* * * * *
=THE WADIS DRAINING EASTWARDS TO THE SEA.=
* * * * *
The eastward drainage differs strikingly from the westward in being
much steeper and more complex, due to the greater proximity of
the mountains to the sea than to the Nile. While all the westward
drainages form parts of but three great basins, there are on the
seaward side no less than forty-seven distinct drainage basins,
each having a separate outlet to sea (_see_ Plate II). Only two of
the eastern basins, Hodein and Di-it, are comparable in size with
the great basins of the west, the remainder being relatively small.
The following list gives the names in order, from north to south, of
the main wadis draining to the sea, with their tributaries so far as
they fall within the area treated of in this volume, the principal
feeders of the tributaries being indicated in parentheses. It may
be remarked that the minor feeders and tributaries are frequently
of greater importance to the Arabs than the main channels, owing to
their containing vegetation in greater abundance.
WADI DABUR.
WADI IGLI.
WADI UM KHARIGA.
WADI SUKARI.
WADI UM TUNDEBA.
WADI AMBA-UT.
{ Wadi Ghuel.
{
{ Wadi Fegas.
{
{ Wadi Ma-ud.
{
WADI GHADIR { Wadi Sabahia.
{
{ Wadi Zabara (Wadi Atabi, Wadi Um Abid, Wadi Um
{ Dafiri).
{
{ Wadi Allawi (Wadi Lewewi).
WADI UM GAMIL.
{ Wadi Huluz (Wadi Abiad lil Huluz, Wadi Mahali,
{ Wadi Tarfawi, Wadi Hilgit lil Huluz, Wadi Um
{ Semiuki, Wadi Um Hegiligi lil Huluz, Wadi
{ Marasan, Wadi Um Suerab lil Huluz, Wadi Abu
{ Gerifat, Wadi Um Iteili, Wadi Ga-etri, Wadi Abu
{ Etl).
{
{ Wadi Um Suerab lil Gemal.
{
{ Wadi Durunkat.
{
{ Wadi Hafafit (Wadi Abu Had, Wadi Hefeifit).
WADI GEMAL {
{ Wadi Nugrus (Wadai el Nom, Wadi Abu Rusheid,
{ Wadi Abu Sada, Wadi Sikait).
{
{ Wadi Mukhatatat.
{
{ Wadi Um Sueh.
{
{ Wadi Um Heran.
{
{ Wadi Nasbia.
{
{ Wadi Abiad (Wadi Um Seyal).
{
{ Wadi Um Kabu.
WADI UM EL ABBAS Wadai el Anz.
WADI ABU GHUSUN Wadi Romit (Wadi Shoab, Wadi Abu Hegilig, Wadi
Hefeiri).
WADI EL RANGA.
WADI HAMATA.
WADI HARATREIT.
WADI KHASHIR.
WADI MIKBI.
{ Wadi Um Karaba.
{
{ Wadi Eidab.
{
{ Wadi Um Gunud.
{
{ Wadi Um Rishan.
{
{ Wadi Um Homar.
WADI LAHAMI {
{ Wadi Sefent.
{
{ Wadi Um Khuzama.
{
{ Wadi Um Ghobasha.
{
{ Wadi Gumudlum.
{
{ Wadi Abu Marwa lil Lahami.
{ Wadi Naait (Wadi Um Sumur, Wadi Abu Marwa lil
WADI MUKHIT { Naait, Wadi Abu Ghalqa).
{
{ Wadi Abu Daba (Wadi Murra).
WADI ABU DIBBAN.
WADI MINDEIT Wadi Um Sellim lil Mindeit.
{ Wadi Um Maiat.
{
WADI KALALAT { Wadi Dibag lil Batoga.
{
{ Wadi Um Sellim.
WADI UM GORAN.
WADI KUNSEROB Wadi Dibag lil Kunserob.
WADI ABU BERIGA.
{ Wadi Abu Debebi lil Khoda.
{
{ Wadi Salib el Abiad.
{
{ Wadi Salib el Azraq (Wadi Um Karaba).
{
{ Wadi Allawi.
{
{ Wadi Um Tawil lil Khoda.
{
{ Wadi Hindia.
{
{ Wadi Um Akra.
{
WADI KHODA { Wadi Shut (Wadi Abu Hugban, Wadi Tawil lil
{ Shut).
{
{ Wadi Um Gubur.
{
{ Wadi Shib.
{
{ Wadi Um Seyal lil Khoda.
{
{ Wadi Gumudlum.
{
{ Wadi Bulluk.
{
{ Wadi Um Lassaf.
{
{ Wadi Shenshef.
WADI UM ETLI.
WADI SORUBIAB Wadi Bint el Kurdum.
{ Wadi Titai.
{
{ Wadi Abu Nikheil.
{
{ Wadi Abu Reye.
{
{ Wadi Um Buerat.
{
WADI RAHABA { Wadi Abiad (Rod Elbel, Wadi Abu Ribian).
{
{ Wadi Megah.
{
{ Wadi Hutit.
{
{ Wadi Dagalai lil Rahaba.
{
{ Wadi Abu Had.
{
{ Wadi Marafai.
{ Wadi Arned (Wadi Muegil, Wadi Um Arta).
{
{ Wadi Saalek.
{
{ Wadi Um Reit (Wadi Dreb, Wadi Malhat).
{
{ Talet Um Danaqa.
{
{ Talet Um Sideiri.
{
{ Wadi Gihab (Wadi Gihab Abu Derb).
{
{ Wadi Maghal.
{
{ Wadi Naam (Wadi Fil, Wadi Abu Seyal, Wadi Um
{ Bisilla, Wadi Erf Um Araka, Wadi Arais, Wadi
{ Silsila, Wadi Abraq, Wadi Betan).
{
{ Wadi Dif (Wadi Feqoh, Talet Um Karaba, Wadi
{ Enqireidia, Wadi Gelabat Shabai).
{
{ Wadi Orga el Atshani.
WADI HODEIN {
{ Wadi Orga el Rayani.
{
{ Wadi Anfeib (Wadi Anfeib el Tawayib, Wadi
{ Atalab, Wadi Mitatib).
{
{ Wadi Khasiya.
{
{ Wadi Madi (Wadi Difotib, Wadi Eirahimib, Wadi
{ Faditiai, Wadi Shellal el Gharbi, Wadi Sinatib,
{ Wadi Tugudbaia, Wadi Berendiyeb, Wadi Atluk,
{ Rod Mukrayib, Wadi Kolaiqo, Wadi Edunqul).
{
{ Wadi Um Tenedba.
{
{ Wadi Khashab (Wadi Dehaiartib).
{
{ Wadi Um Seleim.
{
{ Wadi Kreiga (Wadi Korbiai, Wadi Meneiga, Wadi
{ Abiad, Wadi Eberer, Wadi Shigig).
WADI KOLAIQO.
{ Wadi Radad.
{
{ Wadi Shellal el Sharqi.
{
{ Wadi Muqur (Wadi Ti Ilak, Wadi Tikosha).
{
{ Wadi Qadiloi (Talet Tihu Shana).
{
WADI SHAB { Wadi Baaneit.
{
{ Wadi Kilanai.
{
{ Wadi Diqdib.
{
{ Wadi Um Saha.
{
{ Wadi Sherefa el Sharqi.
{
{ Kwat Hewah.
{ Wadi Mantil Hasium.
{
{ Wadi Hilwit Hasium.
{
{ Wadi Shinai.
{
{ Wadi Delawet.
{
{ Wadi Abu Hodeid.
{
{ Rod Anut Berer.
{
{ Wadi Tikraneib.
{
WADI IBIB (HASIUM) { Wadi Abu Hireiq.
{
{ Wadi Odruk.
{
{ Wadi Nilateib.
{
{ Wadi Medarai (Wadi Merdiyeb, Wadi Um Rasein).
{
{ Wadi Soaorib (Wadi Haiyo, Wadi Hankuk, Wadi
{ Dishlo, Wadi Eimya, Wadi Qidmib).
{
{ Wadi Um Bishtit (Wadi Delawet, Wadi Orgem).
{
{ Wadi Habliai.
{ Wadi Sarobaiya.
{
{ Wadi Awitla.
{
{ Wadi Lasewid.
{
WADI MEISAH { Sarob Kwan.
{
{ Akla Da-aiyob.
{
{ Hanqun Ra-ub.
{
{ Wadi Eqaiyib.
{ Wadi Shendib.
{
{ Wadi Hareitra.
{
{ Wadi Qurat (Wadi Dibir, Wadi Hashimaiyib, Wadi
{ Oshqeq, Wadi Mashushenai).
{
{ O Harbub.
{
WADI KIRAF (DI-IB) { Wadi Salalob.
{
{ Wadi Warabeit (Sarob Kwan, Wadi Wi-eqwer, Wadi
{ Kwileimidaiyeib).
{
{ Wadi Qumad Lim.
{
{ Wad el Qireira (Wadi Didaut, Wadi Baueiwai).
{
{ Wadi Halal Hendiyeb.
WADI DI-IT.
WADI EIKWAN.
{ Wadi O Sir Hadal.
{
{ Wadi Qeirat.
WADI YOIDER {
{ Wadi Siamtit.
{
{ Wadi Akwamtra.
WADI AIDEIB Wadi Yahameib (Wadi Akau, Wadi Kansisrob).
WADI TODHI.
WADI DELOWA.
{ Wadi Um Seyal.
WADI SERIMTAI {
{ Wadi O Sir Eirab.
WADI SHELLAL.
WADI AQILHOQ.
WADI AQWEI.
WADI
KREIT-REIT-OR.
WADI QABATIT.
=Wadi Dabur= falls only partly within the district to be described
in the present volume. It drains the hill country between Gebels
Atut and Igli, by numerous feeders, and courses north-east to enter
the sea about latitude 25° 16′, beyond the limits shown on the map.
=Wadi Igli= is a short wadi draining from Gebel Igli and coursing a
little north of east to the sea somewhat south of latitude 25° 10′.
=Wadi Um Khariga= has its principal head in a _cul-de-sac_ west
of Gebel Ghuel and north of Gebel Hangalia, at an altitude of
approximately 800 metres above sea-level. Near its head there is an
easy pass entering from the west, forming a line of communication
with Hangalia mine; the highest point of the pass is 773 metres above
sea-level. After coursing for about twelve kilometres a little west
of north between the high hills called Gebel Um Khariga, with a rapid
fall, the wadi turns north-east, receiving just below the bend a large
tributary which heads in an easy pass to Wadi Ghadir. Near this place
a road crosses the wadi northwards through the low hills, and passes
west of Gebel Igli el Iswid; it is said to go on to Qena. Further
on in its course towards the sea, Wadi Um Khariga receives another
tributary draining the south flanks of Gebel Igli el Iswid. The
lower portion of Wadi Um Khariga has not been surveyed in detail;
but it passes through a tract of lower hills and enters the sea in
about latitude 25° 5′. The total length of the main channel of
Wadi Um Khariga is about fifty kilometres, and the area of its basin
is about 300 square kilometres.
=Wadi Sukari=, the next wadi to the south, heads at a pass from Wadi
Ghadir; for about nine kilometres it courses east of north between
the eastern range of Gebel Um Khariga and the craggy Gebel Sukari,
then turns more to the east and enters the sea a little south of Wadi
Um Khariga. Near the south end of Gebel Sukari there are numerous
ruins and some ancient gold mines.
=Wadi Um Tundeba= heads near the mountain of the same name, and
courses about north-east to the sea. In one of the heads of this wadi,
about three kilometres west of the summit of Gebel Um Tundeba, is
an important water source, called =Galt Um Tundeba=. This is a rock
basin situated about one kilometre up a little wadi; it contained
a good supply of water in December 1905, but as it depends for its
supply on rainfall in the surrounding hills, it cannot be relied on
as a permanent water source.
=Wadi Amba-ut= is a small wadi originating near the granite hills
called Gebel Amba-ut, and following a course about parallel with
the Wadi Um Tundeba seawards.
=Wadi Ghadir=, which drains by numerous tributaries the eastern
face of Gebels Hangalia and Zabara, as well as the hilly country
round Gebels Ghadir, Allawi, and Lewewi, has a basin of over 500
square kilometres and a length along its main channel, not counting
its feeders, of about forty-five kilometres; it enters the sea in
latitude 24° 50′.
The principal head of Wadi Ghadir is at an easy pass between Gebels
Ghuel and Um Khariga, in latitude 24° 55′, at an altitude of about
500 metres above sea-level. Coursing south-east, it receives important
feeders from gorges in the west face of Gebel Ghuel; the principal
of these feeders, =Wadi Ghuel=, contains water holes, which gave an
excellent supply of rain water in 1905-06. A little further along its
course, Wadi Ghadir passes the low hill district called =Kurdeman=,
where there are some old gold mines, and then receives as tributaries
=Wadi Fegas= and =Wadi Ma-ud=, draining the mountains of Ghuel and
Hangalia. Taking now a more easterly direction towards Gebel Ghadir,
it receives from the north-west =Wadi Sabahia=, draining the craggy
felsite hill of the same name; there are some old gold mines about
a kilometre north-east of this hill, in a branch of Wadi Sabahia.
The =Wadi Zabara=, an important tributary draining the north flanks
of Gebel Zabara and the south-east part of Gebel Hangalia, enters
Ghadir from the south-west, nearly opposite Wadi Sabahia. Wadi
Zabara has itself three main heads, called by the separate names of
=Wadi Atabi=, =Wadi Um Abid=, and =Wadi Um Dafiri=. There are ruins
and ancient mines close to where the Wadi Atabi joins Wadi Zabara,
while in the upper part of Wadi Um Dafiri are more extensive ruins
and numerous ancient emerald mines, as well as a series of rock
basins which were yielding good water in 1905-1906.
After receiving the Wadi Zabara, Wadi Ghadir continues its course
south-east past Gebel Ghadir, from the slopes of which numerous small
feeders enter the main channel. Almost due south of Gebel Ghadir,
in the southern one of two branches into which the wadi splits as
it passes round a low island-like mass of hills, is =Bir Ghadir=,
a well sunk in the alluvium of the wadi floor. When I visited it
early in 1906 this well was filled by downwash, and the Arabs of the
district deferred digging it out until the rock basins were empty; it
is an important water source and is said to yield good supplies. The
mines of Hangalia were supplied by water from Bir Ghadir in 1905,
when nearer sources were dry.
About six kilometres below the well, Wadi Ghadir passes close north
of Gebel Allawi, where there are some old gold mines. The =Wadi
Allawi=, which with its tributary =Wadi Lewewi= drains the hilly
country between Gebels Zabara and Sikait, enters Ghadir a little to
the east of Gebel Allawi; both Allawi and Lewewi are very tortuous
wadis, their names in fact meaning “crooked” in the Ababda tongue
(Lewewi is a diminutive of Allawi).
=Wadi Um Gamil=, the next wadi entering the sea to the south, drains
the hilly country south-east of Sikait. Very little is known about its
course, the only part surveyed being the heads east of Gebel Sikait.
=Wadi Gemal= is the terminal portion, about sixty kilometres in
length, of the main drainage channel from a basin nearly 200 square
kilometres in area. With its numerous large feeders, the principal
of which is Wadi Huluz, about eighty kilometres in length, the Wadi
Gemal drains the Hafafit and Nugrus ranges of mountains on the north,
and a great mass of high mountains, including Gebel Hamata, on the
south. It will be convenient here to describe only the Wadi Gemal
proper, leaving the great wadis which join to form it, and its major
tributaries, for separate treatment.
The name Wadi Gemal is first given to the drainage at the point
where Wadi Huluz turns sharply eastward in longitude 34° 39′.[89]
At this point the country becomes more open than in the gorge-like
Wadi Huluz. To the north is a mass of low granite hills, some of
which have remarkable shapes, with a great deal of drift sand,
while to the south are the higher dark hills flanking Gebel Um
Suerab. Among these surroundings the wadi pursues a winding course,
with a general north-easterly direction, receiving the Wadi Um Suerab
lil Gemal and the Wadi Durunkat as tributaries from the south.
About six kilometres below the point of influx of Wadi Durunkat, on
the right (south) side of Wadi Gemal, is a locality called =Geli=,
where there are extensive ruins. A very remarkable rock in the middle
of the main wadi marks the place whence a track leads south-east
past the ruins and across the heads of Wadis Um Ghazal and Mukhatatat
into the upper part of Wadi el Abiad.
Passing a remarkable bell-shaped hill (Gebel Um Regeba, rising to
571 metres above sea, the “mosque rock” of Floyer’s map) about
four kilometres on the left, Wadi Gemal receives two small feeders
coming from among the hills to the south, and then the important
tributary called Wadi Hafafit enters from the north-west.
Below the point of influx of Hafafit, the Wadi Gemal becomes more
narrow, and shut in by high hills. Near the meridian of 34° 49′
there are some ruins on the north side of the wadi, and a little
further on the Wadi Nugrus, one of the largest tributaries of Wadi
Gemal, enters from the north-west at a rather sharp bend. Further
down, Wadi Gemal receives =Wadi el Mukhatatat= and =Wadi Um Sueh=
from the south, and =Wadi Um Heran= and =Wadi el Nasbia= from the
north. The Wadi Abiad, which next joins Wadi Gemal from the south,
is an important feeder. Two kilometres below the mouth of Wadi el
Abiad, the =Wadi Um Kabu= enters Wadi Gemal from the north-west,
while nearly opposite to it is a small wadi, called =Um Sellimi=,
in which there are water pools after rain. The wadi now curves more
northward round the base of the double-topped hill mass called Madaret
Um Gamil. Just beyond the northward turn a road[90] leads up a narrow
tortuous gully in a north-westerly direction, passing close south
of the hill summit and forming the most ready means of ascent of
Madaret Um Gamil; the climb from the road at the top of the gully is
only about 200 metres. The course of the Wadi Gemal to the sea has not
been surveyed beyond four kilometres east of Madaret Um Gamil; it goes
through low hilly country and enters the sea in about latitude 24°.
The fall of the Wadi Gemal averages about six metres per kilometre,
being as low as four metres per kilometre in some places, and probably
exceeding ten metres per kilometre where it emerges from the hills on
to the coast-plain. It is interesting to note that the observations
of level indicate a local increase of gradient above the place of
influx of Hafafit and Nugrus. The Wadi Gemal is well supplied with
trees, as are also almost all its tributaries with the exception of
the sandy Wadi Hafafit.
=Wadi Huluz= is a long winding wadi, mostly shut in by high rock
walls, draining the high mountains round Gebel Hamata and coursing
north-east for a distance of over seventy-five kilometres to the
point, near Gebel Um Suerab, where, turning sharply eastward,
it enters more open country and takes the name of Wadi Gemal. The
slope of Wadi Huluz averages fifty metres per kilometre for the
first ten kilometres from its heads in the mountains. In the next
ten kilometres the slope is much flatter, being twenty metres per
kilometre. From twenty to forty kilometres from its head the average
fall is only ten metres per kilometre, while still further down the
rate of fall lessens till in the last reaches, just before entering
the Wadi Gemal, it is only six and a half metres per kilometre.
The principal heads of Wadi Huluz are close to the south-east
of Gebel Hamata, in a _cul-de-sac_ formed by the high mountains
of Gebel Hamata (1,978 metres above sea) and Gebel Ras el Kharit
(1,661 metres). Here a number of steep gorges unite to form the main
channel, which due south of Hamata has an altitude of 1,053 metres
above sea-level. Following a winding course among the mountains as
a rapidly falling valley with a sandy floor averaging 100 metres or
more in width, it passes west of the great mass of Hamata, receiving
the drainages from the north-east flanks of that mountain and from
the north face of Gebel Um Hasidok. At its crossing the meridian of
35° it receives as a feeder the =Wadi el Abiad lil Huluz=, which
drains the north face of Hamata and the south flanks of Gebel Abu
Ghusun; draining mostly from granite country, this feeder has a
floor of coarse granitic sand, from the whitish colour of which it
takes its name.
The next feeder of Wadi Huluz, called =Wadi Mahali=, enters from
the south, its head being on the main watershed between Gebels Um
Usher and Um Hasidok. Passing between Gebels Um Usher and Um Laham,
the Wadi Huluz receives =Wadi Tarfawi=, draining the mountain of the
same name from the east. Further down, feeders come in from Gebel
el Mehali on the south and from the high hills south of Gebel Um
Heshenib on the north. Near the meridian of 34° 50′ two important
tributaries enter Huluz near together from the south. The upper one,
=Wadi Hilgit lil Huluz=, heads in a very steep and difficult pass,
leading into Wadi Hilgit lil Kharit. The lower one, called =Wadi Um
Semiuki=, drains the north-east flanks of Gebel Abu Hamamid. Nearly
opposite the mouth of Wadi Um Semiuki is another feeder of Wadi Huluz,
which I believe forms the main drainage channel for the south face
of Gebel Um Heshenib; but it is said to be very steep and stony,
and my Arabs preferred to reach Gebel Um Heshenib by a small wadi,
containing several tombs, some four kilometres higher up Wadi Huluz,
whence there is a stony pass leading into the above-mentioned main
drainage channel at a point above the obstructions in it.
About eight kilometres further on, on the north-east side of the wadi,
there is a low gap over which by a very easy pass one can descend
into the head of Wadi Durunkat, leading to Wadi Gemal. Some three
kilometres lower down, Huluz receives two tributaries together;
one, from the south-east, is called =Wadi Um Hegiligi lil Huluz=,
while the other, from the south-west, is called =Wadi Marasan=
and heads in an easy pass on the main watershed, over which a track
leads south-east and south to the well and tomb of Sheikh Shadli.
Two sheikhs’ tombs and some smaller graves exist at a bend in
the Wadi Huluz, three kilometres below the point of influx of Wadi
Marasan. Below these enter as feeders =Wadi Um Suerab lil Huluz=
from the north, and =Wadi Abu Gerifat= from the south. The wadi
now becomes very tortuous. Near the meridian of 34° 40′, on the
south side of the wadi, at a bend where trees are very abundant,
is a small gully containing the important water holes called =Um
Gerifat=. These are rock basins fed by rain water draining down
steep gorges from the hills round the twin-peaked Gebel Um Sedri;
they are easily accessible in a few minutes from the main wadi, and
contained good supplies of water in the winter of 1905-1906. About
four kilometres lower down, the =Wadi Um Iteili= enters from the
east, and about five kilometres beyond this Huluz opens out into a
somewhat triangular space, when the =Wadi Gaetri= enters from the
west and =Wadi el Khisei= from the east. The Wadi Gaetri leads by
an important pass into the more open country to the west (wells of
Wadi Khashab and Wadi Natash).
At the open space above-mentioned, Wadi Huluz turns northward, winding
somewhat, for some eight kilometres, and then, after receiving the
=Wadi Abu Etl= as a feeder from the west, turns sharply eastward
and becomes the Wadi Gemal.
=Wadi Durunkat=, a tributary of Wadi Gemal, forms an important road
from Wadi Gemal into the higher parts of Huluz. By following it up to
its head about twenty kilometres from its junction with Wadi Gemal,
one can enter Wadi Huluz by a very easy pass in longitude 34° 46′,
thus cutting off the long winding course of Wadi Huluz itself; and
from this pass one can cross the main watershed by the Wadi Marasan
to reach Bir Shadli.
=Wadi Hafafit=, another tributary of Wadi Gemal, has its head situated
close to the east side of Gebel Migif, in latitude 24° 50′, on
the main watershed, where there is an easy pass into the head of Wadi
Shait. Following a very straight course for nearly forty kilometres
south-east, with the remarkable range of high gneiss mountains called
Gebel Hafafit on the left, and the sugar loaf granite hills of Abu
Had on the right, Wadi Hafafit forms a broad barren valley in which
there are heavy accumulations of blown sand. =Wadi Abu Had=, a small
western feeder of Hafafit, is well known by reason of the well of
bitter water, =Bir Abu Had=, at its head. An eastern feeder of Wadi
Hafafit, which joins it shortly before the junction with Wadi Gemal,
is called by the diminutive name of =Wadi Hefeifit=.
=Wadi el Abiad=, likewise a tributary of Wadi Gemal, derives its name
from the coarse white granitic sand which forms its floor. Its heads
are situated near latitude 24° 20′, among the granite mountains
called Gebel el Abiad and on the northerly slopes of Gebel Um
Heshenib. There is a very steep pass from its head, east of Gebel
Um Heshenib, into Wadi Huluz. Pursuing an almost northerly course
and falling rather rapidly, Wadi el Abiad is at first very wide,
with high granite hills on each side. It narrows further down, at
a point opposite Gebel Shoab, where a small eastern feeder leads by
an easy sandy pass into the Wadi Shoab. A little lower down, passing
into diorite country, it turns more to the east, and after receiving
the =Wadis Um Seyal el Foqani= and =el Tahtani= from the south-east,
enters the Wadi Gemal near Madaret Um Gamil. The wadis called Um
Seyal receive their name from the abundance of acacia trees in them;
at the head of Wadi Um Seyal el Foqani there is a pass leading by
the Wadai el Anz into Wadi Um el Abbas.
=Wadi Nugrus=, an important tributary of Wadi Gemal, commences
its course on the main watershed west of Gebel Nugrus, in latitude
24° 48′, at the pass into Wadi Gerf, 690 metres above sea-level,
and courses south-east in almost a straight line for nearly forty
kilometres to join the Wadi Gemal in latitude 24° 34′ and longitude
34° 50′. The fall to this point is some 450 metres, or an average
of over ten metres per kilometre, but the fall is most rapid near
the head, where the floor of the wadi is rocky and steep; the slope
for the first few kilometres is over double the average.
The approach to the head of Wadi Nugrus from the north, by one
of the heads of Wadi Gerf, is almost a plain. But as soon as
Wadi Nugrus is entered one becomes very sensible of the greater
steepness of the eastern drainage by the stony nature of the track
and the rapid fall. The wadi here is in fact only a narrow gorge
with the huge mountains of Hafafit and Nugrus on the west and east
sides respectively. Some three kilometres below the pass, close to
the west side of the wadi, in a narrow gorge, is the spring called
=Megal el Harami=, situated in gneiss rocks, and giving supplies of
good water; the water infiltrates slowly, however, so that the yield
is not sufficiently rapid to supply large quantities at once. Lower
down, the wadi broadens out considerably, with a sandy floor in the
middle of which low dark hills rise like islands. About thirteen
kilometres below the head, an important feeder, the =Wadai el Nom=,
comes in from the north-east. This wadi drains the south-east flanks
of Gebel Nugrus and the west flanks of Gebel Hangalia; it contains
rock basins holding water for some time after rain, and leads to
a steep winding pass which enables one to make a circuit round
the great granite mountain of Gebel Nugrus. The pass is, however,
impracticable for baggage camels, and one has to dismount from a
riding camel in order to get over.
Beyond the junction of Wadai el Nom, the Wadi Nugrus continues its
straight course south-east, between the long range of Gebel Hafafit
on the west and Gebel Zabara on the east. Some thirty kilometres
below its head, Wadi Nugrus receives the =Wadi Abu Rusheid= from
the north, and a little further on one encounters on the east the
ruins of an old village called =Medina Nugrus=. Just opposite the
ruins is a small feeder called =Wadi Abu Sada=, a short distance up
which are rock basins yielding water after rain, but these were dry
in 1905. Not far below this, there are some old workings in a small
feeder on the east side of the Wadi Nugrus, six kilometres above
its junction with Wadi Gemal.
=Wadi Sikait=, a tributary of Wadi Nugrus, heads in some high red
granite hills north-west of Gebel Sikait. A pass leads over the
western head, while in the eastern one is a small spring, which,
though a mere trickle, is said to be constant and to yield excellent
water. These two heads join at a well recently sunk by miners. Lower
down, on the flanks of Gebel Sikait, are numerous emerald mines,
with an ancient tower and many other ruins, and in the wadi near
these is another recently sunk well, which has only yielded water
of inferior quality. From near the mines there lead two tracks on
either side of the wadi. That to the west is a rough path over gneiss
hills into Wadi Abu Rusheid. That to the east winds past the ancient
tower, ascending gradually to a pass into one of the heads of Wadi
Um Gamil. Lower down the Wadi Sikait are many ancient mines, and the
ruins of three rock temples and an ancient village. Just before the
Wadi Sikait enters Wadi Nugrus, a track leaves on the east for =Wadi
Um Heran=, in which I am told water is sometimes to be found. The
length of the Wadi Sikait is about fourteen kilometres, and its fall
is from 535 metres above sea at the pass at its head to about 250
metres where it enters Wadi Nugrus, or an average slope of twenty
metres per kilometre. It is a narrow gorge shut in by high hills,
with a fair abundance of trees.
=Wadi Um el Abbas= originates by the union of several heads in
the neighbourhood of the high granite hills of Um el Abbas and Abu
Hegilig. One of its heads leads to an easy pass called =Kab el Haram=,
four and a half kilometres east of Gebel Abu Hegilig. Another, close
east of Gebel Abu Hegilig, leads to another easy pass into the head of
a tributary of Wadi Romit. A third head, called the =Wadai el Anz=,
leads to yet another pass into Wadi Um Seyal el Foqani, a tributary
of Wadi el Abiad. The course of the Wadi Um el Abbas has only been
surveyed for a short distance below the place where its heads unite;
it pursues a north-easterly course among low hilly country and enters
the sea in about latitude 24° 36′.
PLATE VI.
[Illustration: MAP OF THE DISTRICT OF NUGRUS & SIKAIT
Ball. Geography & Geology of South-Eastern Egypt.
Photo-Metal-Process. Survey Dept. Cairo 1910. (60-190)]
=Wadi Abu Ghusun= commences its course among the high mountains of
Gebel Abu Ghusun, north of Gebel Hamata. Pursuing a northerly course
for about ten kilometres, it passes close east of the sharp granite
peak of Gebel Hefeiri, then turns more to the east, receiving Wadi
Romit as an important tributary from the west near the bend, and
reaches the sea in about latitude 24° 29′.
=Wadi Romit=, a tributary of Abu Ghusun, originates in the granite
mountains called Gebel el Abiad, near the parallel of 24° 20′ and
follows a winding course in a general easterly direction for about
sixteen kilometres to its junction with Wadi Abu Ghusun. It receives
several important tributaries. The chief of these, =Wadi Shoab=,
originates close to the south-west of Gebel Shoab, where there is
an easy pass into the Wadi el Abiad. Another tributary of Romit,
the =Wadi Abu Hegilig=, drains the south part of Gebel Um el Abbas,
while a third is the =Wadi Hefeiri=, draining the hills round the
granite peak of the same name. All these tributaries, like Wadi
Romit and Wadi Abu Ghusun itself, contain abundance of trees, and
have a rather rapid fall.
=Wadi Hamata= drains the eastern flanks of the high hills north
of Gebel Hamata, its principal heads being about latitude 24°
15′. Only the heads of this wadi have been surveyed; it follows a
winding course among the lower hill country and reaches the sea in
about latitude 24° 24′.
Of the three wadis draining seawards south of Hamata, called =Wadi
Haratreit=, =Wadi Khashir=, and =Wadi Mikbi=, very little is known,
not even their heads having been visible from the stations which
I occupied. The summits of the mountains drained by them have,
however, been mapped, and their courses are approximately known from
the accounts of Floyer; these are indicated on the map probably in
nearly their true positions. Draining mostly steep and precipitous
mountain faces, the upper parts of these wadis must have an extremely
rapid fall, and consequently a rough stony floor.
=Wadi Lahami=, which enters the sea north of the peninsula of Ras
Benas, is well known by reason of the easy pass over the main
watershed at its head forming an important means of access to
Berenice from the west. At this point, four kilometres north-east
of the white quartz cone called Marwot Elemikan, the watershed is
sandy, level, and low, being only 590 metres above the sea. The
drop on crossing the watershed is fairly rapid, the wadi winding
about among the hills in a general north-easterly direction. About
six kilometres below its head, Lahami receives the =Wadi Um Karaba=,
which drains the south face of Gebel Abu Gurdi. A little further on,
=Wadi Eidab= enters from the south-east; this feeder is said to head
in a rough steep pass over the hills into the Wadi Abu Daba. After
passing between the high hills of Gebels Um Goradi and Um Gunud, Wadi
Lahami receives the short =Wadi Um Gunud=, in which there are two
well known galts, or rock basins forming reservoirs of rain water;
these contained good supplies in 1906-7. Lower down, Wadi Lahami
crosses a stony sloping plain, where it receives the drainage from
the north and east flanks of Gebel Abu Gurdi and from the mountains
to the north of it, by a series of feeders, the principal of which
are =Wadi Um Rishan=, =Wadi Um Homar=, and =Wadi Sefent=. East of
the plain there is a sort of shunt or loop-line of Wadi Lahami,
called the =Wadi Abreik=, which is preferred to the main channel
for a road. Just receiving Wadi Sefent, Wadi Lahami turns sharply
eastward, and then north-eastward, receiving as feeders =Wadis Um
Khuzama=, =Um Ghobasha=, and =Gumudlum=, draining Gebels Um Sellim
and Gumudlum to the north; these feeders are said to contain natural
reservoirs full of water after rain. From the south, Lahami is fed by
the =Wadis Um Eshub= and =Abu Marwa lil Lahami=, draining the lower
hill country. The lower course of Wadi Lahami has not been traced in
detail. It passes north-west of the well marked granite peak called
Gebel Um Huk, as remarked above, and reaches the sea north of the
peninsula of Ras Benas. To get to Berenice, one leaves Wadi Lahami
about twenty-four kilometres below the pass at its head, and turns
off south-east up the tributary Wadi Abu Marwa, which leads to Wadi
Naait by an easy road.
Wadi Lahami is well supplied with trees; it presented a very green
appearance early in 1906, but the absence of rain for a year made
it much more desolate looking in 1907, all the foliage being then
blackened and withered. Its length is approximately fifty kilometres,
its average slope twelve metres per kilometre, and the area of its
basin is about 650 square kilometres.
The drainage from the low hills on the =Peninsula of Ras Benas=,
except for a small portion which joins Wadi Mukhit, reaches the sea
by a multitude of small wadis, none of which bear special names. The
hills being nearer to the south side of the peninsula than to the
north, the wadis draining southwards are on the whole much shorter
and steeper than those draining northwards, and the latter cross a
sloping plain two or three kilometres wide to reach the sea. Passage
across the hills from south to north is only possible to camels at
a few places. The southern wadis are mostly barren, but the northern
ones contain abundance of a dark coloured grass of which camels are
fond. There is no permanent water source on the peninsula, the nearest
reliable source of supply being a galt in Wadi Mindeit, on the main
land, about twelve kilometres west of Berenice. The tip of the low
sandy projection of Ras Benas is marked by a sheikh’s tomb, one
of the largest on the coast. It is chiefly built of wreckage cast
up on the beach. From the hills it looks like a rectangular rock,
and I determined its position by triangulation as latitude 23°
53′ 50″ N., longitude 35° 47′ 13″ E. The sheikh’s memory
appears to be greatly venerated by sailors, and several of my camel
men made pilgrimages to the tomb to pray.
The =Island of Mukawar=, about six kilometres south of the sandy tip
of the ras, is nearly two kilometres in length from north to south. I
did not visit it, but it has the appearance of being made of coral;
its highest point, near the south end, is thirty-four metres above
the sea-level.
=Wadi Abu Daba= drains the eastern flanks of Gebel Eidab and Gebel
Um Maiat, and courses eastward through the lower hill country to
the coast plain, where it joins the drainage from Naait in Wadi
Mukhit. The principal feeder of Abu Daba is =Wadi Murra= which enters
it from the south-west a few kilometres before its emergence on to
the plain. At the head of Wadi Abu Daba there is said to be a rough
steep pass over the mountains into Wadi Eidab. The place where Abu
Daba debouches on to the coast plain is marked by a group of low
bouldery looking granite hills called Khasheib Abu Daba.
=Wadi Abu Dibban= is a short wadi draining eastwards from the hills
across the coast plain to the sea a little north of Berenice. In its
course across the plain it passes a little north of a conspicuous
granite hill called Sikeit, a well known landmark five kilometres
north-west of Berenice.
=Wadi Mindeit= drains the hills between Gebel Um Maiat and Gebel
Kalalat, entering the sea at Berenice.[91] =Wadi Um Sellim lil
Mindeit=, a shorter wadi coursing across the plain a little further
south, is interesting as furnishing the nearest fresh water source
to Berenice; it leads to a rock basin or galt among the hills, where
rain water collects. This source is some ten or twelve kilometres
from Berenice.
=Wadi Naait=[92] is a narrow tortuous gorge, with a sandy floor
shut in by high hills, coursing eastward to the coast plain a
little south of the 24th parallel. Though only a small wadi some
sixteen kilometres in length, it is well known because it forms
the usual road from Wadi Lahami to Berenice. Its actual head has
not been surveyed, but lies probably between the mountains of Um
Gunud and Um Hegilig. Its principal feeders are =Wadis Um Sumer=
and =Abu Marwa lil Naait=, which enter it from the north-west, and
=Wadi Abu Ghalqa=, entering from the north and draining the granite
hills called Gebel Abu Ghalqa. All three of these feeders enter Naait
near together, some ten kilometres before it emerges on the plain;
the lower part of the wadi is free from lateral branches. The fall
is ten metres per kilometre among the hills. On emerging from the
hills on to the sandy coast plain, it joins an ill-defined drainage
line called =Wadi el Mukhit=, which enters the sea at Port Berenice,
some fifteen kilometres further east. The name Wadi el Mukhit is also
given to other ill-marked drainage lines entering Port Berenice from
the sandy tract between the hills of the main land and the hills
of the peninsula of Ras Benas. Some three kilometres north-east
of the mouth of Wadi Naait, on the coast plain, is a conspicuous
isolated low hill, forming a well-known landmark and called =Grain el
Rih=. The plain drained by Wadi el Mukhit is a dreary sandy waste,
and the crossing of it in a high wind is very trying by reason of
the immense clouds of sand raised and carried in the air.
=Wadi Kalalat= heads in the north-west portion of Gebel Kalalat, and
courses nearly eastward to reach the sea in latitude 23° 52′. For
the first two-thirds of its course of about thirty kilometres,
Wadi Kalalat is shut in by high hills, and falls rather rapidly. At
its head a rough steep pass is said to exist into the head of Wadi
Shut. After passing round the north flank of Gebel Kalalat, the wadi
receives two small tributaries called =Wadi Um Maiat= and =Wadi el
Dibag lil Batoga=, the former draining the north-east face of Gebel
Kalalat and the latter the north-west face of Gebel Batoga. After
receiving Wadi Dibag, the Wadi Kalalat makes a bend northward for
about two kilometres, then turns south-eastward to the opening of
the hills on the coast-plain. About two kilometres above the point
where it leaves the hills, on the south side of the main wadi,
is a rocky gully containing the =Galt Batoga= a rock basin which
contained good water in 1907 and which is very easy of access in
a few minutes from the main wadi. About one and a half kilometres
further down, the small =Wadi Um Sellim=, draining the north-east
parts of Gebel Batoga, joins the Wadi Kalalat just before it opens on
to the coast-plain. The course of Wadi Kalalat from here to the sea,
about eleven kilometres, is ill-marked, over a sandy plain. A ruined
enclosure of considerable size, called =Garia Kalalat=, lies close
south of the wadi about seven kilometres from the sea.
=Wadi Um Goran= is a small wadi draining by many heads from the
east face of Gebel Batoga and its foot hills to the sea in latitude
23° 50′.
=Wadi Kunserob=, draining the south parts of Gebels Kalalat and
Batoga, courses at first nearly southwards, then curves round south
of Gebel Dibag, and after receiving =Wadi Dibag lil Kunserob= from
the north-west, proceeds eastward through the hills and across six
kilometres of sandy coast-plain to the sea in latitude 23° 47′.
=Wadi Abu Berigâ= is a short drainage line from among the hills to
the sea, a little south of Wadi Kunserob.
=Wadi Khoda= is an important main drainage channel some forty-five
kilometres in length, coursing a little north of eastward to reach
the sea in latitude 23° 43′. For the greater part of its length
it is shut in by high hills, only the last six kilometres being
across the sandy coast-plain. With a basin approximately 780 square
kilometres in area, it drains the mountains of Abu Dahr, Dahanib,
Shut, Reyan, Shenshef, Hindia, and Um Akra, some of which rise to
over 1,000 metres above the sea; it thus receives a fair amount of
water in rainy years, and is well supplied with trees and bushes. Its
average fall is about nine metres per kilometre.
The head of Wadi Khoda is formed by the union of three wadis,
coming approximately from the north, west, and south, in the form
of a cross. The central one of these, =Wadi Abu Debebi lil Khoda=,
heads in a very easy pass leading to Bir Betan and the old mines
of Um Eleiga. The one to the north, =Wadi Salib el Abiad=, is said
to lead into Wadi Khiua, and to possess some old mines, but has not
been explored. The remaining one of the three, =Wadi Salib el Azrak=,
drains the east face of Gebel Abu Dahr and the high hills east of
it; the feeder of it from Abu Dahr, called =Wadi Um Karaba=, leads
by an easy pass, just north of the mountain, to Bir Betan and the
Um Eleiga mines, while some eight kilometres from its junction with
Khoda a track leads up a gully south-westward over another easy pass
to Bir Rahaba. The names Salib el Abiad and Salib el Azrak refer to
the form of the wadis and the nature of their floor, _salib_ meaning
“cross,” while _abiad_ and _azrak_ refer to the prevailing white
and dark colours of the sand in the respective arms of the cross;
these colours are due to the wadis draining light-coloured granites
and dark-coloured serpentines and schists respectively.
A little below the union of the three arms above-mentioned, Wadi
Khoda expands into a small rather stony plain, where the sinuous
=Wadi Allawi=[93] enters from the north. This important feeder,
which drains the eastern face of Gebel Dahanib, is mostly shut in
by high hills, and is relatively well wooded; if it be followed up
for about ten kilometres, one comes to the tomb of Sheikh Farhan,
near which meet many small feeders, one of them containing a small
rock basin near its head.
About eight kilometres below the point of entry of Wadi Allawi,
Wadi Khoda receives two feeders from opposite sides; that from the
north, =Wadi Um Tawil lil Khoda=, drains from Gebel Dahanib, while
that from the south, =Wadi Hindia=, is a sandy rapidly-falling wadi
draining Gebel Hindia.
Some five kilometres further down, =Wadi Um Akra=, draining the
mountains of the same name, enters Khoda from the south, while another
two kilometres brings us to the place of influx of =Wadi Shut=, an
important feeder from the north. The head of Wadi Shut is on the west
side of Gebel Kalalat, whence its course is westward for about ten
kilometres; it is then joined by the =Wadi Abu Hugban=, coming from
the south-west, and from this point it runs south-south-east for some
twenty-three kilometres to its junction with Wadi Khoda. Wadi Shut is
a rather wide wadi with a sandy floor, fed by many tributaries from
the mountains of Dahanib, Um Hegilig, Reyan, and Shut. Its principal
feeder in the lower part of its course is =Wadi Um Tawil lil Shut=,
which drains the south part of Gebel Dahanib and enters Shut from
the west about five kilometres above its junction with Khoda. The
Wadi Shut has a fair growth of trees, and is said to possess also
a large water source, the exact locality of which has not, however,
been ascertained.[94]
Just below the place where Wadi Shut joins it, Wadi Khoda receives
a small feeder called =Wadi Um Gubur=, entering from the north
and marked by several graves near its mouth. On the other side,
two kilometres further on, =Wadi Shib= enters from the south, and
five kilometres further the =Wadi Um Seyal lil Khoda= enters Khoda
from the north.
The =Wadi Gumudlum=, the next great feeder of Khoda, enters from the
north four kilometres below Wadi Um Seyal. It is a wadi some eighteen
kilometres in length, coursing south-south-east, and having its head
on the west side of Gebel Kalalat. A little below wadi Gumudlum,
near a boss of white quartz, several small feeders, of which the two
principal are called =Wadi Buluk= and =Wadi Um Lassaf=, enter Wadi
Khoda from the south; these drain the north side of the high hills
called Gebel Um Etli.
The last feeder of Wadi Khoda, the =Wadi Shenshef=, enters the main
wadi some three kilometres above the place where it debouches on
to the coast-plain, or eight kilometres from the coast. It is a
narrow and very tortuous gorge winding among high hills. If it be
followed up for about ten kilometres, one comes to several small
wells called =Bir Shenshef=, which contained water in 1907, and a
little above the wells, where the wadi becomes more open, there are
ruins, called =Hitan Shenshef=, which attest the former existence
of a town or large village. The ruins are on both sides of the wadi,
and many of them are extremely well built of slabs of quartz schist;
besides the houses in the wadi itself, there are small towers on
the hills. As there are apparently no mines in the hills here, the
origin of the ruins is not clear; from the strong situation and the
watch towers, and its proximity to fresh water and the sea, it may
possibly represent an old slave dealer’s stronghold.
For some eighteen kilometres south of the Wadi Khoda, the seaward
drainages have not been explored, but they are believed to be only
short wadis, as the high mountains of Faraid are here only about
ten kilometres from the coast. From guides’ statements, the =Wadi
Um Etli=, coursing eastward and draining the south faces of Gebel
Um Etli, enters the sea in about latitude 23° 38′, and there is
probably at least one other short wadi draining to the sea about in
latitude 23° 35′ from the north part of Gebel Faraid. The sandy
coast-plain in this region is about five kilometres wide.
The =Wadi el Sorubiab=, draining from the north part of Gebel Faraid,
and the =Wadi Bint el Kurdum=, draining the mountains around the
remarkable “Bodkin” peak, enter the sea together by way of a
small lagoon in latitude 23° 30′. Another wadi, for which I could
not obtain any name from my guides, drains the extreme south parts
of Gebel Faraid and the north slopes of the smaller Gebel Fereyid,
entering the sea in about latitude 23° 19′.
=Wadi Rahaba=, with a basin of about 900 square kilometres in area,
drains the country between Gebels Faraid and Abu Dahr. From its
head, situated about six kilometres south-east of Gebel Abu Dahr,
there is an easy pass into Wadi Salib el Azrak, a tributary of
Wadi Khoda. About three kilometres below its head, a feeder called
=Wadi Titai= enters Rahaba from the hill country to the east; and
a kilometre lower down, another feeder called =Wadi Abu Nikheil=,
comes in from the west. At this point there is an important well,
=Bir Rahaba=, sunk in the alluvium of the wadi floor; this is said
to yield good summer supplies, but was filled up by downwash when I
visited it early in 1907. Some three kilometres below Bir Rahaba,
a tributary called =Wadi Abu Reye= enters Wadi Rahaba from the
north-west; and there is said to be a well, called =Bir Abu Reye=,
about one and a half kilometres up this wadi. Another feeder, the
=Wadi Um Buerat=, joins Rahaba from the south-west a little further
on, and then the wadi, which has thus far taken a southerly course,
turns south-east, winding considerably for some eight kilometres
till it is joined by its most important feeder, the Wadi el Abiad.
This =Wadi el Abiad= drains the western side of the northern peaks of
Gebel Faraid, and derives its name from the white granitic sand which
forms its floor. It has a length of some twenty kilometres and is fed
by the =Rod Elbel=, which heads in a sandy plain at the foot of the
highest peak of Faraid, and by the =Wadi Abu Ribian=, which collects
the drainage from the lower hill country west of the Bodkin peak.
About three kilometres lower down than the point of influx of Wadi el
Abiad, Wadi Rahaba receives the =Wadi Megah= as a tributary from the
north-west; a well, called =Bir el Gahlia= is said to exist at the
head of this wadi, about twelve kilometres up from its opening into
Wadi Rahaba. Some six kilometres further down, Wadi Rahaba opens out;
its course down to this point has been shut in by high hills, but now
becomes an ill-marked drainage line over a sandy plain. The plain is
broken by small hills, and is limited east and west by other hills
which increase in height further away, forming in fact the foot-hills
of Gebels Orga and Um Tenebda on the west and of Gebel Faraid on the
east. In this part of its course Rahaba receives several tributaries,
the principal being =Wadi Hutit= from the north-west, =Wadi Dagalai
lil Rahaba= and =Wadi Abu Had= from the east, and =Wadi el Marafai=,
which runs for some ten kilometres nearly parallel to Wadi Rahaba,
among low hills two or three kilometres east of the main Wadi,
joining the latter about due west of Gebel Fereyid.
Wadi Rahaba curves round to the south of Gebel Fereyid in a quadrant
of about seven kilometres radius, and then proceeds nearly due east
to reach the sea in about latitude 23° 12′.
The upper parts of Wadi Rahaba, where it is shut in by high hills,
contain many trees and bushes; but the lower parts are more barren
and sandy, the actual drainage line being in places difficult to
define on account of the paucity of vegetation and the openness
of the plain. The total length is about seventy-five kilometres,
and the total fall 450 metres; the slope averages eight metres per
kilometre in the upper twenty-five kilometres, where the wadi is
narrow and shut in, but only five metres per kilometre in the broad
and sandy course which forms the remaining fifty kilometres.
=Wadi Hodein=, one of the largest and most important of the
seawards draining wadis of the Eastern Desert, has a basin of
nearly 12,000 square kilometres, or over a square degree of the
earth’s surface. Its main channel, formed by the union of the
Wadis Arned, el Sania, Um Sumur, Saalek, Um Reit, and el Nom, in
latitude 23° 18′, longitude 34° 43′, and reaching the sea
at Bir Shalatein[95] in latitude 23° 8′, longitude 35° 37′,
has a length of 108 kilometres and an average slope of three metres
per kilometre. For the first fifteen kilometres of its course it is
shut in by the high sandstone scarps of Gebel Abraq and Gebel Hodein;
but shortly after passing the Abu Saafa Springs its channel becomes
wide and sandy, passing through lower metamorphic hill country;
and in the last twenty-five or thirty kilometres of its course it is
merely an ill-defined drainage line over the sandy coast-plain. Its
lower reaches are dreary and inhospitable, but its upper-portion
is pleasantly wooded, and contains the perennial springs of Abu
Saafa. Wadi Hodein is remarkable for the large number and length of
its tributary wadis, some of which exceed the main channel itself in
length, while many of them contain wells and form important lines of
communication by leading to easy passes over the main watershed. In
the description which follows, I shall first consider the wadis which
by their union form the head of the main channel, afterwards tracing
the course of the main wadi in detail to the sea, noting the influx
of the various tributaries on either hand, and finally describing
the larger tributaries themselves.
The most important of the wadis which join to form the head of Wadi
Hodein are Wadis Arned, Saalek, and Um Reit. These join in a small
plain with the =Wadis el Sania=, =Um Sumur= and =El Nom=, which are
smaller and will not need further mention.
=Wadi el Arned= originates on the main watershed about five kilometres
south-east of Galt el Aguz. The watershed here is only 427 metres
above sea-level, and is so flat and sandy that it is almost impossible
to say within a kilometre where the divide actually is; the wadi
in fact heads in a sandy plain about two kilometres wide with low
sandstone hills on either hand, from which feeders join the main
drainage line. About six kilometres below its head, Wadi Arned
is joined from the south by its most important feeder, the =Wadi
Muegil=. This wadi, which has a length of some twenty kilometres,
originates in the hill country about nine kilometres north of
Gebel Um Reit, where an easy pass connects it with Wadi Saalek;
it flows in a northerly direction, entirely among sandstone hills,
and is fairly provided with vegetation. Some two kilometres lower
down, Arned receives a smaller feeder from the north, called =Wadi
Um Arta=; by following this up for about five kilometres, one can
reach a rather steep and sandy eastward pass into the head of Wadi
Silsila, and this forms the shortest route from the Galt el Aguz
to the springs of Abraq. About four kilometres below the junction
of Wadi Abu Arta, near an isolated hill on the east side of the
Wadi Arned, there appears to be another opening into one of the
heads of Wadi Silsila; this opening is very sandy and looks like a
practicable alternative route to Abraq Springs, though it has not
been explored. Lower down its course, Wadi Arned is at first very
sandy and bare, with high sand-drifts swathing the feet of the hills
on the east; but it gradually narrows into a gorge and becomes less
sandy, then opens out again, and near its junction with Wadi Hodein
it contains abundant vegetation. The Wadi Arned forms the easiest
and most direct road from Abu Saafa to Daraw, _via_ Galt el Aguz,
Bir Abu Hashim, and Bir Qoleib.
=Wadi Saalek= is a short wadi with many feeders, draining the hills
round Gebel Saalek; one of its northern feeders leads to a pass into
the head of Wadi Muegil, while one of its south branches heads in
a pass leading round the west side of Gebel Um Reit to Wadi and Bir
Um Reit.
=Wadi Um Reit= heads in the granite mountain called Gebel Um Reit
and flows north-eastward, to the south of the mountain, for about
twenty-two kilometres, to its junction with Arned and Saalek to form
Wadi Hodein. The head of Wadi Um Reit leads to a pass north-west of
the mountain into Wadi Saalek, while the western head of Um Reit,
which bears the name =Wadi el Dub=, leads on to a sandy plain
forming the main watershed, whence there are easy tracks to the
various feeders of Wadi Timsah. The well called =Bir Um Reit= is
a deep excavation, in the wadi floor at the foot of the mountain,
near a large tree. Dr. Hume, who visited it in 1906, found it to
yield water of only mediocre character. It is about one hundred
kilometres by road from Bir Abu Hashim, the nearest well to the
west, but only about thirty kilometres from Abu Saafa Springs,
the nearest water eastward; to get to Abu Saafa from Bir Um Reit,
one has only to follow down the wadi, and the supply at Abu Saafa
can always be relied on for quantity and quality. Near the well,
Wadi Um Reit receives feeders draining the high granite hills of
Etresia; the principal of these is called =Wadi Malhat=. The lower
part of the course of Um Reit is almost entirely in sandstone hills;
it has not been mapped in detail except near its junction with Hodein.
We turn now to the main channel of Wadi Hodein, which originates,
as above-mentioned, by the union of the Wadis Um Reit, Saalek,
Arned, and other smaller wadis in a small plain, and shall follow
its course onwards to the sea. Three small feeders, =Talet Um Danaqa=
and =Talet Kurit= on the south, and =Talet Um Sideri= on the north,
join the channel a few kilometres below its head, while about nine
kilometres from the head there enters a larger wadi coming from
the south, called the =Wadi el Gihab=. The main Wadi Gihab has not
been followed, but its eastern branch, called =Wadi Gihab Abu Derb=,
contains a large and very easily accessible galt about four kilometres
from Hodein, and leads about ten kilometres further on, to a very
steep and difficult pass into Wadi Dif; this pass is practicable
only on foot, being risky even for unladen camels.
The =Springs of Abu Saafa= are situated in the Wadi Hodein, about two
kilometres below the point of influx of Wadi Gihab, at an altitude of
310 metres above sea-level. The Wadi Hodein is here narrow, and shut
in by very high steep sandstone scarps. There are four springs, all
issuing from the northern scarp at intervals of about sixty metres
along the wadi, and all about three metres above the wadi floor,
trickling into pools about a metre in diameter close by. The most
westerly of the four springs is a mere trickle; the next yields a
rather greater flow, from a carved niche in the rock, with a Greek
cornice; the third is the one most used, having the greatest flow
of the four, while the easternmost is almost stagnant and has yellow
incrustations near it. The rate of flow, even from the largest spring,
is very slow, probably not more than ten litres per minute, and
the overflow from the pools is only a tiny stream a few centimetres
wide which soon loses itself in the sand of the wadi floor; but the
pools are large enough for a dozen or more camels to drink from, and
soon fill up again when emptied. The water is of excellent quality,
very clear, and the supply never fails. Near the springs there are
five or six small date palms, and the wadi hereabouts has many other
trees. After rain, this part of Wadi Hodein at times becomes a stream;
this was the case in October 1907, for I found numerous pools in the
wadi floor, and scum and froth showing that an impetuous stream about
half a metre deep had flowed down the wadi only a few days prior to my
visit. Just below Abu Saafa Springs, Wadi Hodein receives the short
=Wadi Maghal= from the north-west; this wadi, which is walled in by
high sandstone plateaux, contains water holes about three kilometres
from Wadi Hodein; but these are less important than the springs of
Abu Saafa, and are, moreover, off the main road.
Wadi Hodein now opens out, the high sandstone scarps of Gebels Abraq
and Hodein running north and south-east, and enters a sandy plain
with very low hills, from among which some small feeders join the
main wadi. About fifteen kilometres below the opening of scarps,
Wadi Hodein receives, from the north-west, the Wadi Naam,[96] a
great tributary draining the mountains of Zergat Naam, Um Bisilla,
and Abu Dahr. The next influx is from Wadi Dif, which enters Wadi
Hodein from the south-west about six kilometres further on; Wadi
Dif itself is only a short wadi, but it collects the drainage
of an immense area to the south by long feeders, and contains a
good well. Nearly opposite to Wadi Dif, the =Wadi Orga el Atshani=
joins Wadi Hodein from the north-west; the Wadi Hodein has here two
large island-like masses of low hills in it, between which the main
drainage line passes. Lower down, =Wadi Orga el Rayani= enters by two
mouths from the north. Both the Wadis Orga are said to originate near
Gebel Orga, some thirty kilometres to the north, but their courses
have not been mapped; the one called El Rayani is said to lead to
a good well, =Bir Orga=, about twelve or fourteen kilometres above
its junction with Hodein. On the opposite (south) side, Wadi Hodein
receives the Wadi Anfeib, draining the high sandstone plateau of
Gebel Anfeib. A little further on the small =Wadi el Khasiya= comes
in from the north, by two channels, one on either side of a small
group of isolated hills; and nearly opposite is the mouth of Wadi
Madi, which drains the west side of the great mountain mass of Gerf,
some sixty kilometres to the south, and possesses a good well about
fifty kilometres up its course from Wadi Hodein. Several feeders come
in from the north a little further down the wadi, of which the chief
is the =Wadi Um Tenedba=, draining the mountain of the same name,
while others drain the hill country round Gebel Harhagit. On the other
(south) side is the mouth of Wadi Khashab, draining the west side of
Gebel Khashab and the hills west of it. A few kilometres further on,
Wadi Hodein widens considerably, and from here onward it is very
sandy and arid. A long spur running north-west from Gebel el Anbat
nearly cuts across the wadi, the main channel of which passes north
and east of the spur, while to the west of it is a rather broad sandy
plain with ill-marked drainage lines from the hills, of which the
chief bears the name of =Wadi Um Seleim=. Near Gebel el Anbat are
numerous small feeders of Wadi Hodein from that hill and the other
hills to the north-east. About eight kilometres below Gebel el Anbat,
Wadi Hodein quits the hills and, turning a little north of east,
merges into the coast-plain, over which its remaining course of about
twenty-seven kilometres is very ill-defined. Just where it leaves
the hills, Wadi Hodein is joined from the south-west by Wadi Beida,
draining the mountain of the same name and containing two wells;
and a little further on it receives Wadi el Kreiga, which drains the
hill country round Bir Meneiga. The junctions of Wadi Beida and Wadi
Kreiga with Wadi Hodein are very difficult to trace on the ground,
being almost lost in the general sandy plain.
=Bir Shalatein=, a very salt well in the Wadi Hodein, about two
kilometres from its mouth and only about seven metres above the sea,
is chiefly of importance by reason of its marking the administrative
limit of the Egyptian and Sudan spheres of government. It is merely
a few shallow pits sunk in the wadi bed, yielding water drinkable
only by camels. An iron beacon two metres high has been erected on
a low bank close to the well, and will enable the well, which is
itself inconspicuous, to be easily found.
=Wadi Naam=, a great tributary of Wadi Hodein coming from the
north-north-west, originates about ten kilometres south-east of
Gebel Zergat Naam by the union of the Wadis Abu Seyal, El Fil, and Um
Bisilla, and courses south-south-east for about forty-nine kilometres
to its junction with Wadi Hodein. It is a very barren wadi, being
for most of its length a broad, shallow, and very sandy drainage
line among low hills, and in its lower parts, where it crosses the
plain of Abraq, its course is very ill-marked. Its slope decreases
from five metres per kilometre near its head to about three metres
per kilometre in its lower reaches. Besides the three wadis which,
as above-mentioned, unite to form its head, Wadi Naam has several
large tributaries, of which the chief are the Wadis Silsila and Abraq
on the west, and Wadis Erf Um Araka, Arais, and Betan on the east.
The =Wadi el Fil=, which may be regarded as the main head of Wadi
Naam, though it is not the longest, drains the north-east portion of
Gebel Zergat Naam (sometimes called Hagar el Fil). The rocky gullies
forming its heads contain rock basins which yield water for a short
time after rain.
=Wadi Abu Seyal= drains the south part of the same range; its head
is very steep, and is said to contain a very large galt, which holds
supplies of water for five months after rain.
=Wadi Um Bisilla= drains Gebel Um Bisilla, which it half encircles,
its main head being north-east of the mountain, where there is an
easy pass into Wadi Abu Nilih, and thence an easy road to the head of
Wadi Lahami. About eleven kilometres west of the mountain, Wadi Um
Bisilla receives, from the north-east, the =Wadi el Khiua=, which,
with its tributaries, =Wadis Abu Fagir= and =Abu Nilih=, drains the
low hill country north of Gebel Um Bisilla. The lower parts of Wadis
Um Bisilla and Khiua have not been surveyed in detail; their courses
as shown on the map are only approximate, but being based on guides’
statements near the spot they are probably substantially correct.
=Wadi Erf Um Araka= heads as a series of small wadis among the low
hills south of Um Bisilla, and curves round westward between the
high hills of Abu Shigelat and Erf el Gimal on the north, and Erf Um
Araka or Gebel Belamhandeit on the south, to join Wadi Naam about
five kilometres lower down than Wadi Um Bisilla. The hill country
round the heads of Wadi Erf Um Araka is fairly open, so that one
can proceed freely from the head of Wadi Arais, across those of Wadi
Erf Um Araka, and on into the heads of Wadi Um Bisilla.
=Wadi Arais= originates by the union of many small feeders in the low
hill country between Gebels Um Guruf and Hendusi, and courses for the
first fourteen kilometres in a south-south-west direction. About nine
kilometres below its head the =Wadi Um Guruf=, draining the hills
round the conspicuous granite boss called Gebel Um Guruf, enters
from the north-west. Some five kilometres further on, just beyond the
place where Arais makes a sharp westward bend, =Wadi Belamhandeit=,
draining the east face of the long gneiss range called Erf Um Araka or
Gebel Belamhandeit, enters from the north. Wadi Arais now narrows into
a winding gorge, cutting westward for about ten kilometres through
the complex of high gneiss hills called Gebel Arais to join Wadi
Naam. Its junction with Wadi Naam takes place in a small plain, with
the sandstone plateaux of Gebel Um Sididad on the west and the gneiss
hills of Gebel Arais on the east. The fall of Wadi Arais is from 464
metres above sea at the pass into Wadi Erf Um Araka, to 345 metres
where it joins Wadi Naam after a course of twenty-five kilometres;
so that its slope averages four and a half metres per kilometre.
=Wadi Silsila=[97] heads in high sandstone hills on the meridian
of 34° 40′, north of Gebel Abraq, where at least one pass, steep
and sandy, leads to the Wadi Arned. Its course is almost due east,
over a plain with low sandstone banks, with a great deal of blown
sand. Feeders enter it from the sandstone hills which bound the plain,
the principal being the =Wadi Um Sididad=, draining the high sandstone
hills, called Gebel Um Sididad, on the north. About seven kilometres
before it joins Naam, Wadi Silsila cuts through the range of low
sandstone hills which stretches southward from Gebel Um Sididad to
near Abraq springs; in proceeding to Abraq from the pass at the head
of Wadi Silsila, one bears off to the south before reaching this
range, entering the drainage of Wadi Abraq over an open sandy plain.
=Wadi Abraq= is a rather ill-defined drainage line which originates
on the north side of Gebel Abraq, and after skirting the high
sandstone scarp, from which it receives small feeders, for about
thirteen kilometres, turns eastward to join Wadi Naam, about nine
kilometres above its junction with Hodein. Wadi Abraq is sandy and
barren, and would be scarcely worthy of mention but for the fact
that it contains some of the most important water sources of the
entire Eastern Desert, the =Abraq Springs=. There are no less than
five springs within a length of as many kilometres of the wadi,
yielding perennial supplies of excellent water.
The first spring from the north, called =Bir el Sunta=, is a pool
about two metres in diameter at the entrance to a little gully in
the face of the high sandstone scarp; it is very easily accessible
to camels, being practically on the plain, and fills as rapidly as
it is emptied. The second and third springs, called together =Bir
Abu Dibesat=, are about 1,500 metres south-east of Bir el Sunta,
near the tomb of Sheikh Hamid; they form smaller pools at the foot
of the scarp. The fourth spring, =Bir Abraq=, is situated a short
distance up a stony gully which emerges from the scarp a little
further south; the water lies in large pools under dipping sandstone
beds on the south side of the gully. The fifth spring, =Bir Gumbit=,
is said to be some three kilometres further south-east, and, like
the others, at the foot of the sandstone scarp; it has not, however,
been visited by the survey party.
[Illustration: Fig. 2.—Map of Abraq Springs. Scale: 5 centimetres
to a kilometre.]
The water at all the Abraq Springs is of excellent quality; it
contains masses of green algæ, but these are easily avoided in baling
out, and the water can be obtained quite clear. Of the four springs
visited, the one called Bir Abraq is the chief; but Bir el Sunta
is rather easier of access for camels. The springs are practically
all at the same level, _viz._, 330 metres above sea, and all derive
their water from the same sandstone beds. No camel food grows near the
wells, and there are very few trees in the vicinity; consequently, the
Arabs of the neighbourhood do not camp near the springs, but in Wadi
Hodein and its tributaries, drawing water from Abraq or Abu Saafa at
intervals. There are, however, ruins of a large ancient fort on a low
hill east of Bir Abraq, and some Arab graves a little further north;
among these latter is a large tomb said to be that of Sheikh Hamid.
=Wadi Betan= originates on the north side of Gebel Abu Dahr, where an
easy pass, 610 metres above sea-level, connects its head with Wadi
Um Karaba, and courses at first westward to near Gebel Hendusi; it
then turns southward to join Wadi Naam a few kilometres only above its
junction with Wadi Hodein. Its total length is over fifty kilometres,
and its average slope is about seven metres per kilometre. Only the
head of Wadi Betan has been surveyed in detail; but this is the most
important part, as containing water sources and old mine workings;
and the lower part of its course as shown on the map is probably
substantially correct, being based on statements made near the spot
by guides familiar with the district.
About five kilometres below its head, Wadi Betan contains the two
wells called =Bir Betan=. These are excavations in the alluvium of
the wadi. The lower one is at the mouth of the small Wadi Um Eleiga,
while the other is about 600 metres further up Wadi Betan, close to a
small tree. Both these wells were filled up by downwash when I visited
them in February 1907, and their places were only recognisable by the
clay “hôds” near them; at this time there was no necessity for
the Arabs to open them, as a galt at the head of the wadi, just south
of the pass into Wadi Um Karaba, was yielding a good supply of water.
Just above the wells, Betan receives from the south the feeder
called =Wadi Mistura=, draining the west side of Gebel Abu Dahr. The
little =Wadi Um Eleiga=, which drains into Betan close to the south
well, is of importance as leading to some extensive ruins and old
workings about two kilometres up from its mouth. The ruins are mostly
rubble hovels, while the workings, which were evidently for gold,
vary from mere scratchings to pits ten metres deep in the rock. A
diorite mill-stone is to be seen near the ruins.
The =Wadi Abu Debebi lil Betan=, which joins Betan on the north about
three kilometres below the wells, leads by an easy pass into =Wadi
Abu Debebi lil Khoda=, one of the heads of Wadi Khoda, and forms
the nearest way to the coast from Bir Betan. =Wadi Abu Sieiyil=
is a small feeder entering Betan from the south, three kilometres
further down. The principal remaining tributaries of Betan are the
Wadis Hefeiri, Abu Beid, and Egat. =Wadi Hefeiri= runs westward
from near the Abu Debebi pass, and turning south near Gebel Hendusi,
receives the =Rod el Hendusi= just before entering Betan. =Wadi Abu
Beid el Azrak= originates near Gebel Abu Sieiyil west of Abu Dahr,
and flows southwards to join =Wadi Abu Beid el Abiad=, which in turn
flows into Wadi Betan. A well, =Bir Abu Beid=, is situated near the
junction of Wadi Abu Beid el Abiad and Wadi Abu Beid el Azrak, where
there are numerous seyal trees; it was yielding a fair quantity of
good water in 1906. Of the =Wadi Egat=, nothing has been seen; it
is, however, stated by the Arabs to originate in the rugged hilly
tract south of Gebel Abu Dahr, and to join Wadi Betan lower down
its course than Abu Beid.
=Wadi Dif= originates in the sandstone hills round Bir Dif, and
pursues a very sinuous north-easterly course, cutting through the
high sandstone plateau which is named Gebel Hodein to the north,
and Gebel Dif to the south of it. For the major part of its length
of twenty-nine kilometres it is very narrow, with very high steep
sandstone scarps on either side, but it is a little more open near
its origin, where Wadi Feqoh joins it, and in its lower part it
winds as a broad sandy valley through the low hills which separate
the Wadi Hodein from the high sandstone plateaux; it joins Wadi
Hodein close to the meridian of 35°. Except the Wadi Feqoh, which
is of immense length, and drains a very large area, Wadi Dif has
only a few insignificant feeders. Of these, =Talet Um Karaba= and
=Wadi Enqireidia= enter from the south plateau near the place where
Wadi Dif leaves the high sandstone hills; and =Wadi Gelabat Shabai=,
coursing north-east through the low hill country flanking the plateau,
joins Wadi Dif just above its junction with Hodein.
=Bir Dif= is situated in a small gully forming the head of Wadi Dif,
in latitude 23° 12′ 42″. To a traveller coming up Wadi Dif,
Wadi Feqoh forms the main continuation of Wadi Dif, and the gully
containing Bir Dif appears to be a lateral tributary coming in
from the west; but the Arabs restrict the name Dif to the drainage
line below the spring, and apply the name Feqoh to all the upper
main channel. Bir Dif is a spring forming two pools of good water,
situated about a kilometre up the gully, at the junction of sandstone
and schists. The approach to the pools is very stony, but camels
can easily reach the water; the spring is 290 metres above sea-level.
=Wadi Feqoh=, a tributary of Wadi Dif, is many times longer than
Wadi Dif itself, and even longer than the Wadi Hodein of which Wadi
Dif is a tributary, having a length along its main channel of 150
kilometres, with feeders totalling several times that length. Though
only portions of Wadi Feqoh have been surveyed in detail, the
position of its entire course is known with tolerable accuracy from
the statements of guides at various stations from which portions
of it could be pointed out. It is for the most part a very barren
wadi, forming an ill-defined drainage line through a dreary waterless
sandy waste. Its very name, which means “devoid of nourishment,”
indicates its character. It originates near the west side of Gebel
Soaorib, only some twenty kilometres north of the 22nd parallel of
latitude, where the main watershed separates it from the feeders
of the Wadi Alaqi. From here it follows a north-westerly course,
passing between the mountains of Eir Arib and Hadal Derqa. Curving
slightly to the north, it crosses the great sandy plain west of Gebel
Korabkansi, and passes close west of the isolated mountain called
Gebel Shabih. Further on, it enters a country of low hills with sandy
interspaces, passing close west of the low range called Gebel Um el
Kalala, and then sweeps round in a great curve towards the east to
join the Wadi Dif close to Bir Dif. The fall of its bed from near
Gebel Shabih to its junction with Wadi Dif, that is, in a length of
seventy-two kilometres, is from 470 metres to 280 metres above sea,
giving an average slope of only about 2·6 metres per kilometre;
Wadi Feqoh has in fact the most gentle gradient of all the great
seawards-draining wadis.
Wadi Feqoh has many tributaries. Those near its head, and others
coming in from the western mountains through the low hill country
north of Gebel Mishbih, have not been traced; but those draining Gebel
Korabkansi and Gebel Niqrub, which are probably the most important,
have been mapped in detail. Most of the drainage from these localities
eventually finds its way into the great trunk feeder of Wadi Feqoh,
called the =Wadi Gimal=,[98] which joins Wadi Feqoh about sixteen
kilometres before its junction with Wadi Dif. The tributaries of
Wadi Feqoh are of much more interest than Wadi Feqoh itself, as they
contain in many places a fair or even relatively rich assemblage of
trees and bushes, and at least one good well, Bir Sararat Seyet.
The most southern tributaries of Wadi Feqoh which have been mapped
are =Wadi Kamoyib=, draining eastward from Gebel Wadhait, and =Wadi
Tawayib=, draining the east face of Gebel Korabkansi. These are for
the most part barren wadis each coursing for about sixteen kilometres
across a sandy plain to join Feqoh.