Ver.07/27/01*END*
This etext was produced by John Mamoun <mamounjo@umdnj.edu>
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An Introduction to Chemical Science
by R.P. Williams, A.M.,
CONTENTS
PREFACE, BY R.P. WILLIAMS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
AN INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL SCIENCE
APPENDIX
TEXTBOOK ADVERTISEMENTS THAT APPEARED IN THE ORIGINAL EDITION
INFO ABOUT THIS E-TEXT EDITION
PREFACE, BY R.P. WILLIAMS
The object held constantly in view in writing this book has been to
prepare a suitable text-book in Chemistry for the average High
School,--one that shall be simple, practical, experimental, and
inductive, rather than a cyclopaedia of chemical information.
For the accomplishment of this purpose the author has endeavored
to omit superfluous matter, and give only the most useful and
interesting experiments, facts and theories.
In calling attention, by questions, and otherwise, to the more
important phenomena to be observed and facts to be learned, the
best features of the inductive system have been utilized.
Especially is the writing of equations, which constitute the
multum in parvo of chemical knowledge, insisted upon. As soon as
the pupil has become imbued with the spirit and meaning of
chemical equations, he need have little fear of failing to
understand the rest. To this end Chapters IX., XI., and XVI.
should be studied with great care.
In the early stages of the work the equations may with advantage
be memorized, but this can soon be discontinued. Whenever symbols
are employed, pupils should be required to give the corresponding
chemical names, or, better, both names and symbols.
The classification of chemical substances into acids, bases and
salts, and the distinctions and analogies between each of these
classes, have been brought into especial prominence. The general
relationship between the three classes, and the general
principles prevailing in the preparation of each, must be fully
understood before aught but the merest smattering of chemical
science can be known.
Chapters XV.-XXI. should be mastered as a key to the subsequent
parts of the book.
The mathematical and theoretical parts of Chemistry it has been
thought best to intersperse throughout the book, placing each
where it seemed to be especially needed; in this way, it is hoped
that the tedium which pupils find in studying consecutively many
chapters of theories will be avoided, and that the arrangement
will give an occasional change from the discussion of facts and
experiments to that of principles. In these chapters additional
questions should be given, and the pupil should be particularly
encouraged to make new problems of his own, and to solve theta.
It is needless to say that this treatise is primarily designed to
be used in connection with a laboratory. Like all other text-
books on the subject, it can be studied without such an
accessory; but the author attaches very little value to the study
of Chemistry without experimental work. The required apparatus
and chemicals involve but little expense, and the directions for
experimentation are the result of several years' experience with
classes as large as are to be found in the laboratory of any
school or college in the country.
During the present year the author personally supervises the work
of more than 180 different pupils in chemistry. This enables him
not only to assure himself that the experiments of the book are
practical, but that the directions for performing them are ample.
It is found advisable to perform most of the experiments, with
full explanation, in presence of the class, before requiring the
pupils either to do the work or to recite the lesson. In the
laboratory each pupil has a locker under his table, furnished
with apparatus, as specified in the Appendix. Each has also the
author's "Laboratory Manual," which contains on every left-hand
page full directions for an experiment, with observations to be
made, etc. The right-hand page is blank, and on that the pupil
makes a record of his work. These notes are examined at the time,
or subsequently, by the teacher, and the pupil is not allowed to
take the book from the laboratory; nor can he use any other book
on Chemistry while experimenting. By this means he learns to make
his own observations and inferences.
For the benefit of the science and the added interest in the
study, it is earnestly recommended that teachers encourage pupils
to fit up laboratories of their own at home. This need not at
first entail a large outlay. A small attic room with running
water, a very few chemicals, and a little apparatus, are enough
to begin with; these can be added to from time to time, as new
material is wanted. In this way the student will find his love
for science growing apace.
While endeavoring, by securing an able corps of critics, and in
all other ways possible, to reduce errors to a minimum, the
author disclaims any pretensions to a work entirely free from
mistakes, holding himself alone responsible for any shortcomings,
and trusting to the leniency of teachers and critics.
The manuscript has been read by Prof. Henry Carmichael, Ph.D., of
Boston, and to his broad and accurate scholarship, as well as to
his deep personal interest in the work, the author is indebted
for much valuable and original matter. The following persons have
generously read the proof, as a whole or in part, and made
suggestions regarding it, and to them the author would return his
thanks, as well as acknowledge his obligation: Prof. E. J.
Bartlett, Dartmouth College, N.H.; Prof. F. C. Robinson, Bowdoin
College, Me.; Prof. H. S. Carhart, Michigan University; Prof. B.
D. Halsted, Iowa Agricultural College; Prof. W. T. Sedgwick,
Institute of Technology, Boston; Pres. M. E. Wadsworth, Michigan
Mining School; Prof. George Huntington, Carleton College, Minn.;
Prof. Joseph Torrey, Iowa College; Mr. C. J. Lincoln, East Boston
High.School; Mr. W. H. Sylvester, English High School, Boston;
Mr. F. W. Gilley, Chelsea, Mass., High School; the late D. S.
Lewis, Chemist of the Boston Gas Works, and others.
R. P. W.
BOSTON, January 3, 1888.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I.
THE METRIC SYSTEM.
Length.--Volume.--Weight
CHAPTER II.
DIVISIBILITY OF MATTER.
Mass.-Molecule.--Atom.--Element.--Compound.--Mixture.--
Analysis.--Synthesis.--Metathesis.--Chemism
CHAPTER III.
MOLECULES AND ATOMS.
Synthesis
CHAPTER IV.
ELEMENTS AND BINARIES.
Symbols.--Names.--Coefficients.--Exponents.--Table of elements
CHAPTER V.
MANIPULATION.
To prepare and cut glass, etc.
CHAPTER VI.
OXYGEN.
Preparation.--Properties.--Combustion of carbon; sulphur;
phosphorus; iron.
Chapter VII
NITROGEN
Separation--Properties
CHAPTER VIII
HYDROGEN
Preparation--Properties--Combustion--Oxy-hydrogen blowpipe
CHAPTER IX
UNION BY WEIGHT
Meaning of equations--Problems
CHAPTER X
CARBON
Preparation--Allotropic forms: diamond, graphite, amorphous
carbon, coke, mineral coal.--Carbon a reducing agent, a
decolorizer, disinfectant, absorber of gases
CHAPTER XI
VALENCE
Poles of attraction--Radicals
CHAPTER XII
ELECTRO-CHEMICAL RELATION OF ELEMENTS
Deposition of silver; copper; lead--Table of metals and non-
metals, and discussion of their differences
CHAPTER XIII.
ELECTROLYSIS.
Decomposition of water and of salts--Conclusions CHAPTER XIV.
UNION BY VOLUME.
Avogadro's law and its applications.
CHAPTER XV.
ACIDS AND BASES.
Characteristics of acids and bases.--Anhydrides.--Naming of
acids.--Alkalies
CHAPTER XVI.
SALTS.
Preparation from acids and bases.--Naming of salts.--Occurrence
CHAPTER XVII
CHLORHYDRIC ACID.
Preparation and tests.--Bromhydric, iodhiydric, and fluorhydric
acids.--Etching glass
CHAPTER XVIII.
NITRIC ACID.
Preparation, properties, tests, and uses.--Aqua regia:
preparation and action
CHAPTER XIX.
SULPHURIC ACID.
Preparation, tests, manufacture, and importance.-Fuming sulphuric
acid
CHAPTER XX.
AMMONIUM HYDRATE.
Preparation of bases.--Formation, preparation, tests, and uses of
ammonia.
Chapter XXI.
SODIUM HYDRATE.
Preparation and properties.--Potassium hydrate and calcium
hydrate
CHAPTER XXII
OXIDES OF NITROGEN.
Nitrogen monoxide, dioxide, trioxide, tetroaide, pentoxide.
CHAPTER XXIII.
LAWS OF DEFINITE AND OF MULTIPLE PROPORTION, and their
application
CHAPTER XXIV.
CARBON PROTOXIDE and water gas.
CHAPTER XXV.
CARBON DIOXIDE.
Preparation and tests.--Oxidation in the human system.--Oxidation
in water.--Deoxidation in plants
CHAPTER XXVI.
OZONE.
Description, preparation, and test
CHAPTER XXVII
CHEMISTRY OF THE ATMOSPHERE.
Constituents of the air.--Air a mixture.--Water, carbon dioxide,
and other ingredients of the atmosphere
CHAPTER XXVIII.
THE CHEMISTRY OF WATER.
Distillation of water.--Three states.--Pure water, sea-water,
river-water, spring-water CHAPTER XXIX.
THE CHEMISTRY OF FLAME.
Candle flame.--Bunsen flame.--Light and heat.--Temperature of
combustion.--Oxidizing and reducing flames.--Combustible and
supporter.--Explosive mixture of gases.--Generalizations
CHAPTER XXX.
CHLORINE.
Preparation.--Chlorine water.--Bleaching properties.--
Disinfecting power.--A supporter of combustion.--Sources and uses
CHAPTER XXXI.
BROMINE.
Preparation.--Tests.--Description.--Uses
CHAPTER XXXII.
IODINE.
Preparation.--Tests.--Iodo-starch paper.--Occurrence.--Uses.--
Fluorine
CHAPTER XXXIII.
THE HALOGENS.
Comparison.--Acids, oxides, and salts
CHAPTER XXXIV.
VAPOR DENSITY AND MOLECULAR WEIGHT.
Gaseous weights and volumes.--Vapor density defined.--Vapor
density of oxygen
CHAPTER XXXV.
ATOMIC WEIGHT.
Definition.--Atomic weight of oxygen.--Molecular symbols.--
Molecular and atomic volumes CHAPTER XXXVI.
DIFFUSION AND CONDENSATION OF GASES.
Diffusion of gases.--Law of diffusion.--Cause.--Liquefaction and
solidification of gases
CHAPTER XXXVIL
SULPHUR.
Separation.--Crystals from fusion.--Allotropy.--Solution.--
Theory of Allotropy.--Occurrence and purification.--Uses.---
Sulphur dioxide
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
HYDROGEN SULPHIDE.
Preparation.--Tests.--Combustion.--Uses.--An analyzer of metals.-
-Occurrence and properties
CHAPTER XXXIX.
PHOSPHORUS.
Solution and combustion.--Combustion under water.--Occurrence.--
Sources.--Preparation of phosphates and phosphorus.---
Properties.--Uses.--Matches.--Red phosphorus.---Phosphene
CHAPTER XL.
ARSENIC.
Separation.--Tests.--Expert analysis.--Properties and
occurrence.-- Atomic volume.--Uses of arsenic trioxide
CHAPTER XLI.
SILICON, SILICA, AND SILICATES.
Comparison of silicon and carbon.--Silica.--Silicates.--Formation
of silica.
Chapter XLII
GLASS AND POTTERY.
Glass an artificial silicate.--Manufacture.--Importance.--
Porcelain and pottery.
CHAPTER XLIII.
METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS.
Comparison of metals and non-metals.--Alloys.--Low fusibility. --
Amalgams
CHAPTER XLIV.
SODIUM AND ITS COMPOUNDS.
Order of derivation.--Occurrence and preparation of sodium
chloride; uses.--Sodium sulphate: manufacture and uses. --Sodium
carbonate: occurrence, manufacture, and uses.-- Sodium:
preparation and uses.--Sodium hydrate: preparation and use.--
Hydrogen sodium carbonate.--Sodium nitrate
CHAPTER XLV.
POTASSIUM AND AMMONIUM.
Occurrence and preparation of potassium.--Potassium chlorate and
cyanide.--Gunpowder.--Ammonium compounds
CHAPTER XLVI.
CALCIUM COMPOUNDS.
Calcium carbonate.--Lime and its uses.--Hard water.--Formation of
caves.--Calcium sulphate
CHAPTER XLVII.
MAGNESIUM, ALUMINIUM, AND ZINC.
Occurrence and preparation of magnesium.--Compounds of aluminium:
reduction; properties, and uses.--Compounds, uses, and reduction
of zinc CHAPTER XLVIII.
IRON AND ITS COMPOUNDS.
Ores of iron.--Pig-iron.--Steel.--Wrought-iron.--Properties. --
Salts of iron.--Change of valence and of color
CHAPTER XLIX.
LEAD AND TIN.
Distribution of lead.--Poisonous properties.--Some lead
compounds.-- Tin
CHAPTER L.
COPPER, MERCURY, AND SILVER.
Occurrence and uses of copper.--Compounds and uses of mercury.--
Occurrence, reduction, and salts of silver
CHAPTER LI.
PHOTOGRAPHY.
Description.
CHAPTER LII.
PLATINUM AND GOLD.
Methods of obtaining, and uses
CHAPTER LIII.
CHEMISTRY OF ROCKS.
Classification.--Composition.--Importance of siliceous rocks.--
Soils.--Minerals.--The earth's interior.--Percentage of elements
CHAPTER LIV.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
Comparison of organic and inorganic compounds.--Molecular
differences.--Synthesis of organic compounds.--Marsh-gas.
series.---Alcohols.--Ethers.--Other substitution products. --
Olefines and other series.
CHAPTER LV.
ILLUMINATING GAS.
Source, preparation, purification, and composition.--Natural gas
CHAPTER LVI.
ALCOHOL.
Fermented and distilled liquors.--Effect on the system.--Affinity
for water.--Purity
CHAPTER LVII
OILS, FATS, AND SOAPS.
Sources and kinds of oils and fats.--Saponification.--Manufacture
and action of soap.--Glycerin, nitro-glycerin, and dynamite. --
Butter and oleomargarine.
CHAPTER LVIII
CARBO-HYDRATES.
Sugars.--Glucose.--Starch.--Cellulose.--Gun-cotton.--Dextrin. --
Zylonite
CHAPTER LIX.
CHEMISTRY OF FERMENTATION.
Ferments.--Alcoholic, acetic, and lactic fermentation.--
Putrefaction.--Infectious diseases
CHAPTER LX.
CHEMISTRY OF LIFE.
Growth of minerals and of organic life.--Food of plants and of
man.--Conservation of energy and of matter
CHAPTER LXI.
THEORIES.
The La Place theory--Theory of evolution--New theory of chemistry
CHAPTER LXII
GAS VOLUMES AND WEIGHTS.
Quantitative experiments with oxygen and hydrogen--Problems
AN INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL SCIENCE
CHAPTER I.
THE METRIC SYSTEM.
1. The Metric System is the one here employed. A sufficient
knowledge of it for use in the study of this book may be gained
by means of the following experiments, which should be performed
at the outset by each pupil.
2. Length.
Experiment 1.--Note the length of 10 cm. (centimeters) on a
metric ruler, as shown in Figure 1. Estimate by the eye alone
this distance on the cover of a book, and then verify the result.
Do the same on a t.t. (test-tube). Try this several times on
different objects till you can carry in mind a tolerably accurate
idea of 10 cm. About how many inches is it?
In the same way estimate the length of 1 cm, verifying each
result. How does this compare with the distance between two blue
lines of foolscap? Measure the diameter of the old nickel five-
cent piece.
Next, try in the same way 5 cm. Carry each result in mind, taking
such notes as may be necessary.
(Fig. 1)
3. Capacity.
Experiment 2.--Into a graduate, shown in Figure 2, holding 25 or
50 cc. (cubic centimeters) put 10 cc. of water; then pour this into
a t.t. Note, without marking, what proportion of the latter is
filled; pour out the water, and again put into the t.t. the same
quantity as nearly as can be estimated by the eye. Verify the
result by pouring the water back into the graduate. Repeat
several times until your estimate is quite accurate with a t.t.
of given size. If you wish, try it with other sizes. Now estimate
1 cc. of a liquid in a similar way. Do the same with 5 cc.
A cubic basin 10 cm on a side holds a liter. A liter contains
1,000 cc. If filled with water, it weighs, under standard
conditions, 1,000 grams. Verify by measurement.
4. Weight.
Experiment 3.--Put a small piece of paper on each pan of a pair
of scales. On one place a 10 g. (gram) weight. Balance this by
placing fine salt on the other pan. Note the quantity as nearly
as possible with the eye, then remove. Now put on the paper what
you think is 10 g. of salt. Verify by weighing. Repeat, as before,
several times. Weigh 1 g., and estimate as before. Can 1 g. of
salt be piled on a one-cent coin? Experiment with 5 g.
5. Resume--Lengths are measured in centimeters, liquids in cubic
centimeters, solids in grams. In cases where it is not convenient
to measure a liquid or weigh a solid, the estimates above will be
near enough for most experiments herein given. Different solids
of the same bulk of course differ in weight, but for one gram
what can be piled on a one-cent piece may be called a
sufficiently close estimate. The distance between two lines of
foolscap is very nearly a centimeter. A cubic centimeter is seen
in Figure 1. Temperatures are recorded in the centigrade scale.