FROM HIS BIRTH TO HIS TAKING HIS B.A. DEGREE AT CAMBRIDGE.
FROM JULY 27TH 1801 TO JANUARY 18TH 1823.
George Biddell Airy was born at Alnwick in Northumberland on July 27th
1801. His father was William Airy of Luddington in Lincolnshire, the
descendant of a long line of Airys who have been traced back with a
very high degree of probability to a family of that name which was
settled at Kentmere in Westmorland in the 14th century. A branch of
this family migrated to Pontefract in Yorkshire, where they seem to
have prospered for many years, but they were involved in the
consequences of the Civil Wars, and one member of the family retired
to Ousefleet in Yorkshire. His grandson removed to Luddington in
Lincolnshire, where his descendants for several generations pursued
the calling of small farmers. George Biddell Airy's mother, Ann Airy,
was the daughter of George Biddell, a well-to-do farmer in Suffolk.
William Airy, the father of George Biddell Airy, was a man of great
activity and strength, and of prudent and steady character. When a
young man he became foreman on a farm in the neighbourhood of
Luddington, and laid by his earnings in summer in order to educate
himself in winter. For a person in his rank, his education was
unusually good, in matters of science and in English literature. But
at the age of 24 he grew tired of country labour, and obtained a post
in the Excise. After serving in various Collections he was appointed
Collector of the Northumberland Collection on the 15th August 1800,
and during his service there his eldest son George Biddell Airy was
born. The time over which his service as Officer and Supervisor
extended was that in which smuggling rose to a very high pitch, and in
which the position of Excise Officer was sometimes dangerous. He was
remarkable for his activity and boldness in contests with smugglers,
and made many seizures. Ann Airy, the mother of George Biddell Airy,
was a woman of great natural abilities both speculative and practical,
kind as a neighbour and as head of a family, and was deeply loved and
respected. The family consisted of George Biddell, Elizabeth, William,
and Arthur who died young.
William Airy was appointed to Hereford Collection on 22nd October
1802, and removed thither shortly after. He stayed at Hereford till he
was appointed to Essex Collection on 28th February 1810, and during
this time George Biddell was educated at elementary schools in
writing, arithmetic, and a little Latin. He records of himself that he
was not a favourite with the schoolboys, for he had very little animal
vivacity and seldom joined in active play with his schoolfellows. But
in the proceedings of the school he was successful, and was a
favourite with his master.
On the appointment of William Airy to Essex Collection, the family
removed to Colchester on April 5th 1810. Here George Biddell was first
sent to a large school in Sir Isaac's Walk, then kept by Mr Byatt
Walker, and was soon noted for his correctness in orthography,
geography, and arithmetic. He evidently made rapid progress, for on
one occasion Mr Walker said openly in the schoolroom how remarkable it
was that a boy 10 years old should be the first in the school. At this
school he stayed till the end of 1813 and thoroughly learned
arithmetic (from Walkingame's book), book-keeping by double entry (on
which knowledge throughout his life he set a special value), the use
of the sliding rule (which knowledge also was specially useful to him
in after life), mensuration and algebra (from Bonnycastle's books). He
also studied grammar in all its branches, and geography, and acquired
some knowledge of English literature, beginning with that admirable
book The Speaker, but it does not appear that Latin and Greek were
attended to at this school. He records that at this time he learned an
infinity of snatches of songs, small romances, &c., which his powerful
memory retained most accurately throughout his life. He was no hand at
active play: but was notorious for his skill in constructing guns for
shooting peas and arrows, and other mechanical contrivances. At home
he relates that he picked up a wonderful quantity of learning from his
father's books. He read and remembered much poetry from such standard
authors as Milton, Pope, Gay, Gray, Swift, &c., which was destined to
prove in after life an invaluable relaxation for his mind. But he also
studied deeply an excellent Cyclopaedia called a Dictionary of Arts
and Sciences in three volumes folio, and learned from it much about
ship-building, navigation, fortification, and many other subjects.
During this period his valuable friendship with his uncle Arthur
Biddell commenced. Arthur Biddell was a prosperous farmer and valuer
at Playford near Ipswich. He was a well-informed and able man, of
powerful and original mind, extremely kind and good-natured, and
greatly respected throughout the county. In the Autobiography of
George Biddell Airy he states as follows:
"I do not remember precisely when it was that I first visited my uncle
Arthur Biddell. I think it was in a winter: certainly as early as the
winter of 1812--13. Here I found a friend whose society I could enjoy,
and I entirely appreciated and enjoyed the practical, mechanical, and
at the same time speculative and enquiring talents of Arthur
Biddell. He had a library which, for a person in middle life, may be
called excellent, and his historical and antiquarian knowledge was not
small. After spending one winter holiday with him, it easily came to
pass that I spent the next summer holiday with him: and at the next
winter holiday, finding that there was no precise arrangement for my
movements, I secretly wrote him a letter begging him to come with a
gig to fetch me home with him: he complied with my request, giving no
hint to my father or mother of my letter: and from that time,
one-third of every year was regularly spent with him till I went to
College. How great was the influence of this on my character and
education I cannot tell. It was with him that I became acquainted with
the Messrs Ransome, W. Cubitt the civil engineer (afterwards Sir
W. Cubitt), Bernard Barton, Thomas Clarkson (the slave-trade
abolitionist), and other persons whose acquaintance I have valued
highly. It was also with him that I became acquainted with the works
of the best modern poets, Scott, Byron, Campbell, Hogg, and others: as
also with the Waverley Novels and other works of merit."
In 1813 William Airy lost his appointment of Collector of Excise and
was in consequence very much straitened in his circumstances. But
there was no relaxation in the education of his children, and at the
beginning of 1814 George Biddell was sent to the endowed Grammar
School at Colchester, then kept by the Rev. E. Crosse, and remained
there till the summer of 1819, when he went to College. The
Autobiography proceeds as follows:
"I became here a respectable scholar in Latin and Greek, to the extent
of accurate translation, and composition of prose Latin: in regard to
Latin verses I was I think more defective than most scholars who take
the same pains, but I am not much ashamed of this, for I entirely
despise the system of instruction in verse composition.
"My father on some occasion had to go to London and brought back for
me a pair of 12-inch globes. They were invaluable to me. The first
stars which I learnt from the celestial globe were alpha Lyrae, alpha
Aquilae, alpha Cygni: and to this time I involuntarily regard these
stars as the birth-stars of my astronomical knowledge. Having
somewhere seen a description of a Gunter's quadrant, I perceived that
I could construct one by means of the globe: my father procured for me
a board of the proper shape with paper pasted on it, and on this I
traced the lines of the quadrant.
"My command of geometry was tolerably complete, and one way in which I
frequently amused myself was by making paper models (most carefully
drawn in outline) which were buttoned together without any cement or
sewing. Thus I made models, not only of regular solids, regularly
irregular solids, cones cut in all directions so as to shew the conic
sections, and the like, but also of six-gun batteries, intrenchments
and fortresses of various kinds &c.
"From various books I had learnt the construction of the steam-engine:
the older forms from the Dictionary of Arts and Sciences; newer forms
from modern books. The newest form however (with the sliding steam
valve) I learnt from a 6-horse engine at Bawtrey's brewery (in which
Mr Keeling the father of my schoolfellow had acquired a
partnership). I frequently went to look at this engine, and on one
occasion had the extreme felicity of examining some of its parts when
it was opened for repair.
"In the mean time my education was advancing at Playford. The first
record, I believe, which I have of my attention to mechanics there is
the plan of a threshing-machine which I drew. But I was acquiring
valuable information of all kinds from the Encyclopaedia Londinensis,
a work which without being high in any respect is one of the most
generally useful that I have seen. But I well remember one of the most
important steps that I ever made. I had tried experiments with the
object-glass of an opera-glass and was greatly astonished at the
appearance of the images of objects seen through the glass under
different conditions. By these things my thoughts were turned to
accurate optics, and I read with care Rutherford's Lectures, which my
uncle possessed. The acquisition of an accurate knowledge of the
effect of optical constructions was one of the most charming
attainments that I ever reached. Long before I went to College I
understood the action of the lenses of a telescope better than most
opticians. I also read with great zeal Nicholson's Dictionary of
Chemistry, and occasionally made chemical experiments of an
inexpensive kind: indeed I grew so fond of this subject that there was
some thought of apprenticing me to a chemist. I also attended to
surveying and made a tolerable survey and map of my uncle's farm.
"At school I was going on successfully, and distinguished myself
particularly by my memory. It was the custom for each boy once a week
to repeat a number of lines of Latin or Greek poetry, the number
depending very much on his own choice. I determined on repeating 100
every week, and I never once fell below that number and was sometimes
much above it. It was no distress to me, and great enjoyment. At
Michaelmas 1816 I repeated 2394 lines, probably without missing a
word. I do not think that I was a favourite with Mr Crosse, but he
certainly had a high opinion of my powers and expressed this to my
father. My father entertained the idea of sending me to College, which
Mr Crosse recommended: but he heard from some college man that the
expense would be _£200_ a year, and he laid aside all thoughts of it.
"The farm of Playford Hall was in 1813 or 1814 hired by Thomas
Clarkson, the slave-trade abolitionist. My uncle transacted much
business for him (as a neighbour and friend) in the management of the
farm &c. for a time, and they became very intimate. My uncle begged
him to examine me in Classical knowledge, and he did so, I think,
twice. He also gave some better information about the probable
expenses &c. at College. The result was a strong recommendation by my
uncle or through my uncle that I should be sent to Cambridge, and this
was adopted by my father. I think it likely that this was in 1816.
"In December 1816, Dealtry's Fluxions was bought for me, and I read it
and understood it well. I borrowed Hutton's Course of Mathematics of
old Mr Ransome, who had come to reside at Greenstead near Colchester,
and read a good deal of it.
"About Ladyday 1817 I began to read mathematics with Mr Rogers
(formerly, I think, a Fellow of Sidney College, and an indifferent
mathematician of the Cambridge school), who had succeeded a Mr Tweed
as assistant to Mr Crosse in the school. I went to his house twice a
week, on holiday afternoons. I do not remember how long I received
lessons from him, but I think to June, 1818. This course was extremely
valuable to me, not on account of Mr Rogers's abilities (for I
understood many things better than he did) but for its training me
both in Cambridge subjects and in the Cambridge accurate methods of
treating them. I went through Euclid (as far as usually read), Wood's
Algebra, Wood's Mechanics, Vince's Hydrostatics, Wood's Optics,
Trigonometry (in a geometrical treatise and also in Woodhouse's
algebraical form), Fluxions to a good extent, Newton's Principia to
the end of the 9th section. This was a large quantity, but I read it
accurately and understood it perfectly, and could write out any one of
the propositions which I had read in the most exact form. My connexion
with Mr Rogers was terminated by _his_ giving me notice that he could
not undertake to receive me any longer: in fact I was too much for
him. I generally read these books in a garret in our house in George
Lane, which was indefinitely appropriated to my brother and myself. I
find that I copied out Vince's Conic Sections in February, 1819. The
first book that I copied was the small geometrical treatise on
Trigonometry, in May, 1817: to this I was urged by old Mr Ransome,
upon my complaining that I could not purchase the book: and it was no
bad lesson of independence to me."
During the same period 1817-1819 he was occupied at school on
translations into blank verse from the Aeneid and Iliad, and read
through the whole of Sophocles very carefully.
The classical knowledge which he thus gained at school and
subsequently at Cambridge was sound, and he took great pleasure in it:
throughout his life he made a practice of keeping one or other of the
Classical Authors at hand for occasional relaxation. He terminated his
schooling in June 1819. Shortly afterwards his father left Colchester
and went to reside at Bury St Edmund's. The Autobiography proceeds as
follows:
"Mr Clarkson was at one time inclined to recommend me to go to St
Peter's College (which had been much enriched by a bequest from a Mr
Gisborne). But on giving some account of me to his friend Mr James
D. Hustler, tutor of Trinity College, Mr Hustler urged upon him that I
was exactly the proper sort of person to go to Trinity College. And
thus it was settled (mainly by Mr Clarkson) that I should be entered
at Trinity College. I think that I was sent for purposely from
Colchester to Playford, and on March 6th, 1819, I rode in company with
Mr Clarkson from Playford to Sproughton near Ipswich to be examined by
the Rev. Mr Rogers, incumbent of Sproughton, an old M.A. of Trinity
College; and was examined, and my certificate duly sent to Mr Hustler;
and I was entered on Mr Hustler's side as Sizar of Trinity College.
"In the summer of 1819 I spent some time at Playford. On July 27th,
1819 (my birthday, 18 years old), Mr Clarkson invited me to dinner, to
meet Mr Charles Musgrave, Fellow of Trinity College, who was residing
for a short time at Grundisburgh, taking the church duty there for Dr
Ramsden, the Rector. It was arranged that I should go to Grundisburgh
the next day (I think) to be examined in mathematics by Mr Musgrave. I
went accordingly, and Mr Musgrave set before me a paper of questions
in geometry, algebra, mechanics, optics, &c. ending with the first
proposition of the Principia. I knew nothing more about my answers at
the time; but I found long after that they excited so much admiration
that they were transmitted to Cambridge (I forget whether to Mr
Musgrave's brother, a Fellow of Trinity College and afterwards
Archbishop of York, or to Mr Peacock, afterwards Dean of Ely) and were
long preserved.
"The list of the Classical subjects for the first year in Trinity
College was transmitted to me, as usual, by Mr Hustler. They were--The
Hippolytus of Euripides, the 3rd Book of Thucydides, and the 2nd
Philippic of Cicero. These I read carefully and noted before going
up. Mr Hustler's family lived in Bury; and I called on him and saw him
in October, introduced by Mr Clarkson. On the morning of October 18th,
1819, I went on the top of the coach to Cambridge, knowing nobody
there but Mr Hustler, but having letters of introduction from Mr
Charles Musgrave to Professor Sedgwick, Mr Thomas Musgrave, and Mr
George Peacock, all Fellows of Trinity College.
"I was set down at the Hoop, saw Trinity College for the first time,
found Mr Hustler, was conducted by his servant to the robe-maker's,
where I was invested in the cap and blue gown, and after some further
waiting was installed into lodgings in Bridge Street. At 4 o'clock I
went to the College Hall and was introduced by Mr Hustler to several
undergraduates, generally clever men, and in the evening I attended
Chapel in my surplice (it being St Luke's day) and witnessed that
splendid service of which the occasional exhibition well befits the
place.
"As soon as possible, I called on Mr Peacock, Mr Musgrave, and
Professor Sedgwick. By all I was received with great kindness: my
examination papers had been sent to them, and a considerable
reputation preceded me. Mr Peacock at once desired that I would not
consider Mr C. Musgrave's letter as an ordinary introduction, but that
I would refer to him on all occasions. And I did so for several years,
and always received from him the greatest assistance that he could
give. I think that I did not become acquainted with Mr Whewell till
the next term, when I met him at a breakfast party at Mr Peacock's. Mr
Peacock at once warned me to arrange for taking regular exercise, and
prescribed a walk of two hours every day before dinner: a rule to
which I attended regularly, and to which I ascribe the continuance of
good general health.
"I shewed Mr Peacock a manuscript book which contained a number of
original Propositions which I had investigated. These much increased
my reputation (I really had sense enough to set no particular value on
it) and I was soon known by sight to almost everybody in the
University. A ridiculous little circumstance aided in this. The former
rule of the University (strictly enforced) had been that all students
should wear drab knee-breeches: and I, at Mr Clarkson's
recommendation, was so fitted up. The struggle between the old dress
and the trowsers customary in society was still going on but almost
terminated, and I was one of the very few freshmen who retained the
old habiliments. This made me in some measure distinguishable:
however at the end of my first three terms I laid these aside.
"The College Lectures began on Oct. 22: Mr Evans at 9 on the
Hippolytus, and Mr Peacock at 10 on Euclid (these being the Assistant
Tutors on Mr Hustler's side): and then I felt myself established.
"I wrote in a day or two to my uncle Arthur Biddell, and I received
from him a letter of the utmost kindness. He entered gravely on the
consideration of my prospects, my wants, &c.: and offered at all times
to furnish me with money, which he thought my father's parsimonious
habits might make him unwilling to do. I never had occasion to avail
myself of this offer: but it was made in a way which in no small
degree strengthened the kindly feelings that had long existed between
us.
"I carefully attended the lectures, taking notes as appeared
necessary. In Mathematics there were geometrical problems, algebra,
trigonometry (which latter subjects the lectures did not reach till
the terms of 1820). Mr Peacock gave me a copy of Lacroix's
Differential Calculus as translated by himself and Herschel and
Babbage, and also a copy of their Examples. At this time, the use of
Differential Calculus was just prevailing over that of Fluxions (which
I had learnt). I betook myself to it with great industry. I also made
myself master of the theories of rectangular coordinates and some of
the differential processes applying to them, which only a few of the
best of the university mathematicians then wholly possessed. In
Classical subjects I read the Latin (Seneca's) and English Hippolytus,
Racine's Phèdre (which my sister translated for me), and all other
books to which I was referred, Aristotle, Longinus, Horace, Bentley,
Dawes &c., made verse translations of the Greek Hippolytus, and was
constantly on the watch to read what might be advantageous.
"Early in December Mr Hustler sent for me to say that one of the
Company of Fishmongers, Mr R. Sharp, had given to Mr John H. Smyth,
M.P. for Norwich, the presentation to a small exhibition of _£20_ a
year, which Mr Smyth had placed in Mr Hustler's hands, and which Mr
Hustler immediately conferred on me. This was my first step towards
pecuniary independence. I retained this exhibition till I became a
Fellow of the College.
"I stayed at Cambridge during part of the winter vacation, and to
avoid expense I quitted my lodgings and went for a time into
somebody's rooms in the Bishop's Hostel. (It is customary for the
tutors to place students in rooms when their right owners are absent.)
I took with me Thucydides and all relating to it, and read the book,
upon which the next term's lectures were to be founded, very
carefully. The latter part of the vacation I spent at Bury, where I
began with the assistance of my sister to pick up a little French: as
I perceived that it was absolutely necessary for enabling me to read
modern mathematics.
"During a part of the time I employed myself in writing out a paper on
the geometrical interpretation of the algebraical expression
sqrt(-1). I think that the original suggestion of perpendicular line
came from some book (I do not remember clearly), and I worked it out
in several instances pretty well, especially in De Moivre's Theorem. I
had spoken of it in the preceding term to Mr Peacock and he encouraged
me to work it out. The date at the end is 1820, January 21. When some
time afterwards I spoke of it to Mr Hustler, he disapproved of my
employing my time on such speculations. About the last day of January
I returned to Cambridge, taking up my abode in my former lodgings. I
shewed my paper on sqrt(-1) to Mr Peacock, who was much pleased with
it and shewed it to Mr Whewell and others.
"On February 1 I commenced two excellent customs. The first was that
I always had upon my table a quire of large-sized scribbling-paper
sewn together: and upon this paper everything was entered:
translations into Latin and out of Greek, mathematical problems,
memoranda of every kind (the latter transferred when necessary to the
subsequent pages), and generally with the date of the day. This is a
most valuable custom. The other was this: as I perceived that to write
Latin prose well would be useful to me, I wrote a translation of
English into Latin every day. However much pressed I might be with
other business, I endeavoured to write at least three or four words,
but if possible I wrote a good many sentences.
"I may fix upon this as the time when my daily habits were settled in
the form in which they continued for several years. I rose in time for
the chapel service at 7. It was the College regulation that every
student should attend Chapel four mornings and four evenings (Sunday
being one of each) in every week: and in this I never failed. After
chapel service I came to my lodgings and breakfasted. At 9 I went to
College lectures, which lasted to 11. Most of my contemporaries, being
intended for the Church, attended also divinity lectures: but I never
did. I then returned, put my lecture notes in order, wrote my piece of
Latin prose, and then employed myself on the subject which I was
reading for the time: usually taking mathematics at this hour. At 2 or
a little sooner I went out for a long walk, usually 4 or 5 miles into
the country: sometimes if I found companions I rowed on the Cam (a
practice acquired rather later). A little before 4 I returned, and at
4 went to College Hall. After dinner I lounged till evening chapel
time, 1/2 past 5, and returning about 6 I then had tea. Then I read
quietly, usually a classical subject, till 11; and I never, even in
the times when I might seem most severely pressed, sat up later.
"From this time to the close of the annual examination (beginning of
June) I remained at Cambridge, stopping there through the Easter
Vacation. The subjects of the mathematical lectures were ordinary
algebra and trigonometry: but Mr Peacock always had some private
problems of a higher class for me, and saw me I believe every day. The
subjects of the Classical lectures were, the termination of
Hippolytus, the book of Thucydides and the oration of Cicero. In
mathematics I read Whewell's Mechanics, then just published (the first
innovation made in the Cambridge system of Physical Sciences for many
years): and I find in my scribbling-paper notes, integrals, central
forces, Finite Differences, steam-engine constructions and powers,
plans of bridges, spherical trigonometry, optical calculations
relating to the achromatism of eye-pieces and achromatic
object-glasses with lenses separated, mechanical problems, Transit of
Venus, various problems in geometrical astronomy (I think it was at
this time that Mr Peacock had given me a copy of Woodhouse's Astronomy
1st Edition), the rainbow, plans for anemometer and for a wind-pumping
machine, clearing lunars, &c., with a great number of geometrical
problems. I remark that my ideas on the Differential Calculus had not
acquired on some important points the severe accuracy which they
acquired in a few months. In Classics I read the Persae of Aeschylus,
Greek and Roman history very much (Mitford, Hooke, Ferguson) and the
books of Thucydides introductory to that of the lecture subject (the
3rd): and attended to Chronology. On the scribbling-paper are
verse-translations from Euripides, careful prose-translations from
Thucydides, maps, notes on points of grammar &c. I have also little
MS. books with abundant notes on all these subjects: I usually made a
little book when I pursued any subject in a regular way.
"On May 1st Mr Dobree, the head lecturer, sent for me to say that he
appointed me head-lecturer's Sizar for the next year. The stipend of
this office was _£10_, a sum upon which I set considerable value in my
anxiety for pecuniary independence: but it was also gratifying to me
as shewing the way in which I was regarded by the College authorities.
"On Wednesday, May 24th, 1820, the examination began. I was anxious
about the result of the examination, but only in such a degree as to
make my conduct perfectly steady and calm, and to prevent me from
attempting any extraordinary exertion.
"When the Classes were published the first Class of the Freshman's
Year (alphabetically arranged, as is the custom) stood thus: Airy,
Boileau, Childers, Drinkwater, Field, Iliff, Malkin, Myers, Romilly,
Strutt, Tate, Winning. It was soon known however that I was first of
the Class. It was generally expected (and certainly by me) that,
considering how great a preponderance the Classics were understood, in
the known system of the College, to have in determining the order of
merit, Field would be first. However the number of marks which Field
obtained was about 1700, and that which I obtained about 1900. No
other competitor, I believe, was near us."--In a letter to Airy from
his College Tutor, Mr J. D. Hustler, there is the following passage:
"It is a matter of extreme satisfaction to me that in the late
examination you stood not only in the First Class but first of the
first. I trust that your future exertions and success will be
commensurate with this honourable beginning."
"Of the men whom I have named, Drinkwater (Bethune) was afterwards
Legal Member of the Supreme Court of India, Field was afterwards
Rector of Reepham, Romilly (afterwards Lord Romilly) became
Solicitor-General, Strutt (afterwards Lord Belper) became M.P. for
Derby and First Commissioner of Railways, Tate was afterwards master
of Richmond Endowed School, Childers was the father of Childers who
was subsequently First Lord of the Admiralty.
"I returned to Bury immediately. While there, some students (some of
them men about to take their B.A. degree at the next January) applied
to me to take them as pupils, but I declined. This year of my life
enabled me to understand how I stood among men. I returned to
Cambridge about July 11th. As a general rule, undergraduates are not
allowed to reside in the University during the Long Vacation. I
believe that before I left, after the examination, I had made out that
I should be permitted to reside: or I wrote to Mr Hustler. I applied
to Mr Hustler to be lodged in rooms in College: and was put, first
into rooms in Bishop's Hostel, and subsequently into rooms in the
Great Court.
"The first affair that I had in College was one of disappointment by
no means deserving the importance which it assumed in my thoughts. I
had been entered a Sizar, but as the list of Foundation Sizars was
full, my dinners in Hall were paid for. Some vacancies had arisen: and
as these were to be filled up in order of merit, I expected one: and
in my desire for pecuniary independence I wished for it very
earnestly. However, as in theory all of the first class were equal,
and as there were some Sizars in it senior in entrance to me, they
obtained places first: and I was not actually appointed till after the
next scholarship examination (Easter 1821). However a special
arrangement was made, allowing me (I forget whether others) to sit at
the Foundation-Sizars' table whenever any of the number was absent:
and in consequence I received practically nearly the full benefits.
"Mr Peacock, who was going out for the vacation, allowed me access to
his books. I had also (by the assistance of various Fellows, who all
treated me with great kindness, almost to a degree of respect) command
of the University Library and Trinity Library: and spent this Long
Vacation, like several others, very happily indeed.
"The only non-mathematical subjects of the next examination were The
Gospel of St Luke, Paley's Evidences, and Paley's Moral and Political
Philosophy. Thus my time was left more free to mathematics and to
general classics than last year. I now began a custom which I
maintained for some years. Generally I read mathematics in the
morning, and classics for lectures in the afternoon: but invariably I
began at 10 o'clock in the evening to read with the utmost severity
some standard classics (unconnected with the lectures) and at 11
precisely I left off and went to bed. I continued my daily
translations into Latin prose as before.
"On August 24th, 1820, Rosser, a man of my own year, engaged me as
private tutor, paying at the usual rate (_£14_ for a part of the
Vacation, and _£14_ for a term): and immediately afterwards his friend
Bedingfield did the same. This occupied two hours every day, and I
felt that I was now completely earning my own living. I never received
a penny from my friends after this time.
"I find on my scribbling-paper various words which shew that in
reading Poisson I was struggling with French words. There are also
Finite Differences and their Calculus, Figure of the Earth (force to
the center), various Attractions (some evidently referring to
Maclaurin's), Integrals, Conic Sections, Kepler's Problem, Analytical
Geometry, D'Alembert's Theorem, Spherical Aberration, Rotations round
three axes (apparently I had been reading Euler), Floating bodies,
Evolute of Ellipse, Newton's treatment of the Moon's Variation. I
attempted to extract something from Vince's Astronomy on the physical
explanation of Precession: but in despair of understanding it, and
having made out an explanation for myself by the motion round three
axes, I put together a little treatise (Sept. 10, 1820) which with
some corrections and additions was afterwards printed in my
Mathematical Tracts. On Sept. 14th I bought Woodhouse's Physical
Astronomy, and this was quite an epoch in my mathematical
knowledge. First, I was compelled by the process of "changing the
independent variable" to examine severely the logic of the
Differential Calculus. Secondly, I was now able to enter on the Theory
of Perturbations, which for several years had been the desired land to
me.
"At the Fellowship Election of Oct. 1st, Sydney Walker (among other
persons) was elected Fellow. He then quitted the rooms in which he had
lived (almost the worst in the College), and I immediately took
them. They suited me well and I lived very happily in them till I was
elected Scholar. They are small rooms above the middle staircase on
the south side of Neville's Court. (Mr Peacock's rooms were on the
same staircase.) I had access to the leads on the roof of the building
from one of my windows. This was before the New Court was built: my
best window looked upon the garden of the College butler.
"I had brought to Cambridge the telescope which I had made at
Colchester, and about this time I had a stand made by a carpenter at
Cambridge: and I find repeated observations of Jupiter and Saturn made
in this October term.
"Other mathematical subjects on my scribbling-paper are: Geometrical
Astronomy, Barometers (for elevations), Maclaurin's Figure of the
Earth, Lagrange's Theorem, Integrals, Differential Equations of the
second order, Particular Solutions. In general mathematics I had much
discussion with Atkinson (who was Senior Wrangler, January 1821), and
in Physics with Rosser, who was a friend of Sir Richard Phillips, a
vain objector to gravitation. In Classics I read Aeschylus and
Herodotus.
"On October 5th I received notice from the Head Lecturer to declaim in
English with Winning. (This exercise consists in preparing a
controversial essay, learning it by heart, and speaking it in Chapel
after the Thursday evening's service.) On October 6th we agreed on
the subject, "Is natural difference to be ascribed to moral or to
physical causes?" I taking the latter side. I spoke the declamation
(reciting it without missing a word) on October 25th. On October 26th
I received notice of Latin declamation with Myers: subject agreed on,
"Utrum civitati plus utilitatis an incommodi afferant leges quae ad
vitas privatorum hominum ordinandas pertinent"; I took the former. The
declamation was recited on November 11, when a curious circumstance
occurred. My declamation was rather long: it was the first Saturday of
the term on which a declamation had been spoken: and it was the day on
which arrived the news of the withdrawal of the Bill of Pains and
Penalties against Queen Caroline. (This trial had been going on
through the summer, but I knew little about it.) In consequence the
impatience of the undergraduates was very great, and there was such an
uproar of coughing &c. in the Chapel as probably was never known. The
Master (Dr Wordsworth, appointed in the beginning of the summer on the
death of Dr Mansell, and to whom I had been indirectly introduced by
Mrs Clarkson) and Tutors and Deans tried in vain to stop the
hubbub. However I went on steadily to the end, not at all
frightened. On the Monday the Master sent for me to make a sort of
apology in the name of the authorities, and letters to the Tutors were
read at the Lectures, and on the whole the transaction was nowise
disagreeable to me.
"On the Commemoration Day, December 15th, I received my Prize
(Mitford's Greece) as First-Class man, after dinner in the College
Hall. After a short vacation spent at Bury and Playford I returned to
Cambridge, walking from Bury on Jan. 22nd, 1821. During the next term
I find in Mathematics Partial Differential Equations, Tides, Sound,
Calculus of Variations, Composition of rotary motions, Motion in
resisting medium, Lhuillier's theorem, Brightness of an object as seen
through a medium with any possible law of refraction (a good
investigation), star-reductions, numerical calculations connected with
them, equilibrium of chain under centripetal force (geometrically
treated, as an improvement upon Whewell's algebraical method),
investigation of the magnitude of attractive forces of glass, &c.,
required to produce refraction. I forget about Mathematical Lectures;
but I have an impression that I regularly attended Mr Peacock's
lectures, and that he always set me some private problems.
"I attended Mr Evans's lectures on St Luke: and I find many notes
about the history of the Jews, Cerinthus and various heresies, Paley's
Moral Philosophy, Paley's Evidences, and Biblical Maps: also
speculations about ancient pronunciations.
"For a week or more before the annual examination I was perfectly
lazy. The Classes of my year (Junior Sophs) were not published till
June 11. It was soon known that I was first with 2000 marks, the next
being Drinkwater with 1200 marks. After a short holiday at Bury and
Playford I returned to Cambridge on July 18th, 1821. My daily life
went on as usual. I find that in writing Latin I began Cicero De
Senectute (retranslating Melmoth's translation, and comparing). Some
time in the Long Vacation the names of the Prizemen for Declamations
were published: I was disappointed that not one, English or Latin, was
assigned to me: but it was foolish, for my declamations were rather
trumpery.
"My former pupil, Rosser, came again on August 14th. On August 29th
Dr Blomfield (afterwards Bishop of London) called, to engage me as
Tutor to his brother George Beecher Blomfield, and he commenced
attendance on Sept. 1st. With these two pupils I finished at the end
of the Long Vacation: for the next three terms I had one pupil,
Gibson, a Newcastle man, recommended by Mr Peacock, I believe, as a
personal friend (Mr Peacock being of Durham).
"The only classical subject appointed for the next examination was the
5th, 6th and 7th Books of the Odyssey: the mathematical subjects all
the Applied Mathematics and Newton. There was to be however the
Scholarship Examination (Sizars being allowed to sit for Scholarships
only in their 3rd year: and the Scholarship being a kind of little
Fellowship necessary to qualify for being a candidate for the real
Fellowship).
"When the October term began Mr Hustler, who usually gave lectures in
mathematics to his third-year pupils, said to me that it was not worth
my while to attend his lectures, and he or Mr Peacock suggested that
Drinkwater, Myers, and I should attend the Questionists'
examinations. The Questionists are those who are to take the degree of
B.A. in the next January: and it was customary, not to give them
lectures, but three times a week to examine them by setting
mathematical questions, as the best method of preparing for the
B.A. examination. Accordingly it was arranged that we should attend
the said examinations: but when we went the Questionists of that year
refused to attend. They were reported to be a weak year, and we to be
a strong one: and they were disposed to take offence at us on any
occasion. From some of the scholars of our year who sat at table with
scholars of that year I heard that they distinguished us as 'the
impudent year,' 'the annus mirabilis' &c. On this occasion they
pretended to believe that the plan of our attendance at the
Questionists' examinations had been suggested by an undergraduate, and
no explanation was of the least use. So the Tutors agreed not to press
the matter on them: and instead of it, Drinkwater, Myers, and I went
three times a week to Mr Peacock's rooms, and he set us questions. I
think that this system was also continued during the next two terms
(ending in June 1822) or part of them, but I am not certain.
"In August 1821 I copied out a M.S. on Optics, I think from Mr
Whewell: on August 24th one on the Figure of the Earth and Tides; and
at some other time one on the motion of a body round two centers of
force; both from Mr Whewell. On my scribbling paper I find--A problem
on the vibrations of a gig as depending on the horse's step (like that
of a pendulum whose support is disturbed), Maclaurin's Attractions,
Effect of separating the lenses of an achromatic object-glass
(suggested by my old telescope), Barlow's theory of numbers, and
division of the circle into 17 parts, partial differentials, theory of
eye-pieces, epicycloids, Figure of the Earth, Time of body in arc of
parabola, Problem of Sound, Tides, Refraction of Lens, including
thickness, &c., Ivory's paper on Equations, Achromatism of microscope,
Capillary Attraction, Motions of Fluids, Euler's principal axes,
Spherical pendulum, Equation b²(d²y/dx²)=(d²y/dt²), barometer, Lunar
Theory well worked out, ordinary differential equations, Calculus of
Variations, Interpolations like Laplace's for Comets, Kepler's
theorem. In September I had my old telescope mounted on a short tripod
stand, and made experiments on its adjustments. I was possessed of
White's Ephemeris, and I find observations of Jupiter and Saturn in
October. I planned an engine for describing ellipses by the polar
equation A/(1 + e cos theta) and tried to make a micrometer with silk
threads converging to a point. Mr Cubitt called on Oct. 4 and Nov. 1;
he was engaged in erecting a treadmill at Cambridge Gaol, and had some
thoughts of sending plans for the Cambridge Observatory, the erection
of which was then proposed. On Nov. 19 I find that I had received from
Cubitt a Nautical Almanac, the first that I had. On Dec. 11 I made
some experiments with Drinkwater: I think it was whirling a glass
containing oil on water. In Classics I was chiefly engaged upon
Thucydides and Homer. On October 6th I had a letter from Charles
Musgrave, introducing Challis, who succeeded me in the Cambridge
Observatory in 1836.
"At this time my poor afflicted father was suffering much from a
severe form of rheumatism or pain in the legs which sometimes
prevented him from going to bed for weeks together.
"On the Commemoration Day, Dec. 18th, I received my prize as
first-class man in Hall again. The next day I walked to Bury, and
passed the winter vacation there and at Playford.
"I returned to Cambridge on Jan. 24th, 1822. On Feb. 12th I kept my
first Act, with great compliments from the Moderator, and with a most
unusually large attendance of auditors. These disputations on
mathematics, in Latin, are now discontinued. On March 20th I kept a
first Opponency against Sandys. About this time I received Buckle, a
Trinity man of my own year, who was generally supposed to come next
after Drinkwater, as pupil. On my sheets I find integrals and
differential equations of every kind, astronomical corrections (of
which I prepared a book), chances, Englefield's comets, investigation
of the brightness within a rainbow, proof of Clairaut's theorem in one
case, metacentres, change of independent variable applied to a
complicated case, generating functions, principal axes. On Apr. 8th I
intended to write an account of my eye: I was then tormented with a
double image, I suppose from some disease of the stomach: and on May
28th I find by a drawing of the appearance of a lamp that the disease
of my eye continued.
"On Feb. 11th I gave Mr Peacock a paper on the alteration of the focal
length of a telescope as directed with or against the Earth's orbital
motion (on the theory of emissions) which was written out for reading
to the Cambridge Philosophical Society on Feb. 24th and 25th. [This
Society I think was then about a year old.] On Feb. 1 my MS. on
Precession, Solar Inequality, and Nutation, was made complete.
"The important examination for Scholarships was now approaching. As I
have said, this one opportunity only was given to Sizars (Pensioners
having always two opportunities and sometimes three), and it is
necessary to be a Scholar in order to be competent to be a candidate
for a Fellowship. On Apr. 10th I addressed my formal Latin letter to
the Seniors. There were 13 vacancies and 37 candidates. The election
took place on Apr. 18th, 1822. I was by much the first (which I hardly
expected) and was complimented by the Master and others. Wrote the
formal letter of thanks as usual. I was now entitled to claim better
rooms, and I took the rooms on the ground floor on the East side of
the Queen's Gate of the Great Court. Even now I think of my quiet
residence in the little rooms above the staircase in Neville's Court
with great pleasure. I took possession of my new rooms on May 27th.
"The Annual Examination began on May 30th. The Classes were published
on June 5th, when my name was separated from the rest by two lines. It
was understood that the second man was Drinkwater, and that my number
of marks was very nearly double of his. Having at this time been
disappointed of a proposed walking excursion into Derbyshire with a
college friend, who failed me at the last moment, I walked to Bury and
spent a short holiday there and at Playford.
"I returned to Cambridge on July 12th, 1822. I was steadily busy
during this Long Vacation, but by no means oppressively so: indeed my
time passed very happily. The Scholars' Table is the only one in
College at which the regular possessors of the table are sure never to
see a stranger, and thus a sort of family intimacy grows up among the
Scholars. Moreover the Scholars feel themselves to be a privileged
class 'on the foundation,' and this feeling gives them a sort of
conceited happiness. It was the duty of Scholars by turns to read
Grace after the Fellows' dinner and supper, and at this time (1848) I
know it by heart. They also read the Lessons in Chapel on week days:
but as there was no daily chapel-service during the summer vacation, I
had not much of this. In the intimacy of which I speak I became much
acquainted with Drinkwater, Buckle, Rothman, and Sutcliffe: and we
formed a knot at the table (first the Undergraduate Scholars' table,
and afterwards the Bachelor Scholars' table) for several years. During
this Vacation I had for pupils Buckle and Gibson.
"I wrote my daily Latin as usual, beginning with the retranslation of
Cicero's Epistles, but I interrupted it from Sept. 27th to Feb. 8th. I
believe it was in this Vacation, or in the October term, that I began
every evening to read Thucydides very carefully, as my notes are
marked 1822 and 1823. On August 27 I find that I was reading Ovid's
Fasti.
"In Mathematics I find the equation x + y = a, x^q + y^q = b,
Caustics, Calculus of Variations, Partial Differentials, Aberration of
Light, Motions of Comets, various Optical constructions computed with
spherical aberrations, Particular Solutions, Mechanics of Solid
Bodies, Attractions of Shells, Chances, Ivory's attraction-theorem,
Lunar Theory (algebraical), Degrees across meridian, theoretical
refraction, Newton's 3rd Book, Investigation of the tides in a shallow
equatoreal canal, from which I found that there would be low-water
under the moon, metacentres, rotation of a solid body round three
axes, Attractions of Spheroids of variable density, finite
differences, and complete Figure of the Earth. There is also a good
deal of investigation of a mathematical nature not connected with
College studies, as musical chords, organ-pipes, sketch for a
computing machine (suggested by the publications relating to
Babbage's), sketch of machine for solving equations. In August there
is a plan of a MS. on the Differential Calculus, which it appears I
wrote then: one on the Figure of the Earth written about August 15th;
one on Tides, Sept. 25th; one on Newton's Principia with algebraical
additions, Nov. 1st. On Sept. 6th and 10th there are Lunar Distances
observed with Rothman's Sextant and completely worked out; for these I
prepared a printed skeleton form, I believe my first. On December 13th
there are references to books on Geology (Conybeare and Phillips, and
Parkinson) which I was beginning to study. On July 27th, being the day
on which I completed my 21st year, I carefully did nothing.
"Another subject partly occupied my thoughts, which, though not (with
reference to practical science) very wise, yet gave me some Cambridge
celebrity. In July 1819 I had (as before mentioned) sketched a plan
for constructing reflecting telescopes with silvered glass, and had
shewn it afterwards to Mr Peacock. I now completed the theory of this
construction by correcting the aberrations, spherical as well as
chromatic. On July 13th, 1822, I drew up a paper about it for Mr
Peacock. He approved it much, and in some way communicated it to Mr
(afterwards Sir John) Herschel. I was soon after introduced to
Herschel at a breakfast with Mr Peacock: and he approved of the scheme
generally. On August 5th I drew up a complete mathematical paper for
the Cambridge Philosophical Society, which I entrusted to Mr
Peacock. The aberrations, both spherical and chromatic, are here
worked out very well. On Nov. 25th it was read at the meeting of the
Philosophical Society, and was afterwards printed in their
Transactions: this was my first printed Memoir. Before this time
however I had arranged to try the scheme practically. Mr Peacock had
engaged to bear the expense, but I had no occasion to ask him. Partly
(I think) through Drinkwater, I communicated with an optician named
Bancks, in the Strand, who constructed the optical part. I
subsequently tried my telescope, but it would not do. The fault, as I
had not and have not the smallest doubt, depends in some way on the
crystallization of the mercury silvering. It must have been about this
time that I was introduced to Mr (afterwards Sir James) South, at a
party at Mr Peacock's rooms. He advised me to write to Tulley, a
well-known practical optician, who made me some new reflectors,
&c. (so that I had two specimens, one Gregorian, the other
Cassegrainian). However the thing failed practically, and I was too
busy ever after to try it again.
"During the October term I had no pupils. I kept my second Act on
Nov. 6 (opponents Hamilton, Rusby, Field), and an Opponency against
Jeffries on Nov. 7. I attended the Questionists' Examinations. I seem
to have lived a very comfortable idle life. The Commemoration Day was
Dec. 18th, when I received a Prize, and the next day I walked to
Bury. On Jan. 4th, 1823, I returned to Cambridge, and until the
B.A. Examination I read novels and played cards more than at any other
time in College.
"On Thursday, Jan. 9th, 1823, the preliminary classes, for arrangement
of details of the B.A. Examination, were published. The first class,
Airy, Drinkwater, Jeffries, Mason. As far as I remember, the rule was
then, that on certain days the classes were grouped (in regard to
identity of questions given to each group) thus: 1st, {2nd/3rd},
{4th/5th} &c., and on certain other days thus: {1st/2nd}, {3rd/4th},
&c. On Saturday, Jan. 11th, I paid fees. On Monday, Jan. 13th, the
proceedings of examination began by a breakfast in the Combination
Room. After this, Gibson gave me breakfast every day, and Buckle gave
me and some others a glass of wine after dinner. The hours were sharp,
the season a cold one, and no fire was allowed in the Senate House
where the Examination was carried on (my place was in the East
gallery), and altogether it was a severe time.
"The course of Examination was as follows:
"Monday, Jan. 13th. 8 to 9, printed paper of questions by Mr Hind
(moderator); half-past 9 to 11, questions given orally; 1 to 3, ditto;
6 to 9, paper of problems at Mr Higman's rooms.
"Tuesday, Jan. 14th. 8 to 9, Higman's paper; half-past 9 to 11,
questions given orally; 1 to 3, ditto; 6 to 9, paper of problems in
Sidney College Hall.
"Wednesday, Jan. 15th. Questions given orally 8 to 9 and 1 to 3, with
paper of questions on Paley and Locke (one question only in each was
answered).
"Thursday, Jan. 16th. We went in at 9 and 1, but there seems to have
been little serious examination.
"Friday, Jan. 17. On this day the brackets or classes as resulting
from the examination were published, 1st bracket Airy, 2nd bracket
Jeffries, 3rd bracket Drinkwater, Fisher, Foley, Mason, Myers.
"On Saturday, Jan. 18th, the degrees were conferred in the usual
way. It had been arranged that my brother and sister should come to
see me take my degree of B.A., and I had asked Gibson to conduct them
to the Senate House Gallery: but Mr Hawkes (a Trinity Fellow) found
them and stationed them at the upper end of the Senate House. After
the preliminary arrangements of papers at the Vice-Chancellor's table,
I, as Senior Wrangler, was led up first to receive the degree, and
rarely has the Senate House rung with such applause as then filled
it. For many minutes, after I was brought in front of the
Vice-Chancellor, it was impossible to proceed with the ceremony on
account of the uproar. I gave notice to the Smith's Prize Electors of
my intention to 'sit' for that prize, and dined at Rothman's rooms
with Drinkwater, Buckle, and others. On Monday, Jan. 20th, I was
examined by Professor Woodhouse, for Smith's Prize, from 10 to 1. I
think that the only competitor was Jeffries. On Tuesday I was examined
by Prof. Turton, 10 to 1, and on Wednesday by Prof. Lax, 10 to 1. On
Thursday, Jan. 23rd, I went to Bury by coach, on one of the coldest
evenings that I ever felt.
"Mr Peacock had once recommended me to sit for the Chancellor's medal
(Classical Prize). But he now seemed to be cool in his advice, and I
laid aside all thought of it."
* * * * *
It seems not out of place to insert here a copy of some "Cambridge
Reminiscences" written by Airy, which will serve to explain the Acts
and Opponencies referred to in the previous narrative, and other
matters.
THE ACTS.
The examination for B.A. degrees was preceded, in my time, by keeping
two Acts, in the Schools under the University Library: the second of
them in the October term immediately before the examination; the first
(I think) in the October term of the preceding year.
These Acts were reliques of the Disputations of the Middle Ages, which
probably held a very important place in the discipline of the
University. (There seems to be something like them in some of the
Continental Universities.) The presiding authority was one of the
Moderators. I apprehend that the word "Moderator" signified
"President," in which sense it is still used in the Kirk of Scotland;
and that it was peculiarly applied to the Presidency of the
Disputations, the most important educational arrangement in the
University. The Moderator sent a summons to the "Respondent" to submit
three subjects for argument, and to prepare to defend them on a given
day: he also named three Opponents. This and all the following
proceedings were conducted in Latin. For my Act of 1822, Nov. 6, I
submitted the following subjects:
"Recte statuit Newtonus in Principiis suis Mathematicis, libro primo,
sectione undecimâ."
"Recte statuit Woodius de Iride."
"Recte statuit Paleius de Obligationibus."
The Opponents named to attack these assertions were Hamilton of St
John's, Rusby of St Catharine's, Field of Trinity. It was customary
for the Opponents to meet at tea at the rooms of the Senior Opponent,
in order to discuss and arrange their arguments; the Respondent was
also invited, but he was warned that he must depart as soon as tea
would be finished: then the three Opponents proceeded with their
occupation. As I have acted in both capacities, I am able to say that
the matter was transacted in an earnest and business-like way. Indeed
in the time preceding my own (I know not whether in my own time) the
assistance of a private tutor was frequently engaged, and I remember
hearing a senior M.A. remark that my College Tutor (James D. Hustler)
was the best crammer for an Act in the University.
At the appointed time, the parties met in the Schools: the Respondent
first read a Latin Thesis on any subject (I think I took some
metaphysical subject), but nobody paid any attention to it: then the
Respondent read his first Dogma, and the first Opponent produced an
argument against it, in Latin. After this there were repeated replies
and rejoinders, all in vivâ voce Latin, the Moderator sometimes
interposing a remark in Latin. When he considered that one argument
was disposed of, he called for another by the words "Probes aliter."
The arguments were sometimes shaped with considerable ingenuity, and
required a clear head in the Respondent. When all was finished, the
Moderator made a complimentary remark to the Respondent and one to the
first Opponent (I forget whether to the second and third). In my
Respondency of 1822, November 6, the compliment was, "Quaestiones tuas
summo ingenio et acumine defendisti, et in rebus mathematicis
scientiam planè mirabilem ostendisti." In an Opponency (I forget
when) the compliment was, "Magno ingenio argumenta tua et construxisti
et defendisti."
The Acts of the high men excited much interest among the students. At
my Acts the room was crowded with undergraduates.
I imagine that, at a time somewhat distant, the maintenance of the
Acts was the only regulation by which the University acted on the
studies of the place. When the Acts had been properly kept, license
was given to the Father of the College to present the undergraduate to
the Vice-Chancellor, who then solemnly admitted him "ad respondendum
Quaestioni." There is no appearance of collective examination before
this presentation: what the "Quaestio" might be, I do not know. Still
the undergraduate was not B.A. The Quaestio however was finished and
approved before the day of a certain Congregation, and then the
undergraduate was declared to be "actualiter in artibus Baccalaureum."
Probably these regulations were found to be insufficient for the
control of education, and the January examination was instituted. I
conjecture this to have been at or shortly before the date of the
earliest Triposes recorded in the Cambridge Calendar, 1748.
The increasing importance of the January examination naturally
diminished the value of the Acts in the eyes of the undergraduates;
and, a few years after my M.A. degree, it was found that the Opponents
met, not for the purpose of concealing their arguments from the
Respondent, but for the purpose of revealing them to him. This led to
the entire suppression of the system. The most active man in this
suppression was Mr Whewell: its date must have been near to 1830.
The shape in which the arguments were delivered by an Opponent,
reading from a written paper, was, "Si (quoting something from the
Respondent's challenge), &c., &c. Cadit Quaestio; Sed (citing
something else bearing on the subject of discussion), Valet
Consequentia; Ergo (combining these to prove some inaccuracy in the
Respondent's challenge), Valent Consequentia et Argumentum." Nobody
pretended to understand these mystical terminations.
Apparently the original idea was that several Acts should be kept by
each undergraduate; for, to keep up the number (as it seemed), each
student had to gabble through a ridiculous form "Si quaestiones tuae
falsae sint, Cadit Quaestio:--sed quaestiones tuae falsae sunt, Ergo
valent Consequentia et Argumentum." I have forgotten time and place
when this was uttered.
THE SENATE-HOUSE EXAMINATION.
The Questionists, as the undergraduates preparing for B.A. were called
in the October term, were considered as a separate body; collected at
a separate table in Hall, attending no lectures, but invited to attend
a system of trial examinations conducted by one of the Tutors or
Assistant-Tutors.
From the Acts, from the annual College examinations, and (I suppose)
from enquiries in the separate Colleges, the Moderators acquired a
general idea of the relative merits of the candidates for
honours. Guided by this, the candidates were divided into six
classes. The Moderators and Assistant Examiners were provided each
with a set of questions in manuscript (no printed papers were used for
Honours in the Senate House; in regard to the [Greek: hoi polloi] I
cannot say). On the Monday on which the examination began, the Father
of the College received all the Questionists (I believe), at any rate
all the candidates for honours, at breakfast in the Combination Room
at 8 o'clock, and marched them to the Senate House. My place with
other honour-men was in the East Gallery. There one Examiner took
charge of the 1st and 2nd classes united, another Examiner took the
3rd and 4th classes united, and a third took the 5th and 6th
united. On Tuesday, one Examiner took the 1st class alone, a second
took the 2nd and 3rd classes united, a third took the 4th and 5th
classes united, and a fourth took the 6th class alone. On Wednesday,
Thursday, and Friday the changes were similar. And, in all, the
questioning was thus conducted. The Examiner read from his manuscript
the first question. Those who could answer it proceeded to write out
their answers, and as soon as one had finished he gave the word
"Done"; then the Examiner read out his second question, repeating it
when necessary for the understanding by those who took it up more
lately. And so on. I think that the same process was repeated in the
afternoon; but I do not remember precisely. In this manner the
Examination was conducted through five days (Monday to Friday) with no
interruption except on Friday afternoon. It was principally, perhaps
entirely, bookwork.
But on two _evenings_ there were printed papers of problems: and the
examination in these was conducted just as in the printed papers of
the present day: but in the private College Rooms of the
Moderators. And there, wine and other refreshments were offered to the
Examinees. How this singular custom began, I know not.
The order of merit was worked out on Friday afternoon and evening, and
was in some measure known through the University late in the
evening. I remember Mr Peacock coming to a party of Examinees and
giving information on several places. I do not remember his mentioning
mine (though undoubtedly he did) but I distinctly remember his giving
the Wooden Spoon. On the Saturday morning at 8 o'clock the manuscript
list was nailed to the door of the Senate-House. The form of further
proceedings in the presentation for degree (ad respondendum
quaestioni) I imagine has not been much altered. The kneeling before
the Vice-Chancellor and placing hands in the Vice-Chancellor's hands
were those of the old form of doing homage.
The form of examination which I have described was complicated and
perhaps troublesome, but I believe that it was very efficient,
possibly more so than the modern form (established I suppose at the
same time as the abolition of the Acts). The proportion of questions
now answered to the whole number set is ridiculously small, and no
accurate idea of relative merit can be formed from them.
THE COLLEGE HALL.
When I went up in 1819, and for several years later, the dinner was at
1/4 past 3. There was no supplementary dinner for special
demands. Boat-clubs I think were not invented, even in a plain social
way, till about 1824 or 1825; and not in connection with the College
till some years later. Some of the senior Fellows spoke of the time
when dinner was at 2, and regretted the change.
There was supper in Hall at 9 o'clock: I have known it to be attended
by a few undergraduates when tired by examinations or by evening
walks; and there were always some seniors at the upper table: I have
occasionally joined them, and have had some very interesting
conversations. The supper was cold, but hot additions were made when
required.
One little arrangement amused me, as shewing the ecclesiastical
character of the College. The Fasts of the Church were to be strictly
kept, and there was to be no dinner in Hall. It was thus arranged. The
evening chapel service, which was usually at 5-1/2 (I think), was held
at 3; and at 4 the ordinary full meal was served in Hall, but as it
followed the chapel attendance it was held to be supper; and there was
no subsequent meal.
There were no chairs whatever in Hall, except the single chair of the
vice-master at the head of the table on the dais and that of the
senior dean at the table next the East wall. All others sat on
benches. And I have heard allusions to a ludicrous difficulty which
occurred when some princesses (of the Royal Family) dined in the Hall,
and it was a great puzzle how to get them to the right side of the
benches.
The Sizars dined after all the rest; their dinner usually began soon
after 4. For the non-foundationists a separate dinner was provided, as
for pensioners. But for the foundationists, the remains of the
Fellows' dinner were brought down; and I think that this provision was
generally preferred to the other.
The dishes at all the tables of undergraduates were of pewter, till a
certain day when they were changed for porcelain. I cannot remember
whether this was at the time when they became Questionists (in the
October Term), or at the time when they were declared "actualiter esse
in artibus Baccalaureos" (in the Lent Term).
Up to the Questionist time the undergraduate Scholars had no mixture
whatever; they were the only pure table in the Hall: and I looked on
this as a matter very valuable for the ultimate state of the College
society. But in the October term, those who were to proceed to
B.A. were drafted into the mixed body of Questionists: and they
greatly disliked the change. They continued so till the Lent Term,
when they were formally invited by the Bachelor Scholars to join the
upper table.
MATHEMATICAL SUBJECTS OF STUDY AND EXAMINATION.
In the October Term 1819, the only books on Pure Mathematics
were:--Euclid generally, Algebra by Dr Wood (formerly Tutor, but in
1819 Master, of St John's College), Vince's Fluxions and Dealtry's
Fluxions, Woodhouse's and other Trigonometries. Not a whisper passed
through the University generally on the subject of Differential
Calculus; although some papers (subsequently much valued) on that
subject had been written by Mr Woodhouse, fellow of Caius College; but
their style was repulsive, and they never took hold of the
University. Whewell's Mechanics (1819) contains a few and easy
applications of the Differential Calculus. The books on applied
Mathematics were Wood's Mechanics, Whewell's Mechanics, Wood's Optics,
Vince's Hydrostatics, Vince's Astronomy, Woodhouse's Plane Astronomy
(perhaps rather later), The First Book of Newton's Principia: I do not
remember any others. These works were undoubtedly able; and for the
great proportion of University students going into active life, I do
not conceal my opinion that books constructed on the principles of
those which I have cited were more useful than those exclusively
founded on the more modern system. For those students who aimed at the
mastery of results more difficult and (in the intellectual sense) more
important, the older books were quite insufficient. More aspiring
students read, and generally with much care, several parts of Newton's
Principia, Book I., and also Book III. (perhaps the noblest example
of geometrical form of cosmical theory that the world has seen). I
remember some questions from Book III. proposed in the Senate-House
Examination 1823.
In the October term 1819, I went up to the University. The works of
Wood and Vince, which I have mentioned, still occupied the
lecture-rooms. But a great change was in preparation for the
University Course of Mathematics. During the great Continental war,
the intercourse between men of science in England and in France had
been most insignificant. But in the autumn of 1819, three members of
the Senate (John Herschel, George Peacock, and Charles Babbage) had
entered into the mathematical society of Paris, and brought away some
of the works on Pure Mathematics (especially those of Lacroix) and on
Mechanics (principally Poisson's). In 1820 they made a translation of
Lacroix's Differential Calculus; and they prepared a volume of
Examples of the Differential and Integral Calculus. These were
extensively studied: but the form of the College Examinations or the
University Examinations was not, I think, influenced by them in the
winter 1820-1821 or the two following terms. But in the winter
1821-1822 Peacock was one of the Moderators; and in the Senate-House
Examination, January 1822, he boldly proposed a Paper of important
questions entirely in the Differential Calculus. This was considered
as establishing the new system in the University. In January 1823, I
think the two systems were mingled. Though I was myself subject to
that examination, I grieve to say that I have forgotten much of the
details, except that I well remember that some of the questions
referred to Newton, Book III. on the Lunar Theory. To these I have
already alluded.
No other work occurs to me as worthy of mention, except Woodhouse's
Lunar Theory, entirely founded on the Differential Calculus. The style
of this book was not attractive, and it was very little read.