerous have been the British artists who have excelled in this
style, in affording the means of multiplying our graphical productions.
The next species of engraving we will notice is called the _stipple_,
or chalk style,--imitations of chalk drawings. Portraits and historical
pieces are executed in this style, which the celebrated Bartolozzi
brought to perfection.
The third species we will mention, cannot properly be called engraving;
the effect is produced by scraping and rubbing; this kind is called
_chiaro obscuro_, or mezzotinto; producing prints which have the effect
of Indian ink drawings.
A fourth species of engraving is what is commonly used for landscapes,
which produces an effect like a pencil water-colour drawing; which is
called _aquatinta_.
In all of these kinds of engravings upon copper the artists find the
sulphuric acid, or aquafortis, a most powerful agent. Sometimes,
indeed, it is suffered to execute the whole of the process of the
graver, especially when it is called an etching.
For the same reasons as those mentioned with regard to wood engravers,
we shall abstain from naming any of the very eminent artists now living.
We have already observed the mode of obtaining similar effects from
wood and copper, are opposite to each other. The manner in which
impressions from wood engravings are obtained, has likewise been
noticed; and it remains that we observe the mode by which impressions
are obtained from copper-plates. The plate is covered with appropriate
ink; the surface is then carefully cleansed, leaving ink only in the
excavations or lines in the copper. The plate and paper are passed
through a roller press of great power, the roller being covered with a
blanket, which presses the paper into all the crevices of the plate,
and brings away the ink there deposited.
ON STEEL.
For several years steel has been used in great quantities, instead
of copper-plates, by engravers. By this fortunate application of so
durable, and it may be added, so economical a material, not only has
a new field been discovered admirably suited to yield in perfection
the richest and finest graphic productions, which the ingenuity of
modern art can accomplish, but to do so through an amazingly numerous
series of impressions without perceptible deterioration. The art of
engraving on iron or steel for purposes of ornament, and even for
printing, in certain cases, is by no means a discovery of modern times;
but the substitution of the latter for copper, which has invited the
superiority of the British burin to achievements hitherto unattempted
by our artists, is entirely a modern practice.
In the year 1810, Mr. Dyer, an American merchant, residing in London,
obtained a patent for certain improvements in the construction and
method of using plates and presses, &c., the principles of which were
communicated to him by a foreigner residing abroad. This foreigner
was Mr. Jacob Perkin, an ingenious artist of New England, and whose
name has become subsequently so extensively known in this country, in
connection with roller-press printing from hardened steel plates. The
plates used by Mr. Perkins were, on the average, about five-eights of
an inch thick; they were either of steel so tempered as to admit of
the operation of the engraver, or, as was more generally the case,
of steel decarbonated so as to become very pure soft iron, in which
case, after they had received the work on the surface, they were case
hardened by cementation.
The decarbonating process was performed by enclosing the plate of cast
steel properly shaped, in a cast iron box, or case, filled about the
plate to the thickness of about an inch with oxide of iron or rusty
iron filings; in this state the box is luted close, and placed on a
regular fire, where it is kept at a red heat during from three to
twelve days. Generally about nine days is sufficient to decarbonize
a plate five-eighths of an inch in thickness; when the engraving
or etching has been executed, the plate is superficially converted
into steel, by placing it in a box as before, and surrounding it on
all sides by a powder made of equal parts of burned bones, and the
cinders of burned animal matter, such as old shoes or leather. In this
state the box, with its contents, closely luted, must be exposed to a
blood-red heat for three hours; after which, it is taken out of the
fire, and plunged perpendicularly edgeways into cold water, (which has
been previously boiled) to throw off the air. By this means the plate
becomes hardened without the danger of warping or cracking. It is then
tempered or let down by brightening the under surface of the plate with
a bit of stone; after which it is heated by being placed upon a piece
of hot iron, or melted lead, until the rubbed portion acquire a pale
straw-colour. For this purpose, however, the patentee expressed himself
in favour of a bath of oil heated to the temperature of 460 degrees, or
thereabouts of Fahrenheit’s scale. The plate being cooled in water, and
polished on the surface, was ready for use.
A more material peculiarity in Mr. Perkins’ invention, and one which
does not seem to have been approached by any preceding artist, was
the contrivance of what are called _indenting cylinders_. These
are rollers of two or three inches in diameter, and made of steel,
decarbonized by the process above described, so as to be very soft. In
this state they are made to roll backward and forward under a powerful
pressure, over the surface of one of the hardened plates, until all
the figures, letters, or indentations are communicated, with exquisite
precision, in sharp relief upon the cylinder; which, being carefully
hardened and tempered, becomes, by this means, fitted to communicate
an impression to other plates, by an operation similar to that by
which it was originally figured. It will be obvious that one advantage
gained by this method must be the entire saving of the labour and
expense of re-cutting in every case, on different plates, ornaments,
borders, emblematical designs, &c., as these can now be impressed with
little trouble on any number of plates, or in any part thereof, by the
application of the cylinder. At first sight, the performance of such
an operation as the one now alluded to may appear difficult, if not
impracticable; and, indeed, many persons on its first announcement were
disposed to doubt or deny its possibility altogether. With a proper and
powerful apparatus, however, this method of transferring engravings
from plates to cylinders, and _vice versa_, is every day performed with
facility and success, not only in the production of bank notes, labels,
&c., but in works exhibiting very elaborate engravings.
LITHOGRAPHY.