I say that the whole of a polity is divided into three parts. And one
part, indeed, consists of good men, who manage the public affairs.
But the second part consists of those who are powerful. And the third
part is composed of those who are employed in supplying and procuring
the necessaries of life. I denominate, however, the first multitude
[in a polity] that which consults [for the good of the whole]; the
second, that which is auxiliary; and the third, that which pertains
to mechanical and sordid occupations. Of these also, I say that the
two first belong to those whose condition in life is liberal; but
the third, to those who labour to procure subsistence. And of these
indeed, that which consults is the best; but that which is employed
in sordid occupations is the worst; and that which is auxiliary,
is a medium between the two. That which consults likewise [for the
general good] ought to govern; but that which is engaged in sordid
occupations ought to be governed: and that which is auxiliary ought
both to govern and be governed. For that which consults for the
general good previously deliberates what ought to be done; but that
which is of an auxiliary nature, so far as it is belligerent, rules
over the whole of the mechanical tribe; but so far as it antecedently
receives counsel from others, is itself governed.
Of these parts, however, each again receives a triple division. For
of that which consults, one part presides, another governs, and
another counsels for the general good. And with respect to the part
which presides, it is that which plans, contrives, and deliberates
about what pertains to the community, prior to the other parts, and
afterwards refers its counsels to the senate. But the governing part
is either that which now rules [for the first time], or which has
before performed that office. And with respect to the third part,
which consults for the general good, this receives the advice of the
parts prior to itself, and confirms by its suffrages and authority
whatever is referred to its decision. And, in short, it is requisite
that those who preside should refer the affairs of the community to
that part which consults for the general good; but that this latter
part should refer these affairs through the Prætors to the Convention.
In a similar manner also of that part which is auxiliary, powerful,
and efficacious, one part is of a governing nature; another part is
defensive; and the remaining, which is the greater part, is gregal
and military. It is the governing part, therefore, from which the
leaders of armies, the præfects of cohorts, the bands of soldiers,
and the vanguards are derived, and universally all those who rank as
leaders. But the whole genus of the vanguards consists of those that
are most brave, most impetuous, and most daring. And the remaining
multitude is gregarious and military. Of the third part, however,
which is engaged in sordid occupations, and in labouring to procure
the necessaries of life, one part consists of husbandmen, and those
who are employed in the elaboration of the land; but another part
consists of artificers, who procure such instruments and machines
as the occasions of life require; and another part is engaged in
peregrinations and merchandise, and in exporting to foreign regions
such things as are superabundant in the city, and importing into
it other things from foreign countries. The systems of political
society, therefore, are coarranged through so many and such like
parts.
In the next place, it is requisite to speak of their adaptation
and union. Since, however, the whole of political society may
be perfectly assimilated to a lyre, in consequence of requiring
apparatus and coaptation, and also because it is necessary that it
should be touched and used musically;—this being the case, I have
sufficiently spoken above about the apparatus of a polity, and
shown from what and from how many particulars it is constituted.
I shall now, therefore, endeavour to speak of the coaptation and
union of these. I say then, that political society is coadapted
from the following three particulars, from disciplines, the study
of manners [or customs], and from the laws; and that through these
three, man is instructed, and becomes more worthy. For disciplines
are the sources of erudition, and cause the desires to be impelled
to virtue. But the laws, partly detaining by fear, repell men [from
the commission of crimes,] and partly alluring by honours and
gifts, excite them [to virtue]. And manners and studies fashion the
soul like wax, and through their continued energy impress in it
propensities that become, as it were, natural. It is necessary,
however, that these three should have an arrangement in conjunction
with the beautiful, the useful, and the just; and that each of these
three should, if possible, have all these for its final intention;
but if not all of them, it should at least have two or one of them
as the mark at which it aims, in order that disciplines, manners,
and laws may be beautiful, just, and advantageous. In the first
place, however, the beautiful in conduct should be preferred; in
the second place the just; and in the third place, the useful. And
universally the endeavour should be, that through these the city may
become, in the most eminent degree, consentaneous and concordant with
its parts, and may be free from sedition and hostile contention.
But this will be effected, if the passions in the souls of youth
are disciplined, and in things pleasing and painful are led to
mediocrity, and if the possessions of men are moderate, and they
derive their subsistence from the cultivation of the earth. And this
will also be accomplished, if good men rule over those that are in
want of virtue; skilful men over those that are deficient in skill;
and rich men over those things that require a certain largess and
expenditure; and if also appropriate honours are distributed to
those who govern in all these in a becoming manner. But there are
three causes which are incitements to virtue, viz. fear, desire, and
shame. The law, however, is able to produce fear, but custom shame:
for those that have been accustomed to act well, will be ashamed to
do any thing that is base. And disciplines are capable of producing
desire. For they at one and the same time assign the causes of
things, and attract the soul, and they especially effect this when
they are accompanied with exhortation. Hence it is necessary that
the souls of young men should be sufficiently instructed in what
pertains to senates, fellowship, and associations, both military and
political, but that the tribe of elderly men should be coadapted to
things of this kind; since young men, indeed, require correction and
instruction, but elderly men are in want of benevolent associations,
and a mode of living unattended with pain.
Since, therefore, we have said, that the worthy man is perfected
through three things, viz. through customs, laws, and disciplines,
it is requisite to consider how customs or manners are usually
corrupted, and how they become permanent. We shall find, then, that
customs are corrupted in two ways: for they are either corrupted
through ourselves or through foreigners. And through ourselves,
indeed, either through our flying from pain, or through our pursuit
of pleasure. For in consequence of flying from pain, we do not
endure labour; and through our pursuit of pleasure, we reject what
is good. Labours, however, procure good for mankind; but pleasures
evil. Hence men through pleasures, becoming incontinent and remiss,
are rendered effeminate in their souls, and more profuse in their
expenses. But customs and manners are corrupted through foreigners,
when a multitude of these dwelling with us, rejoice in the success
of their emporetic employment; or when those who dwell in the
suburbs, being lovers of pleasure and luxury, impart their manners
to the neighbouring inhabitants. On this account it is necessary
that the legislators, and prefects of the mass of the people, should
diligently observe whether the customs of the city are carefully
preserved, and proceed equally through all the citizens. And farther
still, they should observe whether the genuine and indigenous
multitude, of which the polity consists, remains pure and unmingled
with any other nation; and whether the magnitude of possessions
remains in the same state, and does not become excessive. For the
possession of superfluities is accompanied by the desire of still
more of the superfluous. After this manner, therefore, customs ought
to be rendered secure.
With respect to disciplines, however, the same legislators and
præfects should diligently inspect and examine the tribe of sophists,
whether they teach what is useful to the laws, to political dogmas,
and to the peculiar economy of life. For the doctrines of the
sophists ingenerate in the souls of men, no casual but the greatest
infelicity; when they dare to make innovation in any thing pertaining
either to human or divine concerns, contrary to common conceptions;
than which nothing can be more pernicious either with respect to
truth, or security, or renown. And in addition to this, also, they
introduce darkness and confusion into the minds of the vulgar. But
of this kind are all such doctrines as either teach that there is no
God, or if there is, that he is not so affected towards the human
race, as to look to it with providential attention, but deserts and
despises it. For doctrines of this kind produce in men folly and
injustice, to an extent which it is not easy to narrate. For every
man who is full of anarchy, and who has shaken off the fear of
disobedience [to rulers and the laws], wantonly exults, and violates
the laws. Hence it is necessary to employ political and venerable
assertions, which are adapted to the disposition of the speaker,
and which are void of dissimulation. For thus what is said will
exhibit the manners of the speaker. From the laws, however, security
will thus be necessarily introduced, if the polity is composed and
coarranged from every thing which is according to nature, and not
from such things as are preternatural. For cities derive no advantage
from a tyranny, and very little from an oligarchy. It is necessary,
therefore, that a kingdom should be established in the first place;
and in the second place, an aristocracy. For a kingdom, indeed, is a
thing imitative of God, and which is with difficulty preserved and
defended by the human soul. For it is rapidly changed through luxury
and insolence. Hence it is not proper to employ it universally, but
only so far as it may be useful to the polity; but an aristocracy
should be more abundantly interwoven in it, because it consists
of many rulers, who emulate each other, and who often alternately
govern. It is also entirely necessary that a democracy should be
introduced. For as a citizen is a part of the whole polity, it is
requisite that he should receive a certain reward from it[10]. But
it is necessary that he should be sufficiently restrained. For the
vulgar are audacious and precipitate.