THE INTERIOR.
#The floor levels.#--The Church of St. Alban is built so that its axis
points considerably to the south of east, a thing that would hardly have
been expected, seeing that the sun rises as far to the north of east as
it ever does on St. Alban's Day, June 22nd. The orientation of the
church may have been due to the fact that no great attention was paid to
it by the builders, or it may have been due to the natural slope of the
ground, which would have made the building of the church difficult had
the east end been swung round further to the north where the ground is
higher, and the west end to the south-west where it is lower; even as
the church was built the slope of the ground has had its effect on the
floor levels. These have been modified from time to time; to describe
all the changes would take too much space, but it may be interesting to
state the differences of level that exist at the present day.
On entering by the west door a peculiarity will at once be noticed.
About fifteen feet from the inner side of the west wall there is a rise
of five steps which stretch right across the church from north to south.
The floor to the east of these steps slopes imperceptibly upwards for
eight bays, when a rise of three more steps is met with. On this higher
level stands the altar, which is backed up by the rood screen. There is
another step to be ascended to the level of the choir, and another to
reach the space below the tower. Five steps lead from this into the
presbytery; there is another step at the high altar rails, and four more
lead up to the platform on which the high altar will stand. From the
space below the tower one step leads up into the north aisle and two
more into the north arm of the transept. From the level of the south
choir aisle and south transept two steps lead up into the south aisle of
the presbytery; from this aisle there is a rise of four steps into the
aisle south of the Saint's Chapel, and from this into the chapel itself
a rise of four more. So that the floor of this chapel is, with the
exception of the high altar platform, which is one step higher, the
highest in the whole church, or nineteen steps above the floor just
inside the west door. From the aisle of the Saint's Chapel one step
leads into the retro-choir, and two more into the Lady Chapel; hence the
floor of the Lady Chapel is one step lower than that of the Saint's
Chapel. If we take seven inches as the average height of a step, it
would appear that the floor of the Lady Chapel is about ten feet higher
than the floor at the west end of the nave.
As we stand just inside the west door of the church we are struck by the
length of ritual nave, about 200 feet, the flatness of the roofs, and
the massiveness of the arcading dividing the nave from the aisles; for,
though the four western bays on the north side and five on the south are
Early English in date, there is none of that lightness and grace that we
are accustomed to associate with work of this period, no detached shafts
of Purbeck marble such as we see at Salisbury, no exquisitely carved
capitals such as we meet with at Wells. William of Trumpington seems to
have aimed at making his work harmonize with the Norman work that he
left untouched; and when the rest of the main arcade on the south side
was rebuilt in the next century, it was made to differ but little in
general appearance and dimensions from Abbot William's.
The vertical proportions of the nave elevation are very fine. If the
whole be divided into nine equal parts, four of these are occupied by
the main arcade, two by the triforium, and three by the clerestory. The
view eastward is often closed by a dark red curtain that hangs behind
the organ, which stands in a gallery behind the rood screen. The screen
divides the congregational nave from the three eastern bays of the
architectural nave, which form the western part of the ritual choir.
When the curtain is drawn aside we get a view of the tower arches and
more of the length of the church is seen. It is to be hoped that no
attempt to move the organ will now be made, as some, no doubt, would
suggest, in order to get a more open vista; for the organ stands just
where it can be used equally well for a service either in the nave or
choir, and its sound can be heard with more effect than if it were
stowed away on either side of the church. The longest view of the church
which can be obtained is to be seen by standing at the extreme west end
of the south aisle, from which, when a draught-excluding curtain that
hangs across the aisle just to the east of the transept is drawn aside,
the view extends as far as the east window of the retro-choir, distant
about 440 feet from the western wall, that is, about one-twelfth of a
mile. A better idea of the enormous length of the whole building is
given by saying that it is about a tenth of a mile long, rather than by
giving its length in feet.
[Illustration: BASE OF INCOMPLETE PIER.]
At the extreme west of the nave, on the north side, will be seen the
base of what was intended for an Early English pillar, probably John de
Cella's work, for provision is made for the slender detached columns of
Purbeck marble, the intended use of which his successor abandoned. An
inscription beneath the west window records the fact that when
pestilence prevailed in London in the reign of Henry VIII., and again in
that of Elizabeth, the courts of justice were held in the nave. This
took place in the years 1543, 1589, and 1593.
[Illustration: PLAN OF PIER.]
On the second pier on the north side is an inscription to the memory of
Sir John Mandeville, who was born at St. Albans early in the fourteenth
century, and educated at the monastery school. He studied medicine and
set out in 1322 for his famous travels, professing, in the account which
he published in French in 1357 in Paris, to have visited not only every
part of the south of Europe, but many parts of Asia, even China. It is
not known where he was buried, whether in England or abroad, and the
statement of the Latin inscription on this pillar that he was buried in
this church cannot be regarded as more trustworthy than most of the
statements in the book of travels.
[Illustration: ARCADE ON NORTH SIDE OF NAVE.]
[Illustration: EASTERN PART OF NORTH SIDE OF NAVE.]
The first four bays on this side are thirteenth-century work. The
junction of this with the earlier Norman work is of the most curious
character: the Norman pier was cut off level, a short distance below the
impost, and on the top of this three courses of the Early English pier
were laid. Why the Early English pier was not carried down to the
ground, in a way similar to that, in which the easternmost Early English
pier on the south side is carried, we cannot tell. It has been
conjectured that some special sanctity attached to the statue which
stood on the bracket, which may still be seen on the western face of
this pier. It will be noticed how plain is the plan of the Norman piers
(see illustration, p. 37). They have no capital, only a projecting
course of brickwork from which the arch springs. The two easternmost
piers, however, were altered at some time (see illustration, p. 39), and
a rough kind of capital formed by cutting away the pier below. The
Norman piers were first covered with plaster, and then painted both on
their western and southern faces, and when the white-wash with which
they had been covered in post-Reformation days was removed in 1862, the
frescoes were discovered in a more or less perfect condition. All those
on the western faces with one exception, represent the same subject, the
Crucifixion, with a second subject below. No doubt against these piers
altars used to stand, and these frescoes served, as we should say, as
painted reredoses or altarpieces.
The subjects are as follows, beginning at the west of the Norman arcade:
First pier, west face. Christ on the Cross, crowned; the Virgin on
the north side, St. John on the south, holding a book. Beneath,
Virgin (crowned and holding a sceptre) and Child; on each side an
angel censing. Late twelfth or early thirteenth century.
South face. St. Christopher. Fourteenth century.
Second pier, west face. Christ on the Cross; the Virgin with
clasped hands on south side, St. John on north. Beneath, Virgin
and Child under a canopy. Early thirteenth century.
South face. Archbishop Becket. Fourteenth century.
Third pier, west face. Christ on the Cross; the Virgin on the
south side, St. John on north, resting his head on his hand.
Beneath, under a pointed arch, the Annunciation. This is in
outline only. Fourteenth century.
South face. A woman in a blue gown holding a rosary in her left
hand, possibly St. Citha (Osyth). Fourteenth century.
Fourth pier, west face. Christ on the Cross. Beneath, the
Annunciation. A rude painting of the thirteenth or fourteenth
century.
South face. A pilgrim and slight traces of another figure. The
subject is supposed to be either Edward the Confessor relieving
St. John disguised as a pilgrim, or St. John giving a ring to a
pilgrim. Fourteenth century.
Fifth pier, west face. Christ on the Cross, much draped; the
Virgin and St. John with red background. Beneath, the Coronation
of the Virgin. Fourteenth century.
South face. This was once painted, but not enough remains to allow
the subject to be made out.
Sixth pier, west face. Christ in his Glory; very slight traces
only.
[Illustration: NORTH NAVE ARCADE: WESTERN END.]
Besides these figure subjects painted on the piers, the soffits of the
arches were decorated with colour, some of which still remains.
Although in the four western bays of the main arcade the Early English
work is very plain, yet the triforium is ornate. The arcading consists
of two pointed arches in each bay, each comprising two sub-arches; the
supporting columns are slender and enriched with dog-tooth mouldings,
with which also the string-course below the triforium is decorated. The
shafts, which probably were intended to support a stone vault over the
nave, should be noticed.
This illustration also shows the character of the clerestory. The
triforium over the Norman main arcade consists of large, wide-splayed,
round-headed openings, in which the tracery and glazing introduced in
the fifteenth century, when the aisle roof was lowered in pitch so as to
expose the north side of the triforium to the sky, still remains. One of
the triforium arches, namely, the third from the tower, was simply
walled up at this time, and so retains its original form. The clerestory
in this part of the church consists of plain, round-headed openings.
Between each bay the outer southern face of each Norman pier is
continued in the form of a flat pilaster buttress up to the roof.
[Illustration: SOUTH NAVE ARCADE, SHOWING THE JUNCTION OF THIRTEENTH AND
FOURTEENTH-CENTURY WORK.]
The rood screen behind the altar, which is sometimes erroneously called
St. Cuthbert's screen, is of fourteenth-century work, but much restored,
and is pierced by two[6] doorways, which were used when processions
passed from the nave into the choir. The doors themselves are
fourteenth-century work. Against this screen once stood three altars.
The northern one was dedicated to St. Thomas of Canterbury and St.
Oswyn, King of Northumbria; the central one to the Holy Apostles, the
confessors, and St. Benedict; and that on the south to St. Mary. These
once stood against the western faces of the Norman piers of the south
arcade of the nave, which fell in the fourteenth century. These piers
doubtless corresponded with those we still see on the north side, and
were probably similarly decorated with frescoes. The south arcade at its
eastern end differs entirely from that on the north. This part of the
church was rebuilt after the fall of part of the Norman arcade. The five
Early English bays to the west are divided from the Decorated ones to
the east by a massive pier, generally supposed to be Norman, but
probably rebuilt. The northern face of this runs up as a pilaster
buttress to the roof; the string round it in continuation of that below
the triforium is carved with tooth ornament. West of this we have tooth
ornament, to the east the characteristic ball flower. The junction of
the two styles is shown in the illustration below, from which it will be
noticed that, though there is a general resemblance in the bays on
either side of the dividing pilaster, yet the details are different. To
the east we see shields below the triforium string, and heads at the
termination of the hood moulding. The head shown in this photograph is
possibly that of Master Geoffrey, master mason to Abbot Hugh of
Eversden; the others passing on to the east are probably those of Edward
II., Queen Isabella, and Abbot Hugh. The shields, also counting from the
west, are those of England, France, Mercia, England, Edward the
Confessor, and England. The hood mouldings of the triforium and
clerestory also terminate in heads, some of them grotesque. The
Decorated piers were found by Lord Grimthorpe in a very unsound
condition, not on account of any defect in the foundation, but on
account of the bad mortar in which their rubble cores had been set. This
had become dust, and tended to burst out the ashlar casing: this shell
was indeed doing all the work of supporting the weight resting on the
piers. Lord Grimthorpe shored up the arches, and in large measure
rebuilt the piers of larger stones. He says: "It took no small trouble
and scolding to get these worked as roughly as the old ones, so as to
make the work homogeneous and bewilder antiquaries." This sentence shows
the false principles on which Lord Grimthorpe sometimes worked;
necessary repairs should never be executed with a view to make the work
appear as old as that the place of which it takes.
[6] This was the original Benedictine arrangement, which is said to
remain in this church and Westminster Abbey only.
The pulpit against the fourth pier on the north side, counting from the
rood screen, is new, decorated with pentagonal diaper work--pentagons
being apparently particularly attractive to Lord Grimthorpe.
#The Organ.#--The present organ when first built in 1862 was placed in
the north arm of the transept, where the previously used organ had
stood; in 1877 it was moved to the north-east corner of the nave; and
was again moved in 1882, being then placed where it now is. In 1885 it
was enlarged by Lord Grimthorpe, and the key-board was placed at the
south end, so that the organist might command a view of the choristers,
whether they were singing in the nave or in the choir. It is considered
a fine and powerful instrument, and no better position in the church
could be found for it.
[Illustration: SOUTH AISLE OF NAVE FROM EAST.]
#The South Aisle.#--At the western end of the south wall of this aisle
may be seen the remains of an arch which was intended to lead into the
south-west tower. Above it, high up, is a single-light window. The next
three windows, of two lights each, with Decorated tracery, were inserted
by Lord Grimthorpe in the blank wall; the next window probably dates
from the seventeenth century. The windows in the next five bays come
down on the inside to a much lower level than those to the west (see
illustration, p. 43), but the bottom of the glass was kept high so as to
be above the roof of the north walk of the cloister, which rested
against the wall of these bays. Two of these windows contain modern
glass, one being inserted to the memory of the present Dean's father.
There was once a door in the second bay from the west, which probably
was used for processions, and in the seventh bay was a small door
opening into the cloister, from which a passage in the thickness of the
wall led up by a flight of steps into the Abbot's chapel. This opening
has been converted into a muniment room, and is closed by an iron door
leading from the aisle. The vaulting of the western part is of stone,
and was erected by Sir Gilbert Scott in 1878. The vaulting of the
eastern part is fourteenth-century work erected at the time of the
reconstruction of this part of the church in Decorated style, and is
only plaster.
Against the south face of the large pier, at the junction of the Early
English and Decorated bays, once stood an altar dedicated to our Lady of
the Pillar, with a painting of the Adoration of the Magi above it. Iron
railings inclosing the space between this pier and the next to the west
formed a chapel set apart for the use of the Guild of St Alban. This
guild was founded in the reign of Edward III., but dissolved at the time
of Wat Tyler's rebellion. It was the duty of the brethren of this guild
to follow the shrine containing the relics of St. Alban whenever it was
carried outside the church.
[Illustration: HOLY WATER STOUP.]
#North Aisle.#--At the west end of this aisle the beautiful though much
restored holy water stoup should be noticed. A semicircular arch crosses
this aisle, springing from the pier where the Early English and Norman
work join (see illustration, p. 47). The roof is of timber with only a
slight slope, built in 1860. The first four windows from the west are
new, inserted by Lord Grimthorpe in the new wall which he built here.
The other windows have new tracery, but the internal parts remain as
William of Trumpington left them. Some old glass (fifteenth century) is
to be seen in the eighth, ninth, and tenth windows of the aisle. The
font, a modern one, stands at the east end of this aisle. It took the
place in 1853 of a marble one, now in the workhouse chapel. There was
once a brazen one brought as spoil from Dunkeld in Scotland, together
with the lectern now in St. Stephen's Church; but this font disappeared
during the civil wars. The continuation of the screen across the north
aisle is due to Lord Grimthorpe. His object was to form a vestry out of
that part of the north aisle that lies along the north side of the choir
as far as the transept. On the south side he merely erected a glazed
wooden screen with a door, through which visitors pass to enter the
eastern part of the church.
[Illustration: NORTH AISLE OF NAVE.]
It may be asked, of what use could the vast nave be to a monastery like
that at St. Albans, which does not seem to have contemplated the
admission of the laity to its services? The monks' services were
chaunted in the choir: the people had the parish church of St. Andrew
for their use, in which, however, the priests of the Abbey officiated.
But we must remember that in mediaeval times, on Sundays and on other
great festivals, grand processions formed part of the ritual. The monks,
leaving the choir, perambulated the church. The general order of the
procession was probably as follows: the north arm of the transept, the
north aisle of the presbytery into the Saint's Chapel, thence back into
the aisle round the ambulatory or retro-choir, through the south
presbytery aisle into the south arm of the transept, through the Abbot's
door into the cloister, along the east, south, and west alleys back into
the church by the blocked-up door in the south wall, up the nave, and
through the two doors of the rood screen into the choir.
On special occasions it was customary for the shrines or feretories
containing the relics of the saints--in this Abbey those of St. Alban
and St. Amphibalus--to be removed from the pedestals on which they
stood, and carried in solemn procession round the church and sometimes
even outside it. For such ceremonials the naves were needed. It was also
to allow for these processions passing round the church that the
ambulatory was built leading round the back of the high altar. The idea
of holding _ordinary_ services for the laity in the nave is an entirely
new idea, and however desirable they may be, yet they have led in modern
days to the introduction into the building in some places of benches or
seats like those of parish churches, and in others to the introduction
of chairs, either of which additions considerably detracts from the
architectural effect of the building. But though in early times the
laity had not in all churches regular access to the building, yet it
appears that they were some times admitted even in those churches that
as a rule excluded them. For we find it recorded that a great number
both of men and women were in the nave of St. Albans for the purpose of
hearing Mass and praying at the time when the Norman piers on the south
side of the nave fell in 1323.
#South Choir Aisle.#--Passing through the door mentioned above, we enter
the aisle which, since it runs alongside of the ritual choir west of the
crossing, is known as the south choir aisle. In this part of the church
the Norman work of Abbot Paul remains. The aisle, however, was vaulted
in stone by Lord Grimthorpe. In the south wall is a recessed tomb, where
two celebrated hermits, Roger and Sigar, were buried, and which was at
one time a popular place of pilgrimage. In the recess now stands a stone
coffin, but who originally occupied it there is nothing to show. Many of
these would be found if the monks' cemetery were excavated, as after the
twentieth Abbot, Warin (1183-1195), had issued his new orders regulating
burial, all the monks were buried in coffins of stone. Roger the Hermit
was a monk of St. Albans, a deacon; but though as monk he rendered
obedience to the Abbot, he did not live within the precincts, for on one
occasion as he was returning from Jerusalem three holy angels met him,
and led him to a spot between St. Albans and Dunstable, called Markyate,
when it was intimated to him that he should live the life of a hermit.
Many were the trials and temptations he endured, many the combats he
fought with the arch enemy of mankind. Once the prince of darkness even
set the hermit's hood on fire, but the holy man was not disturbed, nor
did he cease his prayers. In course of time a holy virgin of Huntingdon,
Christina, came and occupied a cell in the immediate neighbourhood, and
received religious instruction from Roger; here she endured many
privations and mortified her body, bearing patiently the diseases
brought on by her austerities. In time Roger, at the summons of God,
quitted the world and went the way of all flesh, and his body was buried
in the arched recess made for its reception. Christina still lived on.
One day the Lord Jesus Christ appeared to her in the form of an infant,
and abode with her for the space of a whole day; from that time forward
no more temptations assailed her, and she was filled with the spirit of
prophecy and wrought many notable miracles. She took the Abbot Geoffrey
under her special care, advising him in matters of difficulty and
reproving him when he did amiss. She was the first Prioress of the
Benedictine Cell of Markyate, 1145.
Sigar lived about the same time in the wood of Northaw, south of
Hatfield. He also was famous for mortifying his flesh and for his
victories over evil spirits. It was his habit at times to come to matins
at St. Albans, and then to return to his hermit's cell and pass the time
in prayer and self-scourgings. Strange to say, though the devils could
not disturb the holy man at his prayers, the nightingales of Northaw
woods did distract him, and he therefore prayed that God would keep
these little birds away, lest he should take too much delight in their
sweet songs; whereupon no more nightingales sang in those woods, and it
is recorded that long after his time no nightingale dared venture within
a mile of the spot where the hermit had dwelt. All which things are
written in the chronicles of the Abbey, of which the reader may believe
as little or as much as he will. Sigar was buried by the side of Roger.
The arch above their grave may be seen in the illustration (p. 80),
which also shows the Abbot's door which led into the cloister. It was
built by Abbot de la Mare in the latter half of the fourteenth century.
[Illustration: SAXON BALUSTER SHAFTS IN SOUTH TRANSEPT.]
#The Transept.#--From this aisle we pass into the transept. Its southern
arm, notwithstanding the havoc wrought by Lord Grimthorpe, still retains
many points of interest. On its eastern side the triforium, consisting
of three bays, contains some baluster shafts of Saxon date; it is
supposed that they were taken from the church which Abbot Paul
demolished. It will be seen from the illustration that they are marked
with rings, and close examination has shown that they were turned in a
lathe, but not being quite long enough for their new position, extra
bases and capitals were added; these were cut with an axe, as were also
the cylindrical shafts of Norman date, which are set alternately with
the older ones. From the excellent state of preservation of the Saxon
balusters, it is evident that they did not come from the exterior of the
early church. Similar shafts may be noticed in the east wall of the
northern arm of the transept There are two arches in the eastern wall
which once led into chapels, the southern dedicated to St. Stephen, the
northern first to our Lady, afterwards to St. John; they were pulled
down in the fourteenth century to make room for a treasury. One of the
arches is now used as a cupboard, the other as a kind of museum of
fragments of carved stonework. The south wall is entirely new. Lord
Grimthorpe pulled down the front containing a Perpendicular window,
originally fifteenth-century work, but rebuilt in 1832. Thus inserted
his five tall lancets, beneath which built into the wall are ten of the
arches with restored shafts of the arcade taken from the slype at the
time of its destruction; the other six are to be seen in the south wall
of the rebuilt slype, if slype it can now be called. Under this arcading
in the transept is a doorway, built by Lord Grimthorpe, partly from
fragments of the west doorway of the old slype, and partly from his own
design. The rebuilt slype is no longer a passage as it formerly was,
leading between the south end of the transept and the north wall of the
rectangular chapter-house, but is closed at the west end by a wall with
a window in it, and at the east end has a door. Fortunately, a
photograph taken before the destruction was available for reproduction,
so that the reader may see the original condition of the south wall of
the slype (see p. 20). The west wall of the transept has entirely
different shafts in its triforium from those on the opposite side. A
little double-light window or grating may be seen in the west wall near
the aisle; it once opened into a small watching chamber, which was
walled up at the time of the restoration for the sake of giving
additional strength to the walls at the angle. It will be noticed that
the pilasters projecting from the west wall do not come down to the
ground. Lord Grimthorpe considers that these were not cut away, as might
be imagined but were originally built as we see them to give strength to
the walls where they were thinner on account of the passages in their
thickness. There is a recess in this wall which was once a doorway into
the cloister; it now contains some old oak chests, in which are placed
every week the loaves provided for the poor by Robert Skelton's charity,
1628. The wooden ceiling is due to Lord Grimthorpe.
[Illustration: DOORWAY IN SOUTH TRANSEPT.]
#The North Arm of the Transept.#--The upper part of the north wall, with
its high circular window, was rebuilt by Lord Grimthorpe. Above the
triforium on the east and west walls are three Norman windows and below
these on the west side again two other Norman ones. The Norman doorway
by which pilgrims to St. Albans shrine entered the church, and two
Norman windows, with glass representing the four Latin doctors, inserted
to the memory of Archdeacon Grant, who died 1883, may be seen below the
wheel window; in the east wall are two pairs of lancets due to Lord
Grimthorpe. Here, as in the corresponding wall on the south side, there
are two arches which once led into two chapels. After their destruction,
altars dedicated to the Holy Trinity (north) and to St. Osyth (south)
were placed in the recesses. Here may be seen two modern monuments: one
the cenotaph of Dr. Claughton, first Bishop of St. Albans, 1877-1892;[7]
this stands at equal distances from the east and west walls: the other,
an altar tomb, was erected in memory of Alfred Blomfield, Suffragan
Bishop of Colchester, who died 1884. The ceiling is by Lord Grimthorpe.
A panel from the old ceiling, representing the death of St. Alban, may
be seen in the south aisle of the presbytery.
[7] Designed by Mr. J.O. Scott; carved by Mr. Forsyth, of Hampstead.
If we stand under the central tower we get, looking westward, a view
into the choir with its modern fittings, the stalls given by various
donors, and the Bishop's throne which was brought hither from Rochester.
From the way in which the piers are cut away on their faces looking into
the choir, it is concluded that the backs of the original stalls reached
to a considerable height. The piers, like those in the nave, were at one
time painted, and on the west face of the second pier from the east of
the north arcade are remains of a painting of the Holy Trinity. In 1875
Mr. Chappie discovered wall-paintings between the clerestory windows,
three on the north and one on the south; the soffits of the arches are
also coloured.
The painted ceiling of the choir was accidentally discovered during the
restoration. A workman was cleaning one of the panels, which was
coarsely painted, and happened to rub off the surface paint, disclosing
other work below. The upper paint was then cleared away from all the
other panels. Two, in the centre, bore a Scripture subject. The others
bore, alternately, coats of arms and the monogram IHS, with wreaths of
vine-leaves. The arms belong almost entirely to those who were by blood
or marriage connected with Edward III.
The ceiling of the lantern, 102 feet from the pavement, is painted with
the red and white roses of the houses of Lancaster and York, together
with various coats of arms. The lofty arches beneath the tower (55 feet
high) are of great grandeur, as will be seen from the illustration. The
four inside faces of the lantern are alike, each containing windows
above the three arches of the arcade, each of which comprises two
subarches springing from a quadrilateral shaft.
[Illustration: THE CROSSING, LOOKING WESTWARD.]
[Illustration: THE CHOIR.]
To the east is the #presbytery#, closed by the Wallingford or high altar
#screen.# This screen was sorely dilapidated, and all its niches were
stripped of their statues, no record remaining of whose statues
originally filled them. Mr. H. Hucks Gibbs (now Lord Aldenham) undertook
to restore this screen, making good the canopies and filling them again
with statues. The screen is of clunch, a hard stone from the lower chalk
formation quarried at Tottenhoe near Dunstable, a stone much used for
interior work in the church, though it will not stand exposure to
weather in exterior walls. The new statues are by Mr. Harry Hems of
Exeter; the larger ones of magnesian limestone from Mansfield Woodhouse,
Nottinghamshire, and the smaller of alabaster. They are excellent
examples of modern carved work. The general idea was to represent "the
Passion of our Lord and of the testimony of the faith in that Passion
given in the lives and deeds of men"[8] of English race. A careful
comparison of the screen (see illustration, p. 58), with the key given
(p. 59) will enable the reader to identify the persons represented.
[8] Lord Aldenham's words in describing his scheme.
The coloured altarpiece in high relief is by Mr. Alfred Gilbert, R.A.,
and is a work quite unique in character. It represents the resurrection.
In the centre is the upper half of our Lord's figure; on one side is an
angel holding a cross, emblem of faith; on the other, one holding a
crystal globe, emblem of dominion; the wings of these angels are formed
of mother-of-pearl, and before them are grills of brass scrollwork,
intended to give an air of mystery to their appearance. The work does
not appear to be fully finished, the grills being only roughly attached
to the wall. The space before the altar is paved with slabs of marble.
[Illustration: THE WALLINGFORD SCREEN.]
[Illustration: KEY TO THE SCULPTURE ON THE WALLINGFORD SCREEN]
In an arch south of the altar is Abbot John of Wheathampstead's chantry,
containing a splendid brass of Flemish workmanship, which once covered
the grave before the high altar in which Abbot Thomas de la Mare was
buried. He is represented in full vestments carrying a pastoral staff
and wearing a mitre, according to the Pope's grant, although he was not
a bishop but only a mitred abbot, and therefore could not perform the
rite of ordination, which could be administered only by the Bishop of
Lincoln; the Abbey Church, though independent of him in all other
matters, was for this purpose in his diocese. The rebus of Abbot John
was three ears of wheat, and his motto "Valles habundabunt," an allusion
to the fertile lowland of Wheathampstead, whence he came. This rebus may
be found in various places where the work was due to him. Opposite to
this chantry is the far more magnificent one of Abbot Thomas Ramryge.
His rebus is a ram wearing a collar with the letters R.Y.G.E. inscribed
on it. This chantry was at one time, after the dissolution, appropriated
as a burial-place for the Ffaringdons, a Lancashire family, but the
original slab with Abbot Thomas's figure and inscription has been
restored to its place. Within the altar rails are four memorial stone
tablets covering the graves of four fourteenth-century Abbots--Thomas de
la Mare, Hugh of Eversden, Richard of Wallingford, and Michael of
Mentmore. Four other Abbots are known to have been buried beneath the
presbytery floor outside the altar rails--John de Marinis, John of
Berkhampstead, Roger of Norton, and John Stokes--as well as other monks
and laymen. It will be noticed that the presbytery is divided from the
aisles by solid walls, pierced only for the two chantries above
described, and for two doorways, one on each side, further west. Over
each of these doorways is a tabernacle; that on the south was put
together of fragments by Sir Gilbert Scott, and that on the north made
to match it. The clerestory windows are Lord Grimthorpe's; the painted
wooden vaulting which extends beyond the screen and over the Saints'
Chapel is John of Wheathampstead's. It will be noticed that this springs
from vaulting shafts, and it is by some considered that a stone roof was
contemplated. The triforium here is an arcade without any passage. The
pulpit, which stands close by the north pier of the eastern tower arch,
was designed by Mr. J.O. Scott and given by the Freemasons of England,
who regard St. Alban as their patron saint.
[Illustration: RAMRYGE CHANTRY.]
We will now turn to the south and pass eastward under the curtain which
hangs beneath the western arch of the south aisle of the presbytery. On
the south side we see, as we enter, a fourteenth-century holy water
stoup, and further on, under a window, a wide round-headed archway which
formerly led into a chapel now demolished, which once was dedicated to
our Lady, before the larger chapel at the east end was built. In the
next bay is a blocked Norman window from which the plaster has been
scraped to show the character of the wall, built of Roman tiles; the
quadripartite vaulting is of plaster with lines painted red to make it
appear like stone. Opposite is a large oak money-chest, and above it on
the wall is the figure of a mendicant (see p. 63), carved in wood by a
verger in the eighteenth century, hat in hand, as if asking the
passer-by to put a coin in the poor-box below. In the south wall is a
doorway which led into the treasury. The next bay is largely rebuilt; on
the south side is a door and opposite is the back of John of
Wheathampstead's chantry. From this we pass into the south aisle of the
Saint's Chapel.
[Illustration: SOUTH AISLE OF PRESBYTERY.]
First we see the doorway on the north side, under which are steps
leading up into the chapel, and further on we come to a trellis-work of
iron through which we can look across the space once occupied by the
monument of "Good" Duke Humphrey of Gloucester into the Saint's Chapel.
This grill is older (about 1275) than the rich canopy over the duke's
grave, and was doubtless erected to allow of a view being obtained from
this aisle of the martyr's shrine. There are a number of figures of
kings in the canopied niches over the grave, but it is not possible to
identify them. Opposite are some remains of a stone screen of the
Perpendicular period; it probably divided the aisle from some external
chapel. After the chapel perished the wall was built up; but during the
restoration this arcading was discovered. Through an oak screen, Lord
Grimthorpe's work, we pass into the #retro-choir.# This, as we have
before seen, was sadly mutilated after the Reformation, when the public
path was made through this part of the building and the Lady Chapel
turned into a grammar school; hence we shall find more modern work here
than in any other equal area of the church. The part east of the passage
was for long used as a covered playground for the boys and suffered much
in consequence. It was originally built at the end of the thirteenth
century. The arcading round these walls is new, much of it carved under
the direction of Lord Grimthorpe by Mr. John Baker. The carving is of a
naturalistic character, the vegetable forms being copied direct from the
plants and trees of the neighbourhood. The oak ceiling of the south side
and the flat ceiling of the centre are by Lord Grimthorpe; that on the
north side by Sir Gilbert Scott. The shrine of St. Amphibalus once stood
in the centre, but the reconstructed shrine, or rather pedestal of the
shrine, was removed to the north aisle of the Saint's Chapel by Lord
Grimthorpe, so as to be out of the way; for his idea was to fit this
part of the church for use as a chapter-house, should a chapter ever be
created, and as a consistory court. He built the low wall between it and
the Saint's Chapel with seats under the arcading to be occupied by
members of the chapter, and paved the floor with polished marble (see
illustration, p. 64).
[Illustration: WOODEN FIGURE OF A MENDICANT.]
[Illustration: RETRO-CHOIR]
There were once several altars in this retro-choir; under the east
window on the south side one to our Lady of the Four Tapers, with an
aumbry and triple-arched piscina in the south wall. This has been
restored; the upper part is entirely new. On the north side in a
corresponding position was an altar dedicated to St. Michael; while
altars dedicated to St. Edmund, King and Martyr, and to St. Peter stood
to the west of the two pillars, respectively on the north and south
sides; and another altar to St. Amphibalus stood to the west of his
shrine in the centre. It may here be noted that the east wall of the
original Norman apse extended as far as the centre of the retro-choir.
[Illustration: BASE OF THE SHRINE OF ST. AMPHIBALUS.]
[Illustration: BACK OF THE WATCHING LOFT.]
[Illustration: RAMRYGE'S CHANTRY FROM THE AISLE.]
The north aisle of the Saint's Chapel is divided from the retro-choir by
a glazed oak screen with a door in it, frequently kept locked. Just to
the west of this is the pedestal of the shrine of St. Amphibalus. This,
like that of St. Alban's shrine, was broken up into many fragments after
the dissolution of the monastery. The fragments were built into sundry
walls, but many of them were discovered when the walls blocking up the
arches at the east end of the Saint's Chapel were removed; they were put
together as far as possible, but as the east and north sides are
missing, the position the pedestal now occupies is not an unfitting one,
as these sides are hidden (see illustration, p. 65). The letters R.W.
may be seen on it. These are the initials of Ralph Whitechurch, sacrist,
at whose cost the pedestal was built in the second half of the
fourteenth century. Opposite this we see the back of the watching loft
(see illustration, p. 66) erected for the monk who kept watch and ward
over the martyr's shrine; further to the west is a doorway into the
Saint's Chapel, and still further west the back of Ramryge's chantry.
Beyond this is the north entrance into the presbytery, over which is a
painting of the Lord's Supper, generally attributed to Sir James
Thornhill and given to the church about two centuries ago; at one time
it hung over the high altar. There is also a painting of Offa, probably
fifteenth-century work, to be seen in this aisle. The two doors removed
by Lord Grimthorpe from the central doorway of the west front have been
set up against the west end of the walls of this aisle (see
illustration).
[Illustration: ONE OF THE OLD WESTERN DOORS.]
#The Lady Chapel.#--This chapel in its original condition must have been
exceedingly beautiful; and although we have had occasion to find much
fault with the work of restoration or rather destruction and needless
alteration, in other parts of the church, yet here little but praise can
be bestowed. Some may regret that the old wooden vaulting was not
retained and repaired, but the new stone vaulting is beautiful in itself
and more durable. A better material than cast iron might, however, have
been found for the altar rails. The new carving is excellent in quality
and right in principle. It has been done, not as most modern work is, by
imitating the carved work of some particular period of architecture as
set out for the carver in the architect's drawings, but by returning to
the old system of going to nature and carving from life models, so to
say. It has been done in the same spirit as actuated the early work of
the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. It is said that the carvers had sprays
of leaves and clusters of fruit and flowers before them as they carved,
and imitated them as closely as the material on which they worked
allowed them to do. Work done in this manner, provided the carver has
skill and taste, is sure to show character and life, and to differ
entirely from the mechanical conventionalisms we generally see in modern
stone-carving.
[Illustration: LADY CHAPEL.]
The chapel dates from the latter part of the thirteenth and early part
of the fourteenth centuries. The work was probably begun in the time of
Abbot Roger Norton, whose body was buried before the high altar in the
presbytery, but whose heart was laid in a small box, which was
discovered during the restoration, before the altar of St. Mary of the
Four Tapers. Possibly his successor, John of Berkhampstead, carried on
the work; but at Abbot Hugh's accession in 1308 the walls of the Lady
Chapel had only been carried up as high as the string-course below the
windows. The work of building was not continuous, as change in style
shows; moreover we read in the Chronicles that Abbot Hugh of Eversden
"brought to a praiseworthy completion the Chapel of the Virgin in the
eastern part of the church which had been begun many-years before." He
is also recorded to have roofed the space to the west, that is, the
retro-choir. It seems, then, that at the time when the alterations in
the eastern part of the Norman church were begun, not only was the
presbytery with its aisles laid out, but also the retro-choir as a group
of chapels, and possibly the Lady Chapel as well; and that when Hugh was
chosen Abbot he found the presbytery and Saint's Chapel finished, the
walls of the retro-choir raised to their full height, and those of the
Lady Chapel partly built. These he proceeded to finish. The side windows
of the Lady Chapel are beautiful examples of the fully developed
Decorated style; the jambs and mullions are ornamented with statuettes
which, strange to say, escaped destruction. "The eastern window of five
lights is a singular combination of tracery with tabernacle work, while
the easternmost bay on the south side, which is partly obscured by the
vestry, has an exquisite window above, consisting of a richly traceried
arch placed within a curvilinear triangle, beneath which is a splendid
range of niches, and, beneath them again, a gorgeous range of sedilia
and piscinae."[9] The original wall arcading had cinque-foiled heads on
the south side, and trefoiled heads on the north; but all these had been
cut away before the restoration began, probably at the time when the
walls were covered with panels to make the chapel more suitable for a
schoolroom.
[9] Sir Gilbert Scott's Report on the Lady Chapel, 1875.
In this chapel, after its dedication, mass was sung daily, and an organ
was provided to accompany the musical part of the service. The western
end of the Lady Chapel was separated from the retro-choir by a screen,
which of course perished after the dissolution. No modern screen has
been put in its place, though one would be a great improvement.
Projecting from the easternmost bay of the south side stands the Chapel
of the Transfiguration, which was dedicated in 1430. This, rebuilt, is
now used as a vestry. Beneath the floor of the Lady Chapel was buried
the hated Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, grand-son of John of Gaunt;
Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland, son of the famous Hotspur; and
Thomas, Lord Clifford: whose bodies were found lying dead in the streets
of St. Albans, after the first battle in 1455, in which they fell
fighting for the Red Rose party. They were buried by Abbot John of
Wheathampstead, who at this time was an adherent of that party, though
he became a Yorkist after Queen Margaret had allowed her troops to
plunder the Abbey when, in the second battle of St. Albans, she was
victorious over the Earl of Warwick.
A considerable amount of work was necessary to refit this chapel for
use. The restoration was begun by Scott and finished by Lord Grimthorpe.
Scott cut the mullions of the windows down the middle, retaining all the
part inside the glass so as to preserve the statues, but renewing the
part outside for the sake of strength. All the painted glass is modern,
the gift of various donors. Lord Grimthorpe, in place of the wooden
vaulting which was, he says, in a very unsound state, threw a stone
vault over the chapel, raising its ridge three feet higher than that of
the previous roof. All the arches of the arcade had been cut away, with
the exception of two at the east end, one on each side of the altar,
differing from each other as already mentioned. Lord Grimthorpe took as
a model the one with the cinque-foiled head, considering that the better
of the two, and constructed the existing arcading all round the chapel.
He rebuilt the Chapel of the Transfiguration, making its walls lower
than before, so as not to obstruct the view of the window over it. The
carving, chiefly the work of Mr. Baker, as already mentioned, represents
various vegetable forms in a naturalistic manner, the plants chosen
being for the most part such as grow in the neighbourhood--convolvulus,
primrose, buttercup, poppy, gooseberry, blackberry, rose, maple, ivy,
sycamore, pansy, polypody, and others.
Lord Grimthorpe also repaved the floor with marble slabs of three
colours--black, red, and white. During the time the chapel was used for
a schoolroom the floor had been a common wooden one. Practically, then,
it will be seen that this Lady Chapel, with the exception of its walls
and the windows with the statuettes on them, is a modern church,
surpassing, indeed, most nineteenth-century work in beauty, and much the
same may be said of the retro-choir or chapter-house.
#The Saint's Chapel.#--We must now return westward, through the south
aisle of the ambulatory, past the back of Duke Humphrey's grave, and
enter the Chapel of the Martyr by the door which opens into it from the
aisle. The centre of the chapel is occupied by the reconstructed
pedestal of the martyr's shrine. The ugly wooden railing that surrounds
it is a great blot on the appearance of the chapel; no doubt it is
necessary that the pedestal should be protected by some kind of barrier,
but a light and elegant railing of brass would answer every purpose
without marring the general effect, as the present cumbersome erection
shown in all the accompanying illustrations of objects in this chapel
does. It is to be hoped that either out of the general fabric fund, or
by the generosity of some individual donor, this one blot on this fine
chapel may be removed.
[Illustration: PEDESTAL OF ST. ALBAN'S SHRINE.]
The bones of St. Alban were of course counted as the chief treasure of
the Abbey, in some respects the most valuable relics in the kingdom,
since they were the bones of the first Christian martyr in the island.
It was meet and fitting, then, that the most splendid resting-place
should be chosen for them. The bones themselves were inclosed in an
outer and an inner case; the inner was the work of the sixteenth Abbot,
Geoffrey of Gorham (1119-1149), and the outer of the nineteenth Abbot,
Symeon (1167-1183). These coffers were of special metal encrusted with
rich gems. It is recorded that the reliquary was so heavy that it
required four men to carry it, which they probably did by two poles,
each passing through two rings on either side of the coffer. It is said
to have been placed in a lofty position by Abbot Symeon; but the
pedestal of which we see the reconstruction to-day was erected during
the early part of the fourteenth century, in the time of the
twenty-sixth Abbot, John de Marinis (1302-1308). This was built of
Purbeck marble and consists of a basement 2 ft. 6 in. high, 8 ft. 6 in.
long, and 3 ft. 2 in. wide, above which were four canopied niches at
each side and one at each end; these were richly painted and probably
contained other relics; in the spandrels were carved figures, at the
corners angels censing. At the west end was a representation of St.
Alban's martyrdom; on the south side in the centre was, and still is, a
figure of King Offa holding the model of a church; in the next spandrel
to the east the figure of another king; on the east side a
representation of the scourging of St. Alban, and on the north other
figures, of which the only one remaining is that of a bishop or mitred
abbot. In the pediments or gables were carvings of foliage, and round
the top of the pedestal ran a richly carved cornice; round the base
stood fourteen detached shafts, on which perhaps the movable canopy
rested, and outside three other shafts of twisted pattern on each side,
which carried six huge candles, probably kept burning day and night,
certainly during the night, to light the chamber holding the shrine. On
this lofty pedestal, 8 ft. 3 in. high, the glorious shrine rested. It
was rendered still more ornate than it was in Abbot Symeon's time by the
addition of a silver-gilt turret, on the lower part of which was a
representation of the Resurrection with two angels and four knights
(suggested by the guard of Roman soldiers) keeping the tomb. A
silver-gilt eagle of cunning craftsmanship stood on the shrine. All
these additions were given by Abbot Thomas de la Mare (1349-1396). A
certain monk also gave two representations of the sun in solid gold,
surrounded by rays of silver tipped with precious stones. Over all was a
canopy which, like many modern font-covers, was probably suspended by a
rope running over a pulley in the roof, by which it might be raised.
There is a mark in the roof remaining, possibly caused by the fastening
of the pulley. An altar, dedicated to St. Alban, stood at the west end
of the pedestal.
There are two quarry-shaped openings to be noticed on the north side of
the pedestal near the floor level, one of which extends right through to
the south side. Into these diseased arms or legs might be thrust for
cure by virtue of the saint. At the time of the dissolution the shrine
disappeared, and the marble pedestal was broken up into small fragments.
In 1847 the rector, Dr. Nicholson, found a few of these, when opening
the two northern of the blocked-up arches to the east of the chapel; and
in 1872, when the wall that closed the end of the south aisle was
removed and excavations were made to find the level of the aisle floor,
many more fragments, numbering in all about two thousand, were found.
These were carefully put together by Mr. Chapple, clerk of the works,
some plain stone being used to take the part of missing portions, with
the result that we see to-day, from which we can form some idea of the
appearance of the shrine in the days of its glory, even to the colour
decoration, for some of the fragments bear the original paint and gold.
[Illustration: WATCHING LOFT.]
Such a precious thing as this jewelled shrine and the still more
precious bones within it could not be left for a moment unguarded and
unwatched, for stealing relics, when a favourable opportunity arose, was
a temptation too great to be resisted by any monks, however holy. So on
the south side of the shrine was erected a watching loft; the one that
remains was constructed probably during the reign of Richard II., as his
badge appears on it, but, no doubt, from the first there was some such
place provided for the purpose of keeping guard. A similar loft may be
seen in the cathedral church of St. Frideswide at Oxford, and a watching
loft of a different construction in the south triforium at Malmesbury.
The chamber had two stories; the lower contained cupboards, in which
vestments and relics were kept, these are now filled with various
antiquarian curiosities, Roman pottery from Verulamium, architectural
fragments, etc. An oaken staircase leads up into the chamber where the
"custos feretri" sat watching the shrine day and night, guard of course
being changed at intervals. It must have been trying work watching there
during the night-time in frosty weather, but monks were accustomed to
bear cold. The watching chamber (see illustrations, pp. 66, 72) was
built of oak and was richly carved. On the south side of the cornice are
angels, the hart--badge of Richard II., the martyrdom of St. Alban, Time
the reaper, and the seasons; on the north the months of the year are
represented.
The west side of this chapel is closed by the back of Wallingford's
screen, on which may be seen five statues representing St. Peter, St.
John, St. Mary, St. Stephen, and St. Michael. The eastern side is closed
by a low wall, erected by Lord Grimthorpe in place of the wall by which
these arches were completely blocked up after the dissolution. It was
here that some of the fragments of the pedestal were found. Into his new
wall Lord Grimthorpe has built some old fragments of carved work found
in different places of the church.
The south side of this chapel is formed of the monument over the grave
of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, surnamed "good" by an admiring people,
though some modern historians hold that he had little real claim to this
title. He was the son of Henry IV., and therefore brother of Henry V.,
and was uncle of Henry VI. and guardian to the young King in the early
part of his reign. He who likes may read in any history of the part he
played in the affairs of the country: how he incurred the hatred of the
unscrupulous and vindictive Queen of Henry VI., Margaret of Anjou,
"she-wolf of France"; how he was murdered by Suffolk, with, it is said,
the connivance of the Queen and Cardinal Beaufort. It was at one time
supposed that he was buried in London, but there is little doubt that he
found a resting-place in a grave prepared for him in St. Alban's Abbey,
on March 4, 1447. This would be during the time that John Stokes was
Abbot, between the two abbacies of John of Wheathampstead. The body was
discovered in its leaden coffin during the reign of Queen Anne, when
another grave was being dug. The coffin was opened, and the duke's body
was discovered to be in a good state of preservation in the coffin,
which is described as being "full of pickle." It is said that at one
time the vergers would, for a due consideration, allow visitors to carry
away the smaller bones when, owing to the body having been removed from
the preserving fluid, nothing but a skeleton was left.
[Illustration: MONUMENT OF HUMPHREY, DUKE OF GLOUCESTER.]
The monument is a handsome one. It was probably erected by
Wheathampstead, who had been on terms of intimacy with the duke, when he
for the second time became Abbot. The canopy over the grave is richly
carved; the antelopes we see on it were the badge of the duke. His
epitaph speaks of him, among other things, as
Fraudis ineptae
Detector, dum ficta notat miracula caeci.
This refers to the story told of him by Sir Thomas More, how he
convicted an impostor who claimed to have been born blind, but to have
received sight at St. Alban's shrine, by asking him the colour of the
garments that the duke himself and others were wearing; all these
questions were correctly answered by the beggar, who forgot for the
moment that one born blind who had only just received his sight, would
not have known the _names_ of the various colours, though he might
distinguish one colour from another. The beggar was punished for his
imposture by being set in the stocks.
This story is introduced into the first scene of the second act; of the
second part of "Henry VI.," a reproduction of a St. Albans legend in
which some students of the play will find an argument for attributing
the play to Francis Bacon, who lived close by and would be likely to
know the stories current in the town.
#The Tower and Bells.#--The ringing loft is reached by a staircase
starting from the door near the north-west corner of the north arm of
the transept. The steps were originally built of Roman bricks, but at
the time of the restoration had fresh treads of stone laid on them, so
that the ascent is an easy one; from this staircase one passes along the
triforium gallery of the western side of the transept, and then up a
staircase in the turret at the north-west angle of the tower to a room
whose floor is above the flat ceiling of the lantern visible from the
floor of the church. The bells are in the next story, and at no great
height above the floor of the ringing loft. In the ringing loft may be
seen boards on which are inscribed records of several memorable sets of
changes that have been rung, with the dates, the number of changes, the
time occupied, which was generally between three and four hours, and the
names of the ringers and the number of the bell that each one pulled.
The peal consists of eight bells; the tenor is in the key of E flat, and
measures 4 ft. 6 in. in diameter, and is calculated to weigh about 28
cwt. The whole peal was originally cast in London by Philip Wightman in
the year 1699; but the second, fifth, and sixth bells were recast in the
middle of the eighteenth century, and the treble in 1845. On the tenor
may be read the following legend: "Vivos ad coelum, moritu[r]os ad solum
pulsata voco." The clock was in great measure reconstructed under Lord
Grimthorpe's direction and fitted with his gravity escapement; it
strikes the quarter chimes on the second, third, fourth, and seventh
bells, and the hours on the tenor. The mechanism of the chimes, which
play at three, six, nine, and twelve o'clock, was remade by Mr. Godman,
of St. Stephen's parish; this mechanism may be described as a kind of
gigantic musical box. A huge cylinder revolves, on which are projecting
pegs of brass, which as the cylinder goes round catch against wooden
levers which raise clappers that in their fall strike the bells. The
same tune is played all through each day, but a different tune is played
each day of the week; at the end of the week the barrel is automatically
set so as to begin the series of tunes again. There is, moreover,
another tune--the Trinity hymn--which can be set by hand, and this is
used on the greater festivals.
Besides the peal of eight the sacring bell which once hung near the high
altar is now hung in the tower.
It may be well to finish the description of the church with a few notes
about the material used and the method of building, abbreviated from a
paper by Mr. James Neale. He says that during the restoration many
examples were found of lead dowels in the joints of detached shafts.
Sinkings were cut in the upper surface of the lower stone and in the
lower surface of the upper, so that when in place these sinkings would
be opposite to each other; a small hole one-eighth inch in diameter was
then bored in the upper stone, through which lead was poured into the
sinkings. The mortar used between the outer stones of the
fourteenth-century bays of the nave was mixed with oyster-shells,
contained a large amount of lime, and was very hard. There is much
clunch stone used in the interior and this is in a good state of
preservation, but any that has been used externally has decayed. The
abaci of the Early English capitals in the main arcade are of Barnack
stone, which is harder than clunch and so more suitable for bearing a
weight. The Norman stonework was cut with an axe, the Transition with a
chisel. The Early English is bolster-tooled; the Decorated ashlar
(including the bays on the south side of the nave) is claw-tooled, the
mouldings being scraped; the Perpendicular is finely scraped.
[Illustration: SOUTH CHOIR AISLE.]