found.
_Treatment._—Tie a piece of tape, bandage, or cord a couple of inches
above the wound, _i.e._, between the wound and the body; tie another
piece still nearer the body, say three inches from the first. Cut across
the wound or wounds to encourage free bleeding.
(If a medical man is present, he may think fit to inject anti-venomous
serum as an antidote to snake poison.)
Dissolve as much permanganate of potash as possible in about a
teaspoonful of water, stirring well to hasten its solution. Inject about
five drops of this underneath the skin, on either side of the cut, by
means of a hypodermic syringe. Some of the solution may be injected into
the wound itself, or even a crystal of the drug may be pressed into the
cut, or part of a crushed tablet of the drug.
It is best to keep a small bottle of the strong solution of permanganate
always ready.
Give spirits strong, that is, one tablespoonful to one of water; at least
four such doses in the first hour. Ammonia may also be given.
If the patient is heavy and stupid, give two tablets of strychnine
(one-hundredth of a grain in each) in half a wine-glassful of water, by
the mouth; or dissolve two in twenty drops of water, and inject well
beneath the skin into the muscles of the back. If there is no improvement
within an hour, give two more tablets; and if necessary, one or two more
in another hour.
After tying up a limb for a poisonous bite, there will be great pain if
the ligatures have been applied tightly; the parts will swell, become
very dusky, and if the ligatures are left on too long, the blood supply
will be cut off, and the parts will die. Therefore, when the ligatures
begin to cause much pain, loosen the one next the injured part for ten
seconds, then tie again at or near the same place, and loosen the other
one for a similar period, and then re-tie; repeat this about every
fifteen minutes. In the course of two hours, both tapes may be taken off.
The object of tying up is to prevent much of the poison getting into the
system at once.
_The first thing is to tie up tightly; next cut freely, and suck or
squeeze out as much blood as possible, then treat with drugs._
(It is usually safe to suck a poisoned wound unless there are any
abrasions or cracks in the mouth, tongue, gums, or lips, taking care
to spit out the poison at once; but the mouth should be washed out
immediately afterwards with a light purple solution of permanganate of
potash.)
If the wounds are on the face, neck, or other spot which cannot be tied
up, then it is best to cut out the part at once and wipe the wound well
with the strong solution of permanganate.
In the treatment of snake-bite, pure carbolic acid, ordinary caustic, a
red-hot wire, or even a burning stick may be applied to the wounds when
permanganate of potash cannot be obtained. In some cases, where no other
treatment is available, it is advisable to explode a pinch of gun-powder
over the place of injury, or even to blow the parts away with one’s gun.
If a finger or toe is bitten by a snake which is certainly poisonous, and
neither drugs nor fire are at hand, it would be best to amputate at once.
Wounds inflicted by poisoned arrows or other weapons, mad dogs, jackals,
etc., should be treated in a similar manner to those caused by poisonous
snakes.
_Drowning._
Death from drowning usually occurs in from two to three minutes after
submersion, although people have been revived after a period of five or
six minutes under water.
In treating cases of apparent death from drowning, the points to be aimed
at are:—
First and immediately, the restoration of the breathing.
Secondly, and _after breathing is restored_, the promotion of warmth and
circulation.
1. _To restore the breathing._
Roll the patient on to his face for a few seconds, placing one of his
arms under the forehead; wipe away all weeds, mud, etc., from the mouth.
(In this position water will more easily escape from the mouth, whilst at
the same time the tongue will fall forward, and leave the entrance to the
windpipe clear.)
Turn the patient on his back, on a flat surface, with the head a little
higher than the feet.
Place a small hard pillow (or a rolled-up coat) _under the
shoulder-blades_.
Draw the patient’s tongue forward, and keep it projecting beyond the lips.
Remove all tight clothing from about the patient’s neck and chest; also
braces, belt, etc.
Kneel at the patient’s head, grasp his arms just above the elbows, draw
them gently and steadily upwards above his head, and keep them stretched
in that position for two seconds (Fig. 4). (By this means air is drawn
into the lungs.)
[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
Reverse the movement, and press the patient’s arms gently but firmly
against the sides of the chest, keeping them in this position for two
seconds (Fig. 5). (By this means air is pressed out of the lungs.)
[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
Repeat these movements alternately and regularly, about fifteen times a
minute, until natural breathing takes place, or as long as there is any
hope of saving the patient. It may be necessary to continue the movements
for as long as an hour.
While these movements are being carried out the wet clothing may be
removed, the body gently dried, and the patient wrapped up in dry
blankets.
2. _To promote warmth and circulation._
Rub the limbs and body vigorously with dry towels and flannels, always
rubbing from the extremities towards the heart.
Apply hot-water bottles, hot flannels, or hot bricks to the feet,
armpits, the pit of the stomach, and between the thighs.
Immediately the power of swallowing returns, administer hot coffee,
spirits and warm water, etc.
Put the patient to bed between hot blankets as soon as possible.
_Fractures._
[Illustration: FIG. 6.—DIAGRAM OF THE HUMAN SKELETON, GIVING THE NAMES
AND POSITIONS OF THE CHIEF BONES.]
A _simple fracture_ is one in which, though the bone or bones are broken,
the protecting skin is _not_ broken.
A _compound fracture_ is one in which the skin, etc., is broken or cut
across, so that the fracture is more or less exposed to the air. The end
of either fragment of the broken bone may protrude through the skin.
A _comminuted fracture_ is one in which the bone is broken into several
pieces; such a fracture may be either simple or compound.
In a simple fracture great gentleness should be used in handling the
parts, so as not to convert it into a compound fracture; therefore, do
not undress the part; rather cut away the clothing.
A fracture which is compound is usually serious, for dirt and germs are
liable to be carried into the wound and cause great mischief; in gunshot
wounds, dirt or pieces of clothing may be carried into the wound.
The signs of a fracture are, firstly, the patient’s own feelings, _e.g._,
the pain which is caused on handling the part, sudden loss of power, and
the sensation of grating. Secondly, on examination, most if not all of
the following signs will be observed: inability of patient to move the
part below the injury, swelling, unnatural movement below the site of
fracture, alteration in appearance of the limb.
In fractures of the upper or lower limb there is usually shortening, the
spasmodic action of the muscles causing the broken ends to ride over each
other, and the greater the obliquity of the line of fracture the greater
will be the shortening and alteration in appearance.
A sensation of grating is usually conveyed to the operator when he
attempts to move the parts; sometimes this grating can be heard, as well
as felt. Comparison of the injured with the sound limb is of the greatest
importance in detecting fractures.
_Treatment of Simple Fractures._
Directly a fracture of a limb is made out, a splint or splints of
some kind should be applied to keep the parts fairly in position, and
to prevent a broken end from being pushed through the skin. Cloths
and bandages may be applied firmly round the injured part, and then
extemporised splints, such as boards, straight sticks, umbrellas, or
bayonets, should be applied and kept in position till the patient is in
bed.
Splints suitable to the injury should be now made and well covered with
wool, lint, or cloth, special care being taken to pad them well where
they are likely to press upon bony prominences, such as the inner or
outer ankle. The limb must next be straightened, and any deformity caused
by overriding of the fragments must be remedied by steady pulling upon
the parts above and below the fracture, in opposite directions, and the
parts brought into good position by manipulating the bones at the seat
of fracture. The prepared splints, extending well below and above the
fracture, are then fitted to the limb with cotton-wool or lint, and
secured by bandages.
If there is great swelling and tenderness of a limb, then it is advisable
not to apply splints at once. Sand pillows should be made, or stockings
nearly filled with sand and their mouths tied, and applied one on either
side of the limb, to keep it absolutely still; the painful swelling may
be reduced by applying ice or evaporating lotions. When the swelling is
somewhat reduced, splints may be applied after proper manipulation.
Whilst the bandages should be firmly applied so as to keep the splints
in position, they must not be bound too tightly, otherwise swelling and
ulceration may be caused. If there is much pain and swelling after a
fracture has been set, it will be necessary to loosen the bandages.
Union of the fractured bones is generally completed in about six weeks.
_Collar-bones._—Fracture of the collar-bone should be treated by placing
a large wedge-shaped pad (about six inches long, by three in thickness at
the upper end) in the armpit, and securing it with tapes tied over the
opposite shoulder. The elbow should then be brought forward, and raised
and well supported by a broad triangular bandage or handkerchief, used as
a sling, and with the ends tied over the opposite shoulder. A flannel or
other bandage should then be wound round the chest, so as to secure the
arm from accidental movements.
_Ribs._—Fracture of the ribs may be treated by wrapping a flannel
bandage round the chest pretty tightly, so as to limit the movements
of breathing, which are very painful. The flannel should be secured by
stitching, and the upper turns should be fixed by broad tapes passed
over the shoulders and firmly stitched. Firm strapping of the side with
adhesive plaster is still better. For this purpose about six strips
of plaster one to two inches wide and eighteen inches long should be
applied evenly round the side of the chest; each piece should be overlaid
by the next piece above it for about half an inch. To secure rest for
the affected side of the chest, the strapping should not only cover the
broken bone, but should extend to about three inches above and below it,
and should reach well beyond the middle line both in front and behind.
_Upper Arm._—Fracture of the upper arm may be treated by the application
of several narrow splints reaching from the armpit to the elbow, well
padded, and supported in position by a bandage carried from the fingers
to the armpit. Care must be taken that the splints on the inner side do
not chafe the folds of the armpit. The hand and wrist should then be
supported in a sling, but the elbow must be allowed to hang free.
_Forearm._—Fractures of the forearm must be treated by two splints,
each wider than the limb. The injured limb is allowed to hang down by
the side, palm forwards. One splint reaching from the elbow to the
finger-tips is applied to the back of the limb; the other is placed on
the front, and only reaches from the bend of the elbow to the level of
the ball of the thumb. The splints are secured temporarily by a couple
of slip knots. Now bend the arm to a right angle, thumb uppermost, and
bandage securely from the tips of the fingers up to the elbow.
_Thigh._—Fractures of the thigh are serious; they require the patient to
be kept in bed till union has been effected, and they are more likely to
lead to shortening and permanent lameness if not very carefully treated,
and the assistance of a skilled surgeon is urgently needed. A long splint
is applied to the outside of the limb, reaching from the armpit to beyond
the foot, and secured above by a bandage passing round the body, whilst
the foot and leg are firmly bandaged to it below.
_Leg._—Fractures of the leg should be treated by applying a splint on
each side, long enough to reach from the knee to a little below the sole
of the foot. They should be carefully applied with bandages, keeping
the great toe in a line with the inner border of the knee-cap. When the
accident occurs in the open air, the injured limb should be tied to the
sound one, till the patient is brought to a place of security, the toes
being prevented from pointing inwards.
_Lower Jaw._—Manipulate the parts into their normal position and mould
a splint of gutta percha, or other material, as accurately as possible
to the lower jaw. If a tooth is loose and prevents the two jaws meeting
properly it should be taken out.
Apply the splint and keep it in position by a bandage, which should be
split at the chin so as to encircle the point of the jaw; the ends of
the bandage are also split as far forward as the angle of the jaw; two
ends are tied behind the neck and two over the top of the head, as in the
diagram, and these tied ends should be united by a bandage or tapes to
keep them in position (Fig. 8).
In the absence of suitable material for making a splint, this bandage
alone will have to suffice.
[Illustration: FIG. 7.
FIG. 8.]
The patient must be fed on slops through a tube passed behind the teeth,
or through a passage resulting from the loss of a tooth.
_Compound Fractures._—Clean up thoroughly as described in the treatment
of wounds. Wash out with an antiseptic solution, dust with iodoform,
apply an antiseptic pad. Set the limb in such a manner that the wound can
be dressed daily without interfering with the splints.
If the bone is protruding through the wound, it must, if possible, be got
back into position. If this cannot be done it may be necessary to saw off
the end of the bone to enable the wound to be closed.
If the wound is large, deep, or dirty, it should be stuffed with
antiseptic gauze so that free drainage may be allowed, and the gauze
should be changed each day.
_After-treatment of Fractures._—Gentle movements may be cautiously
begun, in the joints above and below the injury, in about three weeks.
While these are being carried out, the limb must be firmly supported to
avoid interfering with the healing processes going on between the ends of
the bones.
_Dislocations._
Dislocations nearly always require skilled aid to reduce them.
_Shoulder-joint._—Patient cannot raise the arm to his head or perform any
other shoulder movements freely. The shoulder is flattened, the elbow
sticks out, and the limb is usually lengthened.
_Treatment._—The patient should lie down. The operator removes his own
boot on the same side as that of the patient’s dislocation, inserts his
heel into the patient’s armpit and draws the arm steadily down, at the
same time pressing the heel in an outward direction; the dislocated
bone should slip back into its proper position. Put a pad in the armpit
and bandage the arm to the side for a week; support arm in a sling for
another week or two.
_Elbow-joint._—Dislocation of the bones of the forearm backwards at the
elbow-joint is fairly common.
_Treatment._—This dislocation can usually be reduced by placing the
knee in front of the patient’s elbow, and making firm traction on the
forearm—which is at the same time bent a little around the operator’s
knee. The patient can be kept sitting in a chair while this is done, and
the operator can get his knee into the required position by placing his
foot on the side of the chair.
_Hip-joint._—Is the most common form of dislocation. The limb is
shortened, bent at the knee and twisted inwards, the great toe of the
injured limb resting on the instep of foot of the opposite limb. The
outer side of the hip is swollen and distorted.
_Treatment._—Grasp the ankle with one hand and the knee with the other.
Lift up the leg and bend it at the hip, then carry it as a whole away
from the other limb as far as possible, rotate the toes and foot firmly
outwards, and in that position bring the limb back parallel to the sound
one.
_After-treatment of Dislocations._—After dislocations, gentle movement of
the joints should be begun in two weeks, so as to prevent them becoming
fixed.
POISONS.
It is impossible, in the small space available, to give anything like a
detailed scheme of the treatment of the various poisons, but a few hints
on the essential points must not be omitted.
I have therefore arranged a list of the commoner poisons, together with
the special treatment appropriate to each. Following this are a few hints
more especially adapted to the requirements of travellers.
Poison should be suspected (_a_) when severe and alarming symptoms of
illness suddenly attack a person apparently in good health; (_b_) if the
symptoms closely follow the taking of food, drink, or medicines; (_c_)
if several people are attacked after having partaken of the same food or
drink.
The points to be attended to in the treatment of cases of poisoning are:—
_a._ Remove as much of the poison as possible from the stomach. To do
this, it is usual to give an emetic, such as mustard and water, or zinc
sulphate, thirty grains; or to pass the soft rubber tube down the gullet,
and wash out the stomach with water.
_b._ Counteract the effect of the poison by an antidote.
_c._ Keep up the patient’s strength till the poison is removed from the
system.
_d._ Relieve pain.
Travellers may be poisoned in the following ways:—
1. By poisonous bites, arrow wounds, etc.
2. By eating food poisoned by natives.
3. By eating poisonous plants, etc.
4. By eating bad meat or fish.
The treatment of _snake-bites and arrow wounds_ has already been dealt
with.
_Poisoned food and poisonous plants._—Food is occasionally poisoned by
natives, either by adding strophanthus leaves or other poisons. The
eating of such articles may be followed by severe pain, colic, vomiting,
diarrhœa or other symptoms. The general line of treatment should consist
in giving emetics promptly, washing out the stomach by means of the
stomach tube, and administering large quantities of water, milk, or
gruel. Distressing symptoms should be treated as they arise; thus, if
convulsions occur, large doses of chloral or potassium bromide should be
given; if stupor or drowsiness comes on, the patient should be forced to
take hot coffee, stimulants, etc., and made to walk about. If collapse
supervenes, stimulants should be freely given, the patient wrapped in
blankets, and hot bottles applied to the feet.
_Poisoning by bad meat, fish, etc._—The symptoms of poisoning by bad
meat, etc., are severe pains in the belly, cramps, and shivering fits,
followed by vomiting and diarrhœa coming on soon after its consumption,
occasionally within an hour or two. The vomiting and diarrhœa are usually
alarming and very severe, causing great collapse, and unless urgent
remedies are applied, death may occur. The bodies of patients may be
covered all over with irritating blotches, red rashes or with nettle rash.
_Treatment._—Give an emetic at once. Administer a sharp purge to clear
out the bowels. Use stimulants freely. Apply hot-water bottles and
blankets. Give opium or chlorodyne, fifteen drops every four hours until
the pain is relieved. Milk and gruel or arrowroot.
CANOEING AND BOATING.
_By J. COLES._
_Canoeing._
_Choice of a Canoe._—In making choice of a canoe the traveller must bear
in mind that, in all probability, there will be rapids in the river,
which will necessitate a portage being made, and that the canoe may have
to be carried over rough ground for a considerable distance. For this
reason, it is far better to take two canoes of moderate size than one
large one, besides which, a small canoe is much more easily handled in
bad water, and even should it become necessary to carry a large load,
this can easily be done by lashing two small canoes together, at about
one yard apart, and laying a platform across them, on which to place the
stores, &c. This, however, should not be done in dangerous and rapid
rivers. The following remarks do not, therefore, apply to large canoes,
which, having nearly the stability of a boat, may be handled in the same
manner.
_Paddles._—It will generally be found that the native paddles will be
best suited for the work. The double-bladed paddle, such as is used with
the Rob Roy canoe, is quite useless on a rapid and dangerous river.
_Sail._—The sail should be made of duck, or some such light material,
fastened to a light yard at each end, and its hoist should be about
twice its breadth; its size must be in proportion to the canoe, the
hoist being about one-fourth of the canoe’s length. The mast should be
as light as possible, with a hole at the top for the halliards to pass
through freely. The end should be stepped in a chock in the bottom of
the canoe (when in use), and it should be lashed to one of the stays, or
cross-pieces of the canoe. The sail should never be used unless the wind
is steady and abaft the beam, and the halliards should be taken to the
after part of the canoe in order to stay the mast, and secured in such a
manner that it can be instantly let go, when the sail will at once fall,
and undue pressure on the canoe relieved.
_The Tow-line._—Too much attention cannot be paid to this important
article. It should be light, but of the best material (such as the rope
used by the Alpine Club), as its giving way at a critical moment in a
rapid is sure to be attended with most serious results.
_Loading the Canoe._—The packages should not exceed 50 lbs. in weight, as
they may have to be carried long distances over portages, and care must
be taken not to overload the canoe. Natives, who are all good swimmers,
and have nothing to lose by a capsize, are very apt to put more into a
canoe than is safe, so that it is a matter in which the traveller should
use his own discretion.
In ascending a rapid river, keep close to one of its banks, and endeavour
to take advantage of eddies. It will often happen that, owing to the
strength of the stream, no headway can be made with the paddles, in
which case recourse must be had to poling or tracking. In the event of
the former, the poles should be straight and tough, and as long as can
be conveniently carried in the canoe. Natives generally stand up to
pole, but this the traveller should not attempt to do, or he will in
all probability either fall overboard, or capsize the canoe, or both.
In tracking, as great a length of line as possible should be used, as a
sheer of the canoe in a rapid, with a short line, will often end in a
capsize. Only two men should remain in the canoe, one in the bow with a
pole, and the other in the stern with a paddle to steer; this man should
also have his pole handy. The line should be made fast to one of the
stays in the bow of the canoe, and _never to a towing mast_, as in a
boat; as in passing round bad corners, or places where there are snags,
and where it is necessary to give the canoe a wide sheer, the leverage
of the mast, if the line were fastened to the top of it, would pull the
canoe over. The man in the bow, however, should always have his knife
handy to cut the tow-line, should necessity arise for his doing so. In
tracking, when a river passes through sandy soil, the men on the line
should keep at some little distance from the edge of the bank, as it is
likely to give way under their weight, and precipitate them into the
river. Several men lost their lives in Fraser River, in the early days of
the gold discovery, by neglecting this precaution.
In crossing from one bank of a river to the other above a rapid, be
careful to ascend the river for a considerable distance before attempting
to do so; and then make the crew paddle as hard as they can, keeping the
head of the canoe, if anything, rather down the stream, as in the case of
a rapid river you would only lose ground by trying to fight against it.
In descending a river, the traveller should keep a look-out ahead for
snags and places where the river is narrowed in between hills, as in
such places there is nearly sure to be a rapid which may be so bad as to
render navigation impossible. In all cases before descending an unknown
rapid, he should land and inspect it throughout _its entire length_
before attempting to run it in the canoe. When descending a rapid, care
must be taken to keep steerage way on the canoe, as this will be needed
to avoid rocks, or whirlpools. These latter are very serious dangers, as
they generally do not remain fixed in one spot, but move about within a
certain distance of a centre. There are, however, in most cases, short
intervals when they break up, and that is the time to make a dash past
them. To attempt this when they are in full swing could only end in the
loss of the canoe and its occupants.
_Boating._
When a traveller has to proceed for some distance overland before
reaching a river or lake he purposes to navigate, he must of necessity
provide himself with a boat constructed in such a manner as to be easily
transported, either by being built in sections, that can be put together
and taken to pieces at pleasure, or by taking one of the collapsible
boats, such as Berthon’s. If the former, he cannot do better than to
have one built of Spanish cedar, on the same plan as that which was
constructed for Sir H. M. Stanley, by Mr. James Messenger, of Teddington,
with such modifications as may be necessary, when the means of transport,
and the nature of his journey, have been duly considered. Collapsible
boats, though very useful for ferrying across lakes or rivers, cannot,
where a boat of other construction is available, be recommended for a
continued exploration.
If the exploration is to be commenced at the mouth of the river, a
whale-boat will be found to be the best form of boat for the following
reasons. Being steered by an oar, it is more easily handled in surf or
a rapid; it is generally faster than boats of the same size of ordinary
build; it will carry a good cargo, sail well off the wind, and is the
best boat built for crossing the bars of rivers, or landing through a
surf. Such a boat can generally be purchased at foreign ports, with oars
and sail, and should be well overhauled before starting.
Boat-sailing cannot be taught by any book, and certainly not by a few
short notes of this description. The traveller, therefore, who intends
using a boat for exploration, should gather some experience before
starting, which can be done at any fishing village on the coast. This
will be the more necessary if he intends to use his boat on a lake, or
for sailing along the coast, from the mouth of one river to another, and
the following hints may, it is hoped, be useful to those who have had but
small experience in boat-sailing.
_When under sail_, never, _under any circumstances_, allow the sheet to
be made fast; a turn should be taken round a cleat, and it should be
held by one of the crew ready to let go at any moment. Do not let the
crew stand up, or sit on the gunwale. When about to round-to, remember
that you cannot carry the same canvas on a wind that you can before it.
If caught in a squall, put down the helm at once, ease the sheet, and if
the squall is a bad one, lower the sail while it is still shaking. When
approaching a danger, such as a rock, do not stand on if you are in doubt
about weathering it, but go about in time, and have an oar ready to help
the boat round if she appears likely to miss stays. Never carry too much
sail, as there is considerable danger in doing so, and a boat will often
sail faster with a reef taken in, than she will when unduly pressed. If
necessary to take in a reef when sailing _on a wind_, do not luff, but
check the sheet, lower the sail sufficiently to shift the tack, gather
the sheet aft so that the men may take in the reef without leaning over
the gunwale, shift the sheet, hoist the sail, while the sheet is slack,
and do not haul the sheet aft until the men are again in their places.
_Rowing._—This can only be acquired by practice, and though the traveller
will seldom be called on to take an oar himself, circumstances may
arise when he may have to do so, and we would, therefore, advise him
to learn how to handle an oar before leaving England. Under ordinary
circumstances, rowing on a river is sufficiently simple, and calls for
no special instructions. The case, however, is very different when a
river bar has to be crossed, or a landing made on a beach where a surf is
breaking, and in either case it will be well to remember the following
hints. On approaching the shore, a surf when seen from seaward never
looks so bad as it really is. Where possible, a landing should not be
attempted until opposite a village where the natives will be ready to
assist the moment the boat touches the beach. When the surf is heavy,
the boat should be backed in, pulling a few strokes to meet each heavy
sea, and then backing in again until the shore is reached. The great
thing to avoid is, letting the boat get broadside to the sea, as she will
then capsize; a steer-oar should always be used, as a rudder is of little
use in a surf, when backing in.
_In crossing a bar_, if there is a good, strong, fair wind, it will
generally be best to cross under sail; but if the wind is light or
variable, this should never be attempted. When rowing, the crew should be
cautioned to keep their oars out of the water when the sea breaks round
the boat, and to commence rowing again as quickly as possible afterwards.
As even in the most experienced hands a boat will often be swamped on a
bad bar, it will be well, before attempting to cross it, to prepare for a
swim by removing all superfluous clothing, and see that everything that
will float in the boat should be left free to float, while things that
will sink, such as fire-arms, &c., should be securely fastened to the
thwarts.
The remarks given on canoeing with regard to loading, to ascending and
descending rapid rivers, are equally applicable to boating under similar
circumstances, with the following exceptions. In towing, a short mast
should be used to which the line is made fast; this is stepped in the
same place as the mast, and should be stayed, so as to resist the strain
of the tow-line. Paddles will often be found useful in reedy rivers
where the oars get entangled. As a whale-boat empty will weigh about
five hundredweight, more care must be taken at portages than in the
case of a canoe, which can be lifted bodily over obstacles. The stems
of small trees, or the oars should be laid down under the boat, and,
where possible, sharp rocks must be avoided or moved out of the way. In
a rapid, two men should be in the bow with poles ready to fend off from
rocks, and the most experienced man of the crew should be in the stern
with the steer-oar.
Although in the foregoing remarks special reference has been made to
whale-boats, the hints given are equally applicable to boats of other
construction, which should, however, for river work, crossing a bar, or
landing through a surf, be fitted with a steer-oar in addition to the
rudder. Awnings should be taken, but in rapid rivers, and when under
sail, they cannot be used.
ORTHOGRAPHY OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES.
_By MAJ.-GEN. LORD EDWARD GLEICHEN, K.C.V.O., C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O.
Chairman of the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names._
In 1878 the Council of the R.G.S., impressed with the necessity of
endeavouring to reduce the confusion existing in British maps with regard
to the spelling of geographical names, in consequence of the variety of
systems of orthography used by travellers and others to represent the
sound of native place-names in different parts of the world, formally
adopted the general principle which had been long used by many, and
the recognition of which had been steadily gaining ground, viz., that
in writing geographical native names vowels should have their Italian
significance, and consonants that which they have in the English language.
This broad principle required elucidation in its details, and a
system based upon it was consequently drawn up with the intention of
representing the principal syllabic sounds: this has long been known as
the R.G.S. system.
* * * * *
The system thus drawn up was largely adopted by the War Office, the
Admiralty, and other Government Departments and private societies. But it
was never officially sanctioned, for India, China,[19] Egypt, and many
of our Colonies had already their own system (or want of system) for
spelling foreign words; added to this, the private firms of map-makers
had their own views on the subject, and still spelt their names in a
bewildering variety of ways.
The matter came to a head in 1919, when the Admiralty approached the
Royal Geographical Society with a request for the authoritative spelling
of names. A committee was accordingly formed, with representatives from
all Government Departments, each of which bound itself to adopt the
spelling recommended.
This “Permanent Committee on Geographical Names,” under the chairmanship
of a Member of Council, R.G.S., at once got to work and proceeded to draw
up:
1. A revised system of Rules and Alphabet, termed the R.G.S. II system,
amplifying and improving on the old R.G.S. system of 1878. (This is given
in the succeeding pages.)
2. Lists of doubtful names, with their correct spelling and other
details concerned. (These will be published periodically, in the form of
leaflets, in the ‘Geographical Journal.’)
3. Tables of Foreign Alphabets transcribed into the R.G.S. II system.
(These will be published shortly in the R.G.S. Technical Series.)
It is hoped that the above procedure will gradually result in the correct
and uniform spelling of foreign Place-Names throughout the Empire.
It must also be noted that the Government of the United States of
America, after an exhaustive enquiry, has adopted a system in close
conformity with that of the R.G.S., and has directed that the spelling
of all names in their vast territories should, in cases where the
orthography is at present doubtful, be settled authoritatively by a Board
appointed for the purpose. The two great English-speaking nations are
thus working in harmony.
RULES FOR THE SPELLING OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES FOR BRITISH OFFICIAL USE.
(_Termed the R.G.S. II system._)
1. The spelling of every place-name in an independent country or
self-governing dominion using the Latin alphabet[20] shall be that
adopted by the country or dominion, except in the case in which certain
important localities have also, in addition to the official name, another
customary name, notably different, in which case the name customary in
British use (_i.e._, “conventional”) may be adopted (_e.g._, Geneva,
Warsaw, etc., for Genève, Warszawa, etc.).
2. The spelling of such place-names in colonial possessions as belong to
languages coming under Rule (1) will be spelt in accordance with that
rule.
3. The accents and diacritical marks in official use by the above
countries will be retained. Wherever it appears desirable, the
pronunciation will be shown by giving the name as transliterated on the
system below.
4. All other place-names throughout the world will (with the exception of
“Conventional” names and some others) be spelled in general accordance
with the following system, which is based upon, and differs only slightly
from, the system long used by the Royal Geographical Society, from which
are derived the War Office system, 1906,[21] and the system of the
Intelligence Division, Naval Staff, 1917.[22]
The broad features of this system are—
(_a_) That vowels are pronounced as in Italian and consonants
as in English;
(_b_) That every letter is pronounced, and no redundant letters
are used.
The system aims at giving a close approximation to the _local_
pronunciation; but it is recognised that in some languages, notably
Russian, Greek, and Arabic, the necessity for letter-for-letter
transliteration often renders this impossible.
TABLE OF SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION R.G.S. II.
a Long and short, as in _lāvă_ Somāli, Bukhāră.[*]
ä As in _fat_; rare; chiefly in Teutonic
languages.
ai[‡] The sound of the two Italian vowels;
frequently slurred over, almost as in
Eng. _aisle_, _ice_ Wadai; Shanghai.
au The two Italian vowels; frequently slurred,
almost as _ou_ in _out_ Sakau; Bauchi.
aw When followed by a consonant, or when
terminal, as in _awl_, _law_ Dawna, Saginaw.
b As in English.
c Not to be used, but always replaced by Kandahar, Serang.
_k_ or _s_; except in the compound _ch_,
and in many conventionally spelt words, as Calcutta, Celébes.
ch As in _church_; never _tch_ or _tsch_ for this
sound Chad, Maroch.
d[†][‡] As in English.
dh Soft _th_ as in _they_: a slight _d_ sound
preceding it in Semitic languages Dhuvu, Riyadh.
e[‡] Long as in _eh_; short as in _bet_. (For the
_e_ sound in the French _je_, see note at
end on the “neutral vowel”) Gēlo; Mafĕking.[*]
(ee) Used for _i_ (q.v.) only in a few
conventional names Darjeeling, Keelung.
ei[‡] The two Italian vowels, frequently slurred Beirut, Raheita.
(eu) Not used as a single sound.
f As in English; _ph_ must not be used for
this sound (except in Greek; see _ph_) Mustafa, Maidan-i-Naftun.
g Hard, as in _get, gift_; never as in _gem, gin_ Gedáref, Gilgit.
gh Soft guttural, the Arabic _ghain_ غ Dagh, Baghdad.
h Used only when sounded; or in the compounds
_ch_, _dh_, _gh_, _kh_, _sh_, _th_, _zh_ Vrh, Ahmadabad.
i Long as in _marine_; short as in _piano_ (not
as in _pin_) Fiji; Kibonde.[*]
j As in English; except in transliteration
of Russian, Bulgarian, and Chinese,
where it equals _zh_, or the French _j_[§] Japan, Ujiji (Eng.
_j_); but Jitómir,
Jelezna, Jao-ping
(Fr. _j_).
k As in English: hard _c_ should never be
used (except in conventionally-spelt
words)—thus, not Corea, Cabul, but Korea, Kabul.
kh Hard aspirated guttural, as in the Scottish
_loch_ (not as in _lock_) Khan, Sebkha.
l[†] }
m } As in English.
n[†] }
ng Has three separate sounds, as in _vanguard_,
_finger_, and _singer_. If necessary to
distinguish, a hyphen may be placed, as in
_van-guard_, _sing-er_ In-gássana; Bongo;
Ng-ami, Tong-a.
o Long as in _both_[¶]; short as in _rotund_ Angōla, Kigōma;
Angŏra, Hŏnŏlulu.[*]
ö As in German; equals the French _eu_ in
_peu_; or nearly the English sound in
_fur_ Gömle, Yeniköi.
(oo) Used for _u_ (q.v.) only in a few conventional
names, chiefly Chinese Poona, Foochow.
oi[‡] The Italian vowels: sometimes slurred as
in _oil_. If necessary for pronunciation,
a hyphen may be inserted as in Tro-itskoi.
ou[‡] Dissyllabic, and not as French or English _ou_ Zlatoust.
ow Represents, as a diphthong, nearly the _au_
sound (above) only in the romanisation of
Chinese. Conventional.
p As in English.
ph As in _loophole_; not to be used for the _f_-sound,
except in Greek or conventionally Chemulpho;
Paphos, Haiphong.
q Represents _only_ the Arabic Qaf (ق): i.e.
a guttural _k_ Qena, ʿIraq.
qu Should never be employed to represent the
sound of _kw_: thus, not Namaqua, Quorra, but Namakwa, Kworra.
r[†] As in English; should be distinctly pronounced.
s As English ss in _boss_, not as in _these_ or
_pleasure_ Rosario, Masikesi.
sh }
t[†] } As in English.
th Hard _th_ as in _thick_, not as in _this_ Tharmida.
u[‡] Long as in _rude_, or as _oo_ in _boot_; short
as in _pull_ Zūlū; Rŭanda.[*]
ü Represents the French _u_, as in _tu_ (Fr.) Üsküb.
v }
w } As in English.
x }
y Always a consonant, as in _yard_; it should Kikuyu, Maya.
not be used as a terminal vowel, _e_ or _i_
being substituted; _e.g._, not Kwaly or
Wady, but Kwale, Wadi.
z As in _gaze_, not as in _azure_.
zh As the _s_ in _treasure_, the _z_ in _azure_, or
the French _j_ in _je_; but for the sound in
Russian, Bulgarian, and Chinese use _j_
(_vide_ note above under _j_) Zhob, Azhdaha.
NOTES.
The doubling of a vowel or a consonant is
only necessary when there is a distinct
repetition of the single sound, and
should otherwise be avoided Nuulua, Loolmalasin,
Jidda, Muhammad.
Accents should not generally be employed;
but in order to indicate or emphasise the
stress, an acute accent may be used Saráwak, Qántara,
Tong-atábu, Paraná.
A long or short mark over a vowel (_e.g._
_ā_, _ŏ_) should only be used (and that
sparingly) when without it there would be
danger of mispronunciation Kūt, Hashīn, Angŏra.
Hyphens will not be used except to indicate
pronunciation, and with the Persian
_izafat_, _-i-_ Mus-hil; Pusht-i-Kuh.
[*] The long and short symbols given in this column are merely
for explanation, not for use.
[†] See note at end on _Liquid sounds_.
[‡] Pronounced differently in Greek: see ‘Alphabets of Foreign
Languages transcribed into English according to the R.G.S. II
system’ (to be published in the R.G.S. Technical Series).
[§] This decision has been arrived at chiefly owing to the
large number of English (and French) maps of these countries in
which the _zh_ sound appears as _j_.
[¶] The true Italian _ō_ is broader than this: almost as in
_broth_.
_Inverted Comma and Apostrophe._—The inverted comma ʿ is employed only to
represent the Arabic _ʿain_, ع, and the Hebrew _ʿayin_, ע. The apostrophe
’ in foreign words indicates a liquid sound. (See below.)
_Liquid Sounds._—The occasional “liquid” or “palatalised” sound of _d_,
_l_, _n_, _r_, _t_, etc. (as in _d’you_, _lure_, _new_, _clarion_,
_tune_), is as a rule sufficiently represented by a following _y_; where,
however, owing to a following consonant, or to the letter in question
coming at the end of a word, the _y_ is inapplicable, the liquid sound
will be represented by an apostrophe, thus: _d’_, _l’_, _n’_, _r’_, _t’_,
etc.
_The “Neutral Vowel”._—The “indeterminate” or “neutral” vowel sound
(_er_), i.e. the sound of _a_ in _marine_, _e_ in _often_, _i_ in
_stir_, _io_ in _nation_, _o_ in _connect_, _ou_ in _curious_, _u_ in
_difficult_, etc., _e_ in French _je_, or the often unwritten vowel (َ
_Fat-ha_) in Arabic, etc., is represented as a rule by _a_: as in Basra,
Hawiya; but sometimes by _e_, when the sound approximates more to _e_
than to _a_: as Meshed, El Gezira.
(In any guide to pronunciation issued by the Permanent Committee on
Geographical Names, the “neutral vowel” is represented generally by the
italic _e_: occasionally also by italic _a_ or _u_.)
This sound must not be confused with _e-mute_, where the _e_ is not
sounded at all: as in Abbeville.
ON THE GIVING OF NAMES TO NEWLY-DISCOVERED PLACES.
The Council of the Royal Geographical Society would urge upon all
travellers that in giving names to any new discoveries which they may
make they should be guided by the following restrictions, which, until
comparatively recent years, were commonly observed:—
1. That before putting forward any personal or fanciful name
the traveller should do his best to ascertain that no local
name exists, and where none is forthcoming should further
consider whether one might not conveniently be derived from
the vicinity, _e.g._, from an adjacent stream, or pasture, or
glacier, or from some characteristic of the natural object
itself.
2. That no one should commemorate himself in this manner.
3. That any new nomenclature which a traveller may desire to
suggest should be put forward tentatively and subject to the
approval (1) of the Administration of the region or country, if
there is one; (2) of the Official Cartographer of the country,
if it possesses a Survey Department, or of the State to which
the region may belong; or (3) of the Council of the Royal
Geographical Society.
FOOTNOTES
[1] Equivalents obtained by Mr. R. H. Curtis using Köppen’s method. See
‘Symons’s Meteorological Magazine,’ 40 (1905), p. 157.
[2] For comparison of scales see Table XXVI., Vol. I., p. 333.
To convert Centigrade readings into Fahrenheit the rule is “Multiply by
1.8 and add 32.” This can be done mentally in a moment, thus: “Multiply
by 2, subtract one-tenth of the product, and add 32.” _E.g._, to convert
10° C. to F.: 10 × 2 = 20; one-tenth of 20 = 2; 20 - 2 = 18; 18 + 32 =
50° F.
[3] Travellers in tropical countries will do wisely to poison all their
labels before using them, to preserve them from attacks of insects and
mites. Washing with a very weak solution of corrosive sublimate is an
efficient plan. A large number of labels, with the collector’s name
printed on them, may be taken, and if made of strong thin paper they
will not occupy much space. Bank-note paper is well adapted for the
purpose. Any writing should be, if possible, in ink; if not, a very hard
black pencil should be used. Some tie labels should be added, as paper
coverings soon run short.
[4] There are plenty of good works on the use of the blow-pipe. The best
are by Plattner and Scheerer, of both of which English translations have
been published. Of Von Kobell’s tables for the determination of minerals,
several translations have appeared. Brush and Penfield 1906 edition is
a practical work. A very portable outfit may be obtained from J. T.
Letcher, Truro, Cornwall.
[5] In high latitudes care must be exercised in distinguishing between
true raised beaches and ridges of beach material pushed up by the
pressure of shore ice in winter.
[6] In some valleys the lateral tributaries enter at a higher level than
the floor of the main valley, owing to the overdeepening of the latter;
this overdeepening has been attributed to four different causes:—(1)
Inequality in the hardness of the rocks, especially when the main valley
runs along the strike; (2) the presence of joints, or other lines of
weakness; (3) increased erosion of the main valley by river action owing
to the elevation of the upper end of the district, while the lateral
valleys were merely tilted sideways, or were protected by the presence of
ice or lakes; (4) erosion of the main valley by ice more rapidly than its
tributaries, owing to the ice being thicker in the former. The problem
is complicated by the fact that the upper end of the main valley is
frequently a ‘hanging’ valley. Any evidence bearing on the formation of
these ‘hanging’ valleys should be carefully noted.
[7] Travellers who intend to make collections of zoological specimens are
advised to call on the Secretary of the British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell Road, S.W. He will be happy to supply any information required.
[8] General travelling outfit can be procured from Messrs. Silver & Co.,
67 Cornhill, E.C.
[9] Ejector guns are apt to get out of order in sandy countries.
[10] The shafts of old golf-drivers, when shortened to about 2 feet 6
inches in length, make the most perfect handles for nets.
[11] All the above-mentioned articles for collecting insects may be
procured from Mr. Janson, 44 Great Russell Street, W., or from Messrs.
Watkins & Doncaster, 36 Strand, W.C., or from Miss E. M. Sharpe, 4
Barrowgate Road, Chiswick.
[12] Cf. British Museum ‘Handbook,’ p. 47.
[13] Cf. British Museum ‘Handbook,’ pp. 15-32.
[14] Much useful information may be found in the ‘Manual of the
Mollusca,’ by S. P. Woodward, F.G.S., one of Weale’s series; an admirable
book in a small form.
[15] More extended accounts of the departments of the Science of Man here
noticed will be found in Tylor’s ‘Anthropology: an Introduction to the
Study of Men and Civilisation’ (Macmillan and Co., New edition, 1895).
[16] Some useful training under this head can be obtained at the London
School of Economics.
[17] In the case of sculptures, owing to their deep depressions, it is
best to wet the paper _before_ laying on.—_Ed._
[18] A tourniquet is a special instrument devised for the purpose of
applying pressure to the main vessels of the limbs; in its absence, one
may be improvised by rolling a handkerchief into a narrow band, and
inserting a stone or a cork between its folds to serve as a pad; the pad
is adjusted over the spot where it is proposed to compress the vessel,
and the ends of the handkerchief knotted loosely round the limb. A stick
is now slipped between the knot and the limb, and twisted round until
sufficient pressure is exerted to arrest the bleeding.
[19] As far as British officials were concerned.
[20] Including ‘Latin’ alphabets containing extra or modified letters,
such as Česky, Croatian, Polish, Rumanian, etc. The pronunciation of
these letters is given in the ‘Alphabets of Foreign Languages,’ etc.,
mentioned below (p. 301).
[21] ‘Rules for the Transliteration of Place-names occurring on Foreign
Maps.’ Compiled in the Topographical Section, General Staff, by Alexander
Knox, B.A., Map Curator. 1906.
[22] ‘Instructions for the Spelling of Place-names in Foreign Countries.’
Naval Staff Intelligence Division. 1917.
INDEX.
Abney, Sir W., Method of packing sensitive plates or films, 57;
method of using camera in hand or on tripod adopted by, 54;
reference to his work in photography, 59
Accessibility of a country, the, 139
Aertex Cellular clothing recommended for travellers, 164
Africa, weather services of, list of, 42
Agricultural development, suitability of a country for, 143
Algeria, weather service of, 42
Alps, Föhn of the, 5
Amber objects of antiquity, on cleaning and conserving, 158
America, weather services of, list of, 42
Aneroid barometer, 31
Animal products, on obtaining information concerning, 144
Animals, on observing habits of, 104;
on preparation of skeletons of, 94
Anthropology, by Dr. E. B. Tyler, 106-129;
“Notes and Queries on Anthropology,” reference to, 106;
Queries of Anthropology, by Sir A. W. Franks, 129-132;
Tylor’s “Anthropology,” reference to, 127
Anthropological Notes by Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, 132-137
Antiquity, objects of, methods of recording, cleaning and conserving,
148-159;
on literary memoranda of characteristics of, 156
Antiseptics, 275
Ants, 198
Apoplexy, symptoms and treatment, 237
Apparatus and chemicals for photographic development, 58
Archæologist’s outfit, 159
Archæology, article on, by D. G. Hogarth, 148-159;
Petrie’s “Methods and Aims,” reference to, 149, 158
Argentina, weather service of, 42
Arm, fracture of, treatment of, 288
Arts and sciences, native, 113;
queries on, 130
Asia, weather services of, list of, 42
Assmann’s aspiration psychrometer, 20
Atmosphere, humidity of, instruments for measuring, 18
Atmospheric conditions, ways in which a traveller may add to the
knowledge of, 1
Atmospheric phenomena, on recording observations of, 10
Atolls or coral-islands, on the formation of, 77
Australasia and Pacific, weather services of, list of, 43
Ball, J., Preparation of dried plants, 99
Barometer vernier, diagram showing how to read, 27
Barometers, 25;
aneroid barometer, 31;
Collie portable mercurial barometer, 29;
Fortin barometer, 26, rules for observing with, 27
Bartholomew’s “Atlas of Physical Geography,” vol. iii., Meteorology,
reference to, 37, 41
Bates, H. W., and W. R. Ogilvie-Grant, article on Natural History,
82-105
Baths, directions for giving an invalid, 271
Baths, cold, in Africa, dangers of, 168
Batrachians, naturalist’s outfit for preserving, 85
Beaufort’s scale of wind force, 4
Bed-sore, treatment of, 171
Beri-beri, 171
Bilharzia worm, 249
Birds, hints on collecting, 91;
instruments for skinning, 84
Blackham, “Primer of Tropical Hygiene,” 161
Blackwater fever, symptoms and treatment, 172
Bladder, inflammation of, 181
Blanford, H. F., portable thermometer screen devised by, 15
Blanford, W. T., and Prof. E. J. Garwood, article on Geology, 63-78
Bleeding or hæmorrhage, treatment of, 277
Blindness, night and snow, precautions against, 199
Blood-poisoning, treatment of, 280
Blow-pipe, reference to Plattner and Scheerer’s work on the use of, 67
Boating and Canoeing, note by J. Coles, 293-297
Boils, treatment of, 226
Bonacina, “Climatic Control,” 41
Bone objects of antiquity, on cleaning and conserving, 158
Bones of human limbs, on taking measurements of, 136
Botanical collecting, 99
Botanical seeds, on preserving, 102
Botanical specimens, on the selection of, 99;
conveyance of, to camp or station, 99;
drying press for, 100
Brain, concussion of the, symptoms and treatment, 179
Brazil, weather service of, 42
British Association manual “Notes and Queries on Anthropology,”
reference to, 106
British Central Africa, weather service of, 42
Broca’s scale of colours of native races, reference to, 108
Bronchitis, symptoms and treatment, 174
Bronze objects of antiquity, on cleaning and conserving, 157
Bruises, treatment of, 281
Bubonic plague, causes, symptoms and treatment, 215
Buchan, Dr. A., and Dr. A. J. Herbertson, “Atlas of Meteorology,”
reference to, 37, 41
Buffalo gnats, 195
Bugs, protection against, 197
Bulbs, on collecting and packing, 103
Burns and scalds, treatment of, 175
Burroughs and Welcome’s photographic exposure record, reference to, 56
Buys Ballot’s law, 40
Camera, photographic, 51;
selection of, 51;
hand-camera, 52
Camera level, circular cup form, 54
Camera-stand, 54
Canada, weather service of, 42
Canoeing and Boating, note by J. Coles, 293-297
Carbuncles, treatment of, 227
Catheters, directions for using, 272
Cellulitis, symptoms and treatment, 280
Centigrade thermometer readings, rule for converting into Fahrenheit,
13
Cerebro-spinal fever, 175
Ceylon, weather service of, 42
Charts, meteorological, of the N. Atlantic and Mediterranean, and N.
Pacific, 41
Chemicals for photographic development, 58
Chicken-pox, rash, symptoms and treatment, 176
Chigger, 228
Chile, weather service of, 42
Chill in tropical climates, risks of, 164
Chilblains and frostbite, treatment of, 177
China, weather service of, 42
Chinook wind of the Rocky Mts., 5
Cholera, cause, symptoms and treatment, 177
Clap (_see Gonorrhœa_)
Cleaning and conserving monuments and objects of antiquity, methods
of, 156
Climate, hints on recording observations concerning, 145
Climatology, “Handbook of Climatology,” by Prof. R. de C. Ward,
reference to, 41;
Hann’s “Handbuch der Klimatologie,” reference to, 41;
Meteorology and Climatology, article on, by Dr. H. R. Mill, 1-50,
list of works on, 41
Cloud and sunshine, on keeping record of changes of, 5
Clouds, types of, 6;
on photographing, 7
Coasts, geological notes on, 71
Cold in the head, 181
Coles, J., his note on Canoeing and Boating, 293-297
Colic, treatment of, 179
Collar-bone fracture, treatment of, 287
Collie portable mercurial barometer, description and illustration of,
29-31
Colour photography, Ives’ method, 62
Colour of native races, Broca’s scale of, reference to, 108
Commerce, Industry and, article on by Sir J. S. Keltie, 138-147
Commercial development, on ascertaining facilities and hindrances to,
146
“Commission Internationale des Glaciers,” reports of the, reference
to, 81
Communication between countries, on observing what natural means
exist, 146
Concussion of the brain, symptoms and treatment, 179
Conserving monuments and objects of antiquity, methods of, 156
Constipation, treatment of, 180
Continental climate, 35
Copper and bronze objects of antiquity, on cleaning and conserving,
157
Coral-islands (_see Atolls_)
Coryza, treatment of, 181
Cranial measurements, on making, with illustrations, 135
Craniological descriptions, with illustrations, 133
Craniometer, Flower’s, 135
Crosse, Dr. W. H., and Dr. Andrew Balfour, Medical Hints, 160-292
Cuba, weather service of, 42
Currency existing in a country, on obtaining information concerning,
147
Customs of native races, 126;
queries on, 130
Cyclones, description of, with diagrams, 32
Cystitis, causes, symptoms and treatment, 181
Daily range of temperature, 35
Daily synoptical weather-maps, 41
Darwin, Dr. Charles, and Prof. J. Phillips, article on geology by, in
the “Admiralty Manual of Scientific Enquiry,” reference to, 68
Dengue, 182
Deserts, geological notes on, 75;
on observing the character of, 142
Dew, on recording appearance and amount of, 8
Dew-point, means of finding, 18
Dhobie itch, symptoms and treatment, 229
Diarrhœa, 183
Diet in the tropics, errors of, 165
Diphtheria, causes, symptoms and treatment, complications, 184
Diseases, classification of, 170
Diseases and their Treatment, 169-274
Disfigurements, personal, of native races, queries on, 131
Dislocations, treatment of, 290
Dobson, Dr. G. E., his hints on preserving mammals and birds, 92
Doldrums, 37
Domestic animals, on obtaining information concerning, 144
Drowning, treatment of cases of, 283
Drugs recommended for travellers, 253
Drying-press for botanical specimens, description of, with
illustrations, 100-102
Duckworth, Dr. W. L. H., his Anthropological Notes, 132-137
Dutch East Indies, weather service of, 42
Dwarfs, native, on the measurements of bones and skulls of, 137
Dysentery, symptoms and treatments, 185
Eikonogen photographic developing powder, 59
Elbow-joint dislocation, treatment of, 290
Emetics, list of, 259
Enemas, 259, 273
Enteric or typhoid fever, causes, symptoms and treatment, 189
Epilepsy, symptoms and treatment, 191
Erysipelas, symptoms and treatment, 279
Exposure tables, photographic, 56
Extra-European weather services, list of, 42
Eyeball, inflammation of the, 198
Fahrenheit thermometer readings, rule for converting Centigrade into,
13
Faintness, treatment of, 191
Fibres, on observing the nature of, 141
Filariasis, cause of, 191
Filters recommended for travellers, 166
First aid treatment, works on, 161
Fisheries, on obtaining information concerning, 144
Fishes, hints on collecting and preserving, 96;
outfit for preserving, 85
Fleas and bugs, protection against, 196
Flies, house; tsetse; Congo floor-maggot, 195
Flower, Sir W. H., his directions for the preparation of skeletons of
animals, 94
Flower’s craniometer, 135
Focus of camera lens, 56
Focussing cloth of camera, 54
Fog, on recording density and duration of, 7
Föhn of the Alps, 5
Folk-Lore Society, Handbook, 129
Forests, on observing the character of, 141
Fortin barometer, 26;
rules for observing with, 27
Fossils, hints on collecting, 68, 104
Fractures, 286;
simple, treatment of, 286;
compound, treatment of, 289
Franks, Sir A. W., Queries of Anthropology, 129-132
Frost, on recording appearance of, 9
Frostbite, treatment of, 177
Fruits, on observing the nature of, 141
Fungus diseases, 229
Garry, “Health in Tropical Climates,” 161
Garwood, Prof. E. J. (_see Blanford, W. T._)
Geographical Names, R.G.S. system of orthography of, 300
Geography, Physical, Bartholomew’s Atlas of, vol. iii., Meteorology,
reference to, 37, 41
Geological collections, hints on making, 65
Geological observations, 63
Geologist’s outfit, 64
Geology, article on, by W. T. Blanford and Prof. E. J. Garwood, 63-78;
Dr. Charles Darwin and Prof. J Phillips’ article on, in the
“Admiralty Manual of Scientific Enquiry,” reference to, 68
Giants, native, on the measurements of bones and skulls of, 137
Glacial action, on the evidence of, 74
Glacier movements, Gosset’s and Richter’s systems of measuring, 79
Glacier observations, memorandum on, 78-81
Glaciers, “Commission Internationale des Glaciers” reports, reference
to, 81
Glass objects of antiquity, on cleaning and conserving, 158
Glazed objects of antiquity, on cleaning and conserving, 158
Gleet, 192
Gleichen, Maj.-Gen. Lord Edward, Orthography of Geographical Names,
298
Godwin-Austen, Lt.-Col. H. H., his notes on collecting mollusca, 97
Gonorrhœa, symptoms and treatment, 192
Gosset’s system of measuring glacier movements, 80
Guatemala, weather service of, 42
Guinea worm, treatment for, 247
Hæmorrhage, treatment of, 277
Hail, on recording occurrence of, 8
Hand-camera, the, 52
Hann’s “Handbuch der Klimatologie,” reference to, 41
Hawaii, weather service of, 43
Hay fever, symptoms and treatment, 192
Haze, on recording density and duration of, 7
Health in a tropical climate, risks to, 163
Health in the tropics, Simpson’s “Maintenance of Health in the
Tropics,” reference to, 168
Heat-stroke, 238
Helm wind of the Eden Valley, England, and of Adam’s Peak, Ceylon, 5
Herbertson, Dr. A. J. (_see Buchan, Dr. A._)
Hernia, 220
Hip-joint dislocation, treatment of, 290
Hogarth, D. G., his article on Archæology, 148-159
Hongkong, weather service of, 42
Hook-worm, 248
Human body, diagram showing some of the principal organs of the, and
the course of the main blood-vessels, 162
Human limbs, on making measurements of bones of, 136
Human skeleton, diagram of the, 285
Humidity, table of relative, 44-49;
explanation, 43
Hut for sheltering thermometers, description of, with illustration,
16
Hygrometers, 18
Hypodermic injections, directions for giving, 269;
different injections to use, 271
India, weather service of, 42
Individuals of giant and dwarf stature, on the measurements of bones
and skulls of, 137
Industry and Commerce, article on, by Sir J. S. Keltie, 138-147
Infectious fevers, 169
Influenza, 193
Inhabitants, native, on observing the character of, 147
Injuries, treatment of, 275-292
Inoculation, 168
Insect pests, 194
Insects, outfit for collecting, 86;
hints on preserving, 99
Instrumental meteorological observations, 11
Iritis, symptoms and treatment, 198
Iron objects of antiquity, on, 157
Irrigation, on, 142
Isobaric maps, 50, note on, 39
Isohyets, 40
Isolation of an infectious complaint, importance of, 169
Isothermal maps, 50, note on, 38
Itch, 197
Ives’ method of natural colour photography, 62
Ivory and wood carving of native races, queries on, 131
Ivory objects of antiquity, on cleaning and conserving, 158
Jaundice, 199
Jaw, lower, fracture of, treatment of, 288
Jigger or sand-flea, prevention against and treatment, 228
Kala-azar, 202
Keltie, Sir. J. S., his article on Industry and Commerce, 138-147
Kraw Kraw, symptoms and treatment, 230
Krōmskōp photography, 62
Labels for geological specimens, how to preserve, 65
Labour connected with development of a country’s resources, on
obtaining information concerning the, 147
Lakes and tarns, geological notes on, 73
Languages, native, on, 110;
on recording vocabularies of, 111
Laryngitis, symptoms and treatment, 200
Lead and iron objects of antiquity, on, 157
Leeches, treatment for removing, 201
Leg fracture, treatment of, 288
Leishmaniasis, 202
Lenses, camera, 54
Level, camera, 54
Lice, treatment for destroying, 196
Literary memoranda of characteristics of monuments and objects of
antiquity, 156
Liver, abscess of, treatment of, 203;
acute inflammation of, treatment of, 203;
congestion of, symptoms and treatment, 202
Loess deposits, 76
Lungs, inflammation of the (_see Pleurisy and Pneumonia_)
Madagascar, weather service of, 42
Malaria, 204;
methods of prevention, 206;
symptoms and treatment, 205
Malta fever, 244
Mammals, instruments for skinning, 84
Mammals and birds, hints on collecting, 91;
on preserving, 92
Man, early history of, in tropical climates, notes on, 76
Manufactures of native races, queries on, 130
Maps, isobaric, 50, note on, 39;
isothermal, 50, note on, 38;
rainfall, 50, note on, 40;
weather, daily synoptical, 41
Maritime climate, 35
Marett, R. R., Note on Anthropology, 129
Marriott’s “Hints to Meteorological Observers,” reference to, 43
Marshes, on observing special features of, 142
Masterman, “Hygiene and Disease in Palestine,” 161
Maudslay, A. P., directions for making squeezes of sculptures, 151
Mauritius, weather service of, 42
Maximum thermometers, 23
McIntosh, J.: Hints on Photography, revised by, 51
Measles, rash, symptoms, treatment, complications, 211
Medical appliances, medicines, &c., 252-274
Medical guides suitable for travellers, list of, 161
Medical Hints, by Dr. W. H. Crosse, and Dr. A. Balfour, 160-274
Medicines, medical appliances, &c., 252-274
Metals of a country, hints on observing, 140
“Meteorological Observers, Hints to,” by W. Marriott, reference to, 43
Meteorology, Bartholomew’s Atlas of, reference to, 37, 41
Meteorology and Climatology, article on, by Dr. H. R. Mill, 1-50;
list of works on, 41
“Methods and Aims in Archæology,” by Prof. Petrie, reference, 149, 158
Mexico, weather service of, 42
Mill, Dr. H. R., his article on Meteorology and Climatology, 1-50;
“Realm of Nature,” reference to, 41
Minerals, Von Kobell’s tables for determination of, reference to, 67
Minerals and metals of a country, hints on observing the, 140
Minimum thermometer, 20;
care of, 21
Mist, fog and haze, on recording density and duration of, 7
Mode of subsistence of native races, queries on, 129
Mollusca, S. P. Woodward’s “Manual of the Mollusca,” reference to, 97
Mollusca, land and freshwater, hints on collecting, 97
Money of native races, queries on, 131
Monuments and objects of antiquity, methods of recording, cleaning
and conserving, 148-159;
on literary memoranda of characteristics of, 156
Mosquito curtains, 206
Mosquitoes, propagation of malaria by, 204;
protection from, 206
Mosquitoes and midges, protection against, and treatment of bites of,
194
Moulding, on obtaining records of objects of antiquity by means of,
149
Mountain-chains, geological notes on, 70
Mumps, 211
Myer, “Atlas of First Aid Treatment,” 161
Myiasis, 212
Mythology of native races, 124;
queries on, 130
Names, on the giving of, to newly-discovered places, 306
Names, geographical, R.G.S. system of orthography of, 300
Native races, physical character of, 106, queries on, 129;
Broca’s scale of colours of, reference to, 108;
language of, 110;
arts and sciences of, 113, queries on, 130;
social life of, 118;
religion and mythology of, 124, queries on, 130;
customs of, 126, queries on, 130;
mode of subsistence of, queries on, 129;
ivory and wood carving of, queries on, 131;
money of, queries on, 131;
personal ornaments, disfigurements, &c., of, queries on, 131;
skulls of, observations on, 132-136
Natives, wants of, hints on observing, 139
Natural History, article on, by H. W. Bates and W. R. Ogilvie-Grant,
82-105;
“Handbook of Instructions for Collectors,” reference to, 87;
where and what to collect, 89
Natural history specimens, hints on collecting and preserving, 87;
outfit for, 88
Naturalist’s outfit, 82-86
Negretti and Zambra’s maximum thermometers, 23
Neligan, “Hints for Travellers in Persia,” 161
New Zealand, weather service of, 43
Night-blindness, protection against, 199
“Notes and Queries on Anthropology,” British Association manual of,
reference to, 106
Ocean-Basins, on the permanence of, 76
Ogilvie, A. C., Memorandum on glacier observations, 78
Ogilvie-Grant, W. R., and H. W. Bates, article on Natural History,
82-105
Ophthalmia, simple, symptoms and treatment, 213
Oriental sore, 231
Organs of the human body, diagram showing some of the principal, 162
Ornaments, personal, of native races, queries on, 131
Orthochrome plates, 62
Orthography of Geographical Names, R.G.S. system of, 300
“Outfit, Hints on,” reference to, 164
Pacific, weather service of the, 43
Paget colour plate, 62
Papyrus, on conserving, 158
Parasites, diseases produced by, 170
Paratyphoid fevers, 189
Paste objects of antiquity, on cleaning and conserving, 158
Pasteur-Chamberland filter, 166
Peru, weather service of, 42
Petrie’s “Methods and Aims in Archæology,” reference to, 149, 158
Philippine Islands, weather service of, 42
Phillips’ maximum thermometers, 23
Phillips, Prof. J. (_see Darwin, Dr. Charles_)
Photographic apparatus and chemicals for development, 58
Photographic exposure record, 56
Photographic outfit, list of, with prices, 61-62
Photography, article on, by J. Thomson and J. McIntosh, 51-62;
Sir W. Abney’s work on, reference to, 59;
W. K. Burton’s work on, reference to, 59;
Robinson’s “Pictorial Effect in Photography,” reference to, 60;
photography in natural colours, 61;
photography of object of antiquity, 148
Physical characters of natives, on observing the, 106;
queries on, 129
Piles, internal and external, treatment of, 214
Plague, bubonic, causes, symptoms and treatment, 215
Plants, living and succulent, on packing, 103
Plattner and Scheerer’s work on the use of the blow-pipe, reference
to, 67
Pleurisy, symptoms and treatment, 217
Pneumonia, symptoms and treatment, 217
Poisons, treatment of the various, 291
Pottery and terra-cotta objects of antiquity, on cleaning and
conserving, 157
Poultices, directions for making, 274
Pox, 239
Precautions on the voyage, 167
Prickly heat, treatment for, 230
Psychrometer, Assmann’s Aspiration, description of, with
illustration, 20
Pulse, normal rate of, 269
Purgatives, 180, 264
Queries of Anthropology, by Sir A. W. Franks, 129-132
Quinine, use of, for malaria, 265
Quinsy, treatment of, 218
Railways, inquiry as to routes suitable for, in new country, 146
Rain and dew, on recording prevalence of, 7
Rainfall maps, 50, note on, 40
Rain-gauge, 24
Raised beaches, 72
Ramsay, Sir A., reference to his views on the formation of
rock-basins, 74
“Realm of Nature,” by Dr. H. R. Mill, reference to, 41
Recording monuments and objects of antiquity, methods of, 148-156
Relapsing fever, 218
Religion and mythology of native races, 124;
queries on, 130
Reptiles, naturalist’s outfit for preserving, 85
Reptiles and fishes, on collecting and preserving, 96
Resources of a country, inquiry into, 139
Respiration, normal rate of, 269
Rheumatism, 219
Ribs, fracture of, treatment of, 287
Richter’s system of measuring glacier movements, 80
Richthofen, Baron F. von, reference to his description of loess
formations, 76
Ringworm, treatment of, 230
Rivers and river-plains, geological notes on, 72
Roads, native, on observing the nature of, 146
Robinson’s “Pictorial Effect in Photography,” reference to, 59
Rock-basins, on the formation of, 73;
reference to Sir A. Ramsay’s views on, 74
Round worm, treatment for, 247
Royal Geographical Society, on the giving of names to
newly-discovered places, 306;
system of orthography of geographical names, 300
Rubbings, on obtaining records of objects of antiquity by means of,
154
Rupture, treatment of, 220
Ryan, “Health Preservation in West Africa,” 161
Salvador, weather service of, 42
Salvin, O., hints on collecting reptiles and fishes, 96
Sand-flea (_see Jigger_)
Sand-fly fever, 221
Scabies, symptoms and treatment, 197
Scalds, treatment of, 175
Scarlet fever, or scarlatina, symptoms, treatment, complications, 222
Scheerer (_see Plattner_)
Sciences of native races, 113
Scorpion sting, 223
Screw worm, 212
Scurvy, symptoms and treatment, 224
Sea-sickness, treatment of, 226
Sensitive plates or films, 57;
Sir W. Abney’s method of packing, 57;
how to keep dry, 58;
slides for holding, 54
Shaw, Sir Napier: “Forecasting Weather,” 41
Shoulder-joint dislocation, treatment of, 290
Simpson, Dr. W. J., “The Maintenance of Health in the Tropics,”
reference to, 161
Skeleton, human, diagram of the, 285
Skeletons of animals, on the preparation of, 94
Skin diseases, 226
Skulls, human, observations on, 132-136
Sleeping sickness, symptoms and treatment, 233
Sleeplessness, treatment for, 235
Slides for holding sensitive plates, 54
Sling thermometer, 17
Small-pox, rash, symptoms and treatment, 236
Snow, on recording falls of, 9
Snow-blindness, protection against, 199
Social life of native races, 118
Spectacles for preventing snow-blindness, illustration of, 199
Spider bite, 223
Sprains, treatment of, 281
Sprue, symptoms and treatment, 237
“Squeezes,” on obtaining records of objects of antiquity by means of,
150
Stevenson thermometer screen, 14
Stomach tube, directions for using, 273
Stone objects of antiquity, on cleaning and conserving, 157
Stroke, 237
Sun in the tropics, effects of the, upon the human body, 165
Sunshine, cloud and, on keeping record of changes of, 5
Sun-stroke, symptoms and treatment, 238
Surface of a country, on observing the character of, 141
Surgical cleanliness, importance of, 275
Surgical dressing case recommended to travellers, 253
Syphilis, symptoms and treatment, 239
Table of relative humidity, 44-49, explanation, 43;
showing pressure of saturated aqueous vapour in inches of mercury
at latitude 45° for each degree Fahrenheit from -30° to 119°, 50
Tape-worms, treatment for, 246
Tarns, geological notes on, 73
Tariffs existing in a country, on obtaining information concerning,
147
Temperature of human body, normal, 269;
taking the, different ways of, 269
Terra-cotta objects of antiquity, on cleaning and conserving, 157
Thermometer corrections, 12
Thermometer scales, 12;
rule for converting Centigrade readings into Fahrenheit, 13
Thermometer screens, 14;
Blanford’s portable, 15;
for permanent station in hot countries, form recommended by British
Association most suitable, 15;
Stevenson’s, 13
Thermometers, on the care of, 13;
boiling-point, 31;
dry and wet bulb, table showing difference between readings of,
44-49, explanation, 13;
maximum, 23, Negretti and Zambra’s form, 23, Phillips’ form, 23;
minimum, 20, care of, 21;
sling, 17
Thigh fracture, treatment of, 288
Threadworm, treatment for, 247
Thomson, J., article on Photography, 51-62
Throat, ulceration of the, treatment of, 244
Thunderstorms and hail, on recording the occurrence of, 8
Tick fever, symptoms and treatment, 241
Ticks, treatment for, 197
Timber of a country, on ascertaining the characteristics of, 141
Tonsils, inflammation of the (_see Quinsy_)
Tornadoes, making record of, 5
Tourniquet, description and use of, 277
Trade, on obtaining information concerning, 144
Trephine-holes in human skulls, 133
Tropical ulcer, 232
Tubers, on packing, 103
Tumbu fly, 212
Tylor, Dr. E. B., his article on Anthropology, 106-129;
his “Anthropology: an Introduction to the Study of Men and
Civilisation,” reference to, 127
Tyndall’s method of ascertaining velocity of glacier movements, 81
Typhoid fever, 189
Typhus fever, 243
Ulceration of the throat, treatment of, 244
Ulcers, treatment of, 231, 232
Underclothing recommended for tropical climates, 164
Undulant fever, 244
United States, weather service of, 42
Urine, retention of, symptoms and treatment, 245;
suppression of causes and treatment, 246
Uruguay, weather service of, 42
Vaccination essential to travellers, 168
Vegetable products of a country, hints on observing, 141
Vegetation, on observing character of, 142
Ver macaque, 212
Vocabularies, native, on recording, 111
Volcanic rocks, on, 71
Volcanoes and volcanic rocks, on, 71
Von Kobell’s tables for determination of minerals, reference to, 67
Voyage, precautions on the, 167
Ward, Prof. R. de C., “Handbook of Climatology,” reference to, 41
Water, risks due to drinking, 166
Water communication of a country, inquiry as to, 146
Waterspouts, on the theoretical importance to determine direction of
the whirl about the axis of, 5
Weather, hints on keeping a record of, 2;
observations for forecasting the, 32-35.
Weather-maps, daily synoptical, 41
Weather services, extra-European, list of, 42-43
West Indies, weather service of, 42
Wet pack for invalid, directions for giving, 272
Whirlwinds, usefulness of making records of, 5
Wind, observations of direction and force of, 3;
Beaufort’s scale of wind force, 4
Windpipe, inflammation of the, 174, 200
Wood, ivory, and bone objects of antiquity, on cleaning and
conserving, 158
Wood carving of native races, queries on, 131
Woodward, S. P., “Manual of the Mollusca,” reference to, 97
Worms producing disease, different kinds of, treatment, 246
Wound, directions to clean and dress a, 275
Wounds, after-treatment of, 279
Wounds, poisoned, treatment of, 281
Wounds and injuries, treatment of, 275-292
Yellow fever, symptoms and treatment, 250
Young, Hastings: “First Aid to the Sick,” 161
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