or films after exposure in the camera requires practice and experience
in order to secure the best results. Instructions for development
are sent out with all commercial plates or papers, but many failures
would certainly result from attempting to work by these without some
preliminary practice at home. As plates, &c., will keep after exposure
(if well protected from damp) for 18 months, or longer if properly
packed, it is not, of course, necessary to develop them _en route_,
although if the traveller possess sufficient skill, and if ample
water-supply and other facilities can be secured, it will be advantageous
for many reasons to do so. On a long journey, when the temperature is
not too high, use of convenient resting-places may be made to develop
from time to time a few plates selected from the whole, both as tests
for exposure and as proof that all the apparatus is in order. The
following list comprises all that is absolutely required for developing
8 or 10 dozen gelatine plates:—Three papier-mâché dishes, two 3-ounce
glass measures, three 6-ounce bottles, containing strong solutions of
pyrogallic acid preserved with potassium meta-bisulphite, potassium
bromide, and sodium carbonate respectively, 1 lb. hyposulphite of soda,
and ¼ lb. alum, both in crystals, 4 or 5 feet of india-rubber tubing and
a spring clip, to make a syphon for a water supply from a jug or can, a
basin or tub to serve as a sink, a folding rack for draining the plates.
There are several convenient new developing agents in the market:
Hydro-Kinone, Eikonogen, Glycin, Metol, Rodinal, and Amidol. Some of
these were made and named in Germany, they are no longer procurable under
their German names. English manufacturers are however making substitutes
quite as good under new names, and these can be obtained from the
dealers. Many of them can be obtained in compressed form.
The traveller is recommended for advanced study of photography, such
works as Instructions in Photography by Sir Wm. Abney, The Science and
Art of Photography by Chapman Jones, and The Manual of Photographic
Exposure and Development by Alfred Watkins, which may be had from any
photographic dealer’s.
The aim of the traveller-photographer should be the production of good
_negatives_. It often requires years of study on the part of professional
operators (with advantages impossible to the traveller) before thoroughly
good negatives are habitually produced; and it must not be supposed that
a person taking up photography for the first time, in a few hurried
moments before departure on a journey, will attain other than very
unsatisfactory results.
The operations necessary for taking a picture are briefly as
follows:—Having selected the position from which the view is to be
taken (for valuable hints as to the _artistic_ production of pictures
see Robinson’s ‘Pictorial Effect in Photography’), the tripod stand is
first set up, and the head approximately levelled by means of the pocket
level, altering the position or length of the legs as may be necessary.
The camera is next screwed on to the stand, and the lens selected which
on trial is found to include the required amount of subject. For groups
or portraits a long focus lens with wide aperture, such as Dallmeyer’s
“Rapid rectilinear,” 11 in. focus, should be used. The next operation
is to focus the picture accurately on the ground-glass screen of the
camera. The focussing-cloth is thrown over the head and the camera,
so as to exclude the light as much as possible, and while looking at
the inverted image on the ground glass, the milled head of the rack
adjustment is turned till the image appears as sharp as possible. The
camera is now turned about on its vertical axis till it exactly includes
the view intended to be taken, and the screw is tightened. It may be
necessary to raise or lower the front of the camera carrying the lens
in order to include objects at a high or low elevation; if the vertical
range of this sliding front is insufficient, the camera must be tilted;
but, if this is done, care must be taken to set the focussing-screen
vertical again by means of the swing back, and to readjust the focus.
The full aperture of the lens should always be used for focussing,
and if the image is not sharp all over the plate it will be necessary
to insert a diaphragm in the lens, using the largest that will effect
the required object. Having then put the cap on the lens, the hinged
frame carrying the focussing-glass is turned over, and one of the
slides carrying the sensitive plates is inserted in its place. The
slides should be exposed as little as possible to the light, especially
avoiding direct sunlight; however carefully constructed, it is difficult
to make them absolutely light-tight. The shutter of the slide is then
withdrawn, and the exposure made by removing the cap from the lens for
time exposure, and by a spring shutter for instantaneous work. The time
of exposure must be estimated according to circumstances, and it requires
considerable experience to judge of it accurately. A record should be
kept in a note-book of every plate exposed, giving the number, date,
time, exposure, subject, &c. If the plates cannot be developed the same
evening, and the slides are wanted for fresh plates, they must be packed
up again, and should be numbered. This is best done by marking the number
on the back with a bit of dry soap, or in the film with a lead pencil.
The image on the plate after exposure is latent and invisible, and has
to be developed. This is effected by pouring on the plate, laid in one
of the flat dishes, a dilute solution containing pyrogallic acid, soda,
and potassium bromide. The excellence of the result largely depends on
the due proportion between these constituents, and here more experience
is perhaps necessary than in any other part of the process. The image
having been fully developed, the plate is well washed, and then immersed
in a solution of alum, which hardens the film. After another thorough
washing it is “fixed” by immersion in a solution of sodium hyposulphite,
which dissolves out the unchanged bromide of silver, and, being once
more well washed, it is finished, and must be set up in the rack to dry
spontaneously. On no account must heat be applied, not even the warmth
of sunlight, or the wet film will melt. When dry it must be varnished
to protect the film. The printing operations are best deferred till
the return home, as they would involve the carriage of a large amount
of extra apparatus. It is generally best to get the printing done by a
professional printer; but if the traveller prefers to print from his own
negatives he will find full instructions in each packet of paper which he
buys.
Colour sensitive plates are now much used and, when a yellow glass filter
is placed immediately in front of, or behind, the lens, will give in
the print the same variations in depth of tint which the eye sees in
the landscape, or other object. The nearest to perfection among these
plates are those known as Panchromatic, but they must be developed in
total darkness. The subject is a large one and should be studied in the
pamphlets on ‘orthochromation’ published by Kodak (Wratten Division), and
Ilford, Ltd.
As regards the expense of a photographic outfit, at the present time
the manufacturing trade is still very unsettled, some goods cannot be
supplied, and all have been greatly increased in price. Quarter plates
which used to be sold at a shilling per dozen are now about 3_s._ 6_d._
Application should be made to the dealers for current prices.
The camera, slides and lenses may be arranged to pack into a solid
leather case, conveniently in the form of a knapsack, measuring about
16 in. wide, 12 in. high, and 5 in. deep. This can easily be carried on
the back of one man, and is of a more convenient shape than the cases
generally sold for the purpose.
The plates and other apparatus, with the exception of the knapsack and
its contents, and the tripod stand, are best packed for travelling in a
strong basket, which is much better than a box, being more elastic and
lighter. It will weigh, when packed with the apparatus, and a gross of 7½
× 5 plates, about 60 lbs.
_Photography in Natural Colours._
It is now possible for the traveller to bring home records of what he has
seen in natural colours. There are two or three known methods by which
this may be done, but few are available for the work of exploration. The
picture obtained by the method patented by Mr. Ives and named Krōmskōp
Photography is produced by three monochrome images. These have however
been taken through three tinted glasses in a camera of a special kind.
The images may be thrown upon a screen by means of a special lantern; the
light passes through tinted glasses of colours complementary to those
employed in making the negatives with the result that the picture on the
screen exhibits all the varied hues of nature. The devices however are
exceedingly expensive and can be satisfactorily employed only by those
who thoroughly understand the apparatus and the problems which have to be
solved.
Simpler processes are the Autochromic and The Paget Colour Plate process.
In the Autochromic process the manufacturers coat a sheet of glass
with minute specks of three colours, blue, violet green and orange,
irregularly spread, and lay a coat of panchromatic emulsion on top. The
photographer exposes through the glass, thus obtaining a negative. The
developed silver, the negative image, is dissolved away and the silver
bromide remaining is developed giving a positive image in natural colours.
In the Paget process the glass is coated with points of colour laid in
a regular pattern. This is called the screen plate and is placed in the
dark slide face to face with a colour-sensitive plate, and the expression
is made through the screen plate. From the negative so obtained a
monochrome positive plate is made, and this is bound up in contact with
one of the screen plates. Some little experience is necessary to obtain
correct register.
Each process has its difficulties. Most photographers consider that the
Autochrome plate gives the nearest approach to natural colours, but the
slides are very dense and require an intense light to show them well. The
Paget plate is much more transparent and possesses the advantage that any
number of positives may be made from the negative, whereas the Autochrome
plate having been converted into a positive cannot be multiplied,
resembling in that particular the earliest form of photography, the
Daguerrotype.
None of these colour processes are suitable for photographing objects in
motion. The exposures may be reckoned as from fifteen to twenty times as
long as with an ordinary slow plate.
III.
GEOLOGY.
_By THE LATE W. T. BLANDFORD, F.R.S._
_Revised by PROF. E. J. GARWOOD, F.R.S._
A traveller who has not devoted some time to studying geology in the
field must not be surprised or disappointed if the rocks of any country
which he may happen to traverse appear to him a hopeless puzzle. If he
desires to investigate the geological structure of an unknown region, he
should previously devote some time to mastering, with the aid of a good
geological map and description, the details of some well-known tract.
Under the term “Geological Observations,” two very distinct types of
inquiry are commonly confounded. The first of these, to which the name
of Geological Investigation ought properly to be restricted, consists
in an examination of the rocks of a country as a whole, so as to
enable a geological map, or, at all events, geological sections, to
be constructed. This demands a knowledge of rocks (petrology), some
acquaintance with the details of geological surveying, and, usually,
with the elements of palæontology—a science that, in its turn, requires
a preliminary study of biology, and especially of zoology. Despite all
these hard terms, any intending traveller who has a taste for geology—if
he has none he had better not waste time upon the subject—will find that
a few months’ study in any good museum, a course of geological lectures,
and, above all, a few days in the field with a good geologist, will start
him very fairly equipped with the great requisite to all successful
scientific investigation, a knowledge of how to observe, and what to
observe.
The term “Geological Observations” is, however, often, but incorrectly,
used in a second sense, which implies a restriction of the observations
to the useful minerals found in any country, or to what is termed
economic geology. Here also a preliminary knowledge of the elements of
geological science will be found very useful, and will frequently enable
the traveller to form much more trustworthy conclusions as to the nature
and value of mineral deposits than he could without such a guide. But the
essential point is to recognise a valuable mineral when seen, and for
this some knowledge of mineralogy is requisite.
_Outfit._—The essential articles of a geologist’s outfit are neither
numerous nor cumbrous. A very large proportion of the known geology of
the world has been made out with no more elaborate appliances than a
hammer, a pocket compass with a small index to serve as a clinometer,
a pocket-lens, a note-book and a pencil. No scientific observer has to
depend more on his own knowledge and faculty for observation, and less on
instrumental appliances, than a geologist.
The best hammer for general purposes should weigh from 12 to 24 oz. and
should have a square flat end, and a straight cutting end—the latter
should be horizontal, and the inner face of the hammer a continuous plane
surface. The ends should be of steel, not too highly tempered. The hole
for the handle should be as large as possible (with a small hole the
handles are so weak as to be liable to break), and the handle should be
secured in the hole by a wooden wedge, and an iron one driven into and
across the wooden one. It is advisable to take a few spare ash handles
and iron wedges. Cut a foot-measure in notches on the handle—this is very
useful for measuring thickness of beds, &c. It is as well to have more
than one hammer in case of loss, and if fossil-collecting is anticipated,
at least one heavy hammer, with one end fashioned to serve as a pick,
three or four cold chisels of various sizes, and a short crow-bar will
be found useful. In London, hammers, chisels, &c., may be procured of
Messrs. Buck, 242, Tottenham Court Road.
A very good pocket compass, the shape and size of a watch, with a
clinometer arm, is made by Troughton and Simms, 138, Fleet Street. The
use of the clinometer is for measuring the angle of dip in rocks. If more
accuracy of measurement is required than is afforded by looking at a bed,
a section, or a hill-side, and holding the straight-edge attached to the
compass parallel to the dip, and if a surface can be found that affords
the exact inclination, it is usually practicable, by means of a note-book
laid on the rock surface, or, better still, a folding two-foot rule
with a slot for sliding in the compass-clinometer, to obtain a plane
sufficiently close to that at which the beds dip to enable the angle to
be determined with a very short straight-edge. As a rule, except with
very low angles of dip, the variation in the inclination of the rocks
themselves exceeds the limits of error of the instrument. A little care,
however, is necessary in taking dips; for the apparent dip seen in a
section, such as is often exposed in a cliff, may differ widely from the
true dip, which will only be shown _if the section runs at right angles
to the strike of the beds_. Dips seen on the sides of hills at a distance
are but rarely correct for the same reason.
A prismatic compass and an aneroid are frequently of great service: the
former to determine the position on the map, if one exists, and to aid in
making a rough map, if there is none; and the latter to estimate roughly
the heights on the road travelled, especially in mountainous countries,
and also to measure the thickness of horizontal beds. Both form a part of
the outfit of most modern travellers. A good aneroid gives sufficiently
accurate determinations of height for a rough but adequate geological
section across any country, if the distances are known. The Watkin
mountain aneroid of Hicks and Co., Hatton Garden, is the most accurate
for considerable heights.
_Collections._—Geological specimens require little more than paper and
boxes, or biscuit tins, for packing. Occasionally fossils or minerals are
fragile, and need tow or grass to protect them from injury; but there is
no risk from the animal and vegetable enemies of zoological or botanical
collections. The only important point to be borne in mind is that _every
specimen should be labelled on the spot_, or, at all events, in the
course of the day on which it is collected. Strong paper is best for
labels, and these should not be put up in contact with the rock-fragments
themselves, or they will be worn by sharp edges and become illegible,
if not rubbed to fragments. Always wrap each specimen in paper, or
some substitute, then add the label, and then an outer covering. The
label,[3] if nothing else is written, should always record the locality
distinctly written.
A collection of rock specimens may show what kinds of rock occur in a
country, but the information afforded is very meagre, and, in general, of
very small value. Such collections, indeed, unless made by a geologist,
and accompanied by notes, are scarcely worth the carriage. If such
specimens are taken, care should be used to select them from the rocks
in place, _not from loose blocks_ that may have been transported from a
distance. In certain cases, however, where the traveller does not intend
to penetrate beyond the low ground, pebbles brought down by streams give
some indication of the strata which occur higher in the drainage basin,
and the information may be useful to future explorers, but they should
always be labelled as such. No fragments of spar or crystals should be
collected merely because they are pretty.
In taking specimens of useful minerals, such as coal or metallic ores,
the traveller should always endeavour to procure them himself from
the place of occurrence, and if such are brought to him by natives,
he should, if practicable, visit the locality whence the samples were
procured. The value of all useful minerals depends both on quality and
quantity; the former can to some extent be ascertained from a sample,
but the amount available can only be estimated after a visit to the
locality. Most metallic ores occur in veins or lodes. These were
originally cracks in the rock, and have been irregularly filled with
minerals, different from those in the neighbourhood. It is, however, very
difficult, and often impossible, to estimate from surface examination
whether the quantity of ore occurring in veins is likely to prove large;
some idea may possibly be obtained if underground workings exist. Many
of the ores of iron and manganese, some of those of other metals, and
all coal and salt occur in beds, and here it is important to see what
is the thickness, and to ascertain whether the mineral is equally pure
throughout. Iron ores occur in most countries, and unless very pure
and within easy reach of water-carriage, are not likely to be worth
transport. The value of salt also depends on facilities for carriage.
Coal, however, may be of value anywhere; but it is improbable that seams
of less thickness than four or five feet can be of much use, except in
countries where there is a skilled mining population and a considerable
demand for the mineral. It does not follow because much thinner seams
are sufficiently valuable to be worked in Western Europe, that they
would pay for extraction in a country where the mechanical arts are less
advanced. Still the occurrence of thin seams is worthy of record, as
thicker deposits may exist in the neighbourhood. It must not be inferred,
however, that a seam of small thickness at the surface will become
thicker below. The reverse is equally probable.
A blow-pipe is extremely useful for ascertaining the nature of ores, and
for determining minerals generally, and a small blow-pipe case might be
added to a traveller’s kit, if he thinks it probable that he may meet
with minerals in any quantity. But in general they are not to be found
in such profusion as to render it difficult to carry away specimens
sufficient for determination at leisure. A blow-pipe, too, is of no use
to any one unacquainted with the method of employing it, though this is
easy to acquire.[4]
To form a rough idea of the value of iron ore, see whether it is
heavy; to form some notion of the quality of coal, pile up a heap and
set fire to it. If it does not burn freely, the prospects of the coal
being useful are small. It may be anthracitic, and very valuable with
proper appliances; but anthracite is not of the same general utility as
bituminous coal. Good coal should burn freely, with more or less flame,
and should leave but little ash, and it is preferable that the ash should
be white, not red, as the latter colour is often due to the presence of
pyrites, a deleterious ingredient.
Gold and gems have, as is well known, been procured in considerable
quantities from the sands of rivers and alluvial deposits. The deposits
known to the natives of any country are often of small value, and the
rude methods of washing prevalent in so many lands suffice to afford a
fair idea of the wealth or poverty of the sand washed. Gold and, wherever
it is found, platinum occur in grains and nuggets, easily recognised by
their colour and their being malleable; but gems, such as diamond, ruby,
sapphire, are not so easy to tell from less valuable minerals. They
may be recognised by their crystalline form and hardness. A diamond is
usually found in some modification of an octahedron, and the crystalline
facets are often curved; rubies and sapphires are really differently
coloured varieties of corundum or emery, and occur, when crystalline,
in six-sided pyramids or some modification. A diamond is the hardest of
known substances; nothing will scratch it, and it will scratch all other
minerals. Sapphire will scratch everything except diamond. Topaz will
scratch quartz.
In collecting fossils, it is useless to take many specimens of one kind
unless carriage is exceptionally plentiful. Two or three good examples of
each kind are usually sufficient, but as many kinds as possible should
be collected. Great care is necessary that all specimens from one bed be
kept distinct from those from another stratum, even if the bed be thin
and the fossils in the two beds chiefly the same species. If there is
a series of beds, one above the other, all containing fossils, measure
the thickness roughly, draw a sketch-section in your note-book, apply a
letter or a number to each bed in succession on the sketch, and label the
fossils from that bed with the same number or letter.
Remains of Vertebrata, especially of mammals, birds and reptiles, are of
great interest; but it is useless to collect fragments of bones without
terminations. Skulls are much more important than other bones, and even
single teeth are well worth collecting. After skulls, vertebræ are the
most useful parts of the skeleton, then limb bones. If complete skeletons
are found, they are usually well worth some trouble in transporting. If
fossil bones are found abundantly in any locality, and the traveller has
no sufficient means of transport, he will do well to carry away a few
skulls, or even teeth, and carefully note the locality for the benefit
of future geologists and explorers. The soil of limestone caverns, and
especially the more or less consolidated loam, rubble, clay, or sand
beneath the flooring of stalagmite, if it can be examined, should always
be searched for bones, and also for indications of man or his works.
The foregoing remarks are intended for all travellers, especially for
those who have paid little or no attention to geology. It would be far
beyond the object of the present notes to attempt to give instruction
in the methods of geological observation; all who wish to know more
fully what questions are especially worthy of attention, should consult
the article on Geology by the late Dr. Charles Darwin and Professor.
J. Phillips in the ‘Admiralty Manual of Scientific Enquiry.’ But a
few hints may be usefully added here for those who have already some
knowledge of geology, who do not require to have such terms as dip,
strike, fault, or denudation explained to them, and who are sufficiently
conversant with geological phenomena to be able to distinguish
sedimentary from volcanic, and metamorphic from unaltered rocks, and to
recognise granite, gneiss, schist, basalt, trachyte, slate, limestone,
sandstone, shale, &c., in the field. Assuming then that a traveller with
some knowledge of field geology is making a journey through a tract of
the earth’s surface, the geology of which is unknown, what will be the
best method of procedure and the principal points to which he should
direct his attention?
On the whole, the most useful record of a journey, whether intended
for publication or merely as a memorandum, is a sketch geological map
of the route followed, with the dips and strikes of the rocks and
approximate boundaries to the formations, supplemented by notes and
sketch-sections. Where, as is commonly the case in mountain-chains, and
frequently in less elevated portions of the country, the rocks are much
disturbed, and especially if the number of systems exposed is large and
the changes frequent, no traveller can expect to do more than gain a
very rough and general idea of the succession of beds in detail, and of
the structure; but by making excursions in various directions, whenever
a halt is practicable, by searching for fossils as a guide to the age
and for the identification of beds with each other, and by carefully
noting the general dip and strike of the more conspicuous beds, it is
often possible, especially if an opportunity occurs of retracing the road
followed, or of traversing a parallel route, to make out the structure
of a country that at first appears hopelessly intricate. Dense forest is
perhaps the worst obstacle to geological exploration; snow is another,
though not quite so serious a disadvantage. It is always a good plan to
climb commanding peaks; the general direction of beds, obscure from the
lower ground, not unfrequently becomes much clearer when they are seen
from above.
In level and undulating regions, on the other hand, it frequently happens
that enormous tracts of country are occupied by the same formation,
and if the rocks are soft, and especially if they are horizontal, or
nearly so, little, if any, rock is to be seen in place. In this case
water-courses should be searched for sections, and the pebbles found in
the stream-beds examined, care being taken not to mistake transported
pebbles derived from overlying alluvium or drift for fragments of the
underlying rock. Where the same formation prevails over large tracts, it
is usually easy, by examining the stones brought down by a stream, to
learn whether any other beds occur. It is astonishing how even a small
outcrop of hard rock at a remote spot in the area drained by a stream
will almost always yield a few fragments that can be detected by walking
two or three hundred yards up the stream-bed and carefully examining the
pebbles.
Not infrequently different rocks support different vegetation, and by
noting the forms that are peculiar, the constitution of hills at a
considerable distance may be recognised. Thus some kinds of rock will be
found to support evergreen, others deciduous trees, others grass, whilst
a fourth kind may be distinguished by the poverty or want of vegetation.
It is not well to trust too much to such indications, but they may show
which hills require examination and which do not. The form assumed by the
outcrop of some hard beds is often characteristic, and may be recognised
at a considerable distance.
One most important fact should never be forgotten; mineral character,
whether of sedimentary or volcanic rocks, is absolutely worthless as a
guide to the age of beds occurring in distant countries. The traveller
should never be led to suppose, because a formation, whether sedimentary
or volcanic, in a remote part of the world, is mineralogically and
structurally identical with another in Europe, or some country of which
the geology is well known, that the two are of contemporaneous origin.
The blunders that have been made from want of knowledge of this important
caution are innumerable.
There are a few points of geological interest well worthy of the
investigation of those who traverse unexplored, or partially explored,
tracts of the earth’s surface. Amongst these are the following:—
_Mountain-Chains._—Few, if any, geologists now believe that mountains
were simply thrust up from below; all admit that, at least in the
majority of cases, where great crumpling of the strata has taken place,
there has been lateral movement of the earth’s crust. But the causes,
extent and date, of the lateral movements are still, to a great degree,
matters of conjecture, and every additional series of observations
bearing on the question is of importance. There are many mountain-chains
of which very little is yet known. In every case good sections are
required, drawn as nearly to scale as practicable, through the range
from side to side, and including the rocks at each base. The nature and
distribution of all volcanic and crystalline rocks, both in the range and
throughout the neighbouring areas, are especially noteworthy, and also
the relations of the later beds, if any, on the flanks of the mountains,
to those constituting the range itself. The derivation of the materials
of the former from the latter, and the relative amount of disturbance
shown by the two, and by the different members of each, will afford a
clue to the date of upheaval; and two or more periods of movement may
thus be determined, where intrusive igneous rocks, such as granite,
occur, their relations to the surrounding rocks should be carefully
noted, and specimens at the contact of the two rocks collected. If
altered sedimentary rocks are found these should be traced, if possible,
away from the igneous rock until some indication of their age is obtained
from included fossils.
The distinction between a contemporaneous lava flow and an intrusive
sheet of igneous rock is not always at first sight apparent; if the
latter, it may pass from one bed to another or send tongues upwards
into the overlying strata. Search should be made in the beds overlying
the igneous rock for signs of alteration by heat. Thus limestone may be
re-crystallised into marble, or shales altered into flinty hornstone.
_Volcanoes and Volcanic Rocks._—It is almost needless to say that any
additional information on the distribution of volcanic vents, recent or
extinct, is of interest. In the case of extinct vents, the geological
date of the last eruptions should be ascertained if practicable. This may
sometimes be determined by finding organic remains or sedimentary beds of
known age interstratified with the ashes or lava-streams near the base of
the volcano.
_Coasts._—The subject of the erosion of coasts is now fairly understood,
and there is no doubt that the relative importance of this form of
denudation was greatly overrated by many geological writers, who took
their ideas of geological denudation generally from the phenomena
observed in the islands, and on some of the coasts of Western Europe.
Still, wherever cliffs occur, they afford good sections, and deserve
examination. One question will usually present itself to almost every
geological observer, and that is, whether any coast he may be landing
upon affords evidence of elevation or depression. In the former case,
beds of rolled pebbles or of marine shells, similar to those now living
on the shore, may be found at some elevation above high-water mark.
Very often the commonest molluscs in raised beds are the kinds occurring
in estuaries, which are different from those inhabiting an open coast.
Caution is necessary, however, that heaps of shells made by man, or
isolated specimens transported by animals (birds or hermit-crabs), or
by the wind, be not mistaken for evidence of raised beds.[5] If the
shore is steep, terraces on the hillsides may mark the levels at which
the sea remained in past times, but some care is necessary not to
mistake outcrops of hard beds for terraces. If dead shells of species
of mollusca, only living in salt-water estuaries, are found in places
now beyond the influence of the tide, it is a reasonable inference that
elevation has taken place.
The evidence of depression, on the other hand, unless there are buildings
or trees partly sunk in the water, is much less readily obtained, and
neither trees nor buildings are available as evidence, unless the
depression is of comparatively recent date. The best proof is the form
of the coast. If deep inlets of moderate breadth occur, with numerous
branches, a little examination will frequently show whether such inlets
are valleys of subaërial erosion, as they not unfrequently are, that
have been depressed below the sea. A good and familiar example of such
a depressed valley is to be found at Milford Haven in South Wales. In
higher latitudes, the coast should be examined for signs of the action of
sea ice, and stones should be collected from icebergs which have drifted
from outside the accessible area; the shape of these stones and the
proportion of those having only one smoothed side should be noted.
_Rivers and River-Plains._—At the present time a question of much
interest is the antiquity of existing land-areas, and some light may be
thrown upon this, if the relations of existing river-basins to those of
past times can be determined. If a stream cuts its way through a high
range, it is probable that the stream is of greater antiquity than the
range, and either once ran at an elevation higher than the crest of the
ridge now traversed, or else has cut its way through the range gradually
during the slow elevation of the latter. Where a river traverses a great
alluvial plain, it may fairly be inferred that a long time has been
occupied in the accumulation of the deposits to form the plain; but
it remains to be seen whether those deposits are not partly marine or
lacustrine. If upheaval has taken place over any portion of the plain, or
if the river has cut its bed deeper, sections may be exposed, and these
should always be examined for fossil remains. Bones of extinct animals
are not unfrequently found in such deposits.[6]
_Lakes and Tarns._—The mode of origin of lakes is always a subject of
considerable geological interest, and any evidence which bears on the
origin of a particular lake should be carefully noted. Lakes may be
divided broadly into two classes: (1) Rock basins, (2) impounded hollows.
Lakes of the latter class may, as a rule, be readily recognised and
accounted for. The material forming the barrier may be due to a moraine,
screes, or a landslip, or may result from the presence of a glacier
in the main valley damming back the drainage of a lateral tributary.
When lakes occur near the summit of a pass, they may often be traced to
deposition of delta material on the floor of the valley brought down by
a tributary stream. In this case, the inability of the stream to remove
the material may often be traced to the abstraction of the head waters
of the valley by the encroachment of the stream on the other side of the
watershed. Rock basins, on the other hand, are frequently difficult to
account for. They may occupy volcanic craters, or lie in areas of special
depression (earthquake districts), or synclinal folds. They may be due
to upheaval of old valley systems, causing reversal of drainage, or to
subsidence at the upper end of a valley.
In special cases they may be due to the solution of soluble rock
(rock-salt, gypsum, limestone, or dolomite). Many not otherwise
explicable have been attributed to ice erosion during glacial periods,
and it is still a moot point how far these lakes are due to partial
changes in the elevation of the country, some observers having adopted,
while many others dispute, the views of the late Sir A. Ramsay, who
believed all these hollows to have been scooped out by ice moving over
the surface in the form of a glacier or an ice-sheet. The origin of any
lake met with should, if possible, be investigated and assigned to one of
these causes.
_Evidence of Glacial Action._—Closely connected with the subject of lakes
is that of glacial evidence generally. There is probably no geological
question which has produced more speculation of late years than the
inquiry into the traces of a comparatively recent cold period in the
earth’s history, and the former occurrence of similar glacial epochs at
regular or irregular intervals of geological time.
The evidence of the last glacial epoch may be traced in two ways—by the
form of the surface, which has been modified by the action of ice, and
by changes that have taken place in the fauna and flora of the country
in consequence of the alteration in the climate. The effects of an
ice-sheet, like that now occurring in Greenland, if such formerly existed
in comparatively low latitudes, must have been to round off, score and
polish the rocks of the country in a peculiar manner, easily recognised
by those familiar with glaciated areas. Care should be taken that the
peculiar scoring and grooving of rock surfaces produced by the action of
sand transported by the wind be not mistaken for glacial evidence. Cases
also occur where movement among a mass of unconsolidated conglomerate
or scree material has produced striation of the pebbles; in this case,
however, careful observation will disclose a similar striation in the
material of the matrix as well. Glaciers, properly so called, are
confined to hilly or mountainous countries, and the valleys formerly
occupied by them retain more or less the form of the letter U instead of
taking the shape of the letter V, as they do when they have been cut out
by running water. The sides of the valley, when modified by a glacier,
have a tendency to assume the form of slopes unbroken by ravines, and
with all ridges planed away or rounded, whilst in ordinary valleys of
erosion by water, the sides consist of a series of side valleys or
ravines, divided from each other by sharp ridges running down to the
main valley. Large and small masses of rock, preserving to a considerable
extent an angular form, but frequently polished and grooved by being
ground against the sides or bottom of the valley, are carried down by the
ice, and either left behind, perched up high on the slopes of the valley,
or accumulated in a vast heap or bank, known as a terminal moraine, at
the spot where the ice has terminated, or as lateral moraines on the
sides of the valley. The nature of the rock will usually show whether the
fragments on the side of a hill or at the bottom of a valley are derived
from the higher parts of the drainage area, or whether they have merely
fallen down from the neighbouring slopes. In the latter case, they may be
due to landslips; in the former, their shape and the erosion they have
undergone will aid in showing whether they have been transported by water
or ice.
The surfaces that have been modified by earlier glacial epochs must in
general have been long since removed by other denuding agencies. The
most important evidence of former ice action consists in the occurrence,
embedded in fine sediment, of large boulders, occasionally preserving
marks of polish and striation, and usually, though not always, angular.
Accumulations of this kind afford evidence of transport by two different
agencies, water, which has brought the silt, and ice, which has carried
the boulders. If the water had been in rapid movement, and thus capable
of moving the boulders, it would have carried away fine silt or sand,
instead of depositing it. Evidence of ice action has thus been traced
equally in the boulder clay of North-Western Europe, and in the Palæozoic
boulder beds of India, South Africa, and Australia, and probably of South
America.
It is well to search in all mountain ranges for traces of glacial action.
In many mountain chains, even in comparatively low latitudes, proofs have
been found of the existence of glaciers, at a much lower level than at
present, dating from a comparatively recent geological period, whilst
in other mountain regions none have been recognised. The question also
whether glacial action has been contemporaneous in the two hemispheres
is of the greatest importance, and the evidence hitherto adduced is of a
very conflicting character.
_Deserts._—The great sandy or salt plains, with a more or less barren
surface, that occupy a large area in the interior of several continents,
have only of late years received due attention from geologists. A great
thickness of deposits must occur in many of these vast, nearly level,
tracts, for the underlying rocks are often completely concealed over
immense areas. The investigation of the deposits is frequently a matter
of great difficulty for want of sections; but, where practicable, a
careful examination should be made, and exact descriptions of the
formations exposed recorded. Some, at all events, of these beds appear
to be entirely deposited from the air, and consist of the decomposed
surfaces of rocks and the sand and silt from stream deposits, carried up
by wind and then redeposited on the surface of the country. Such deposits
are very fine, formed of well-rounded grains, and, as a rule, destitute
of stratification. The geologist who has especially described these
formations, Baron F. von Richthofen, in his work on China, attributes
to the loess of the Rhine and Danube valleys a similar origin. It is
usual to find beds due to water-action, rain-wash and stream-deposits,
interstratified with the subaërial accumulations. Further observations on
these formations are desirable. The occurrence of blown sands, the origin
of these accumulations, and the peculiar ridges they assume, usually at
right angles, but in some remarkable cases parallel to the prevailing
winds, are questions deserving of additional elucidation.
_Early History of Man in Tropical Climates._—Very little has been
discovered as to the races of men formerly inhabiting tropical regions.
It is evident that a race unacquainted with fire could only have existed
in a country where suitable food was procurable throughout the year, and
this must have been in a region possessing a climate like that found
in parts of the tropics at the present day. It is possible that an
investigation of the cave deposits in the tropics may throw some light
on this subject. “Kitchen middens,” as they are termed—the mounds that
have once been the refuse heaps of human habitations—are also worthy of
careful examination.
_Permanence of Ocean-Basins._—Within the last few years some geologists
have adopted the theory that all the deep-sea area has been the same
from the earliest geological times, and that the distinction between the
depressions occupied by the oceans and the remaining undepressed portion
of the earth’s crust, constituting the continents and the shallow seas
around their coasts, is permanent. This view is very far from being
universally or even generally accepted amongst geologists, although
many who hesitate to accept the theory as a whole admit that parts of
the oceans may have been depressions since the earth’s crust was first
consolidated.
The argument on both sides depends upon theories to which travellers can
contribute but little except by observations on the geology, fauna, and
flora of oceanic islands, and by the investigation of coral-reefs and
especially of atolls. In ranges of hills or mountains near the coast
both of continents and islands and in all tracts where evidence of
recent elevation exists, search should be made for deep-sea deposits.
These are fine calcareous or argillaceous beds, often containing small
Foraminifera or Radiolaria, which, however, are generally extremely
minute, and require microscopical examination for detection. If any beds
of consolidated calcareous or siliceous ooze or especially if red or
gray clay (in older rocks, slate, or even quartzite) be found associated
with pelagic deposits, such as coral limestone, a few small fragments of
the beds should always be brought away for examination, and any distinct
fossil remains found in such beds, for instance echinoderms (sea-urchins
or star-fishes) or sharks’ teeth, should be carefully preserved with some
of the matrix. Deep-sea deposits have recently been discovered in several
parts of the world, for instance, the West Indies, the Solomon Islands,
the islands of Torres Straits and Southern Australia, as well as in
Europe.
_Atolls or Coral-Islands._—Each of the remarkable coral-islands of the
Pacific and Indian oceans consists usually of an irregular ring, part or
the whole of which is a few feet above the sea, and which encircles an
inner lagoon of no great depth. The outer margin of the reef around each
island slopes rapidly, sometimes precipitately, to a depth of, usually,
several hundred fathoms. Darwin, taking these facts into consideration,
together with the circumstance that no coral-reefs are known to be formed
at a greater depth than about 15 to 20 fathoms (90 to 120 feet), showed
that all the facts of the case could be explained by the theory that
coral-islands were formed in areas of subsidence. This view was generally
accepted until Prof. A. Agassiz, Sir John Murray, and other writers
brought forward evidence in favour of coral-islands being founded on
shoals that may be areas of elevation.
Much light has been thrown on this subject by recent exploration. Two
instances in especial may be mentioned. The examination of Christmas
Island in the Indian Ocean, South of Sumatra, by Mr. Andrews, has shown
it to be a raised atoll, founded on a volcanic base, whilst, on the other
hand, borings on the atoll of Funafuti, one of the Marshall Islands in
the Western Pacific, carried to a depth of over 1000 feet on the ring
itself, and to 245 feet below sea-level in the middle of the lagoon, have
yielded results which, in the opinion of the geologists engaged, Prof.
Sollas and Prof. Edgeworth David, completely confirm Darwin’s theory.
It is probable that atolls originate in more than one way, some being
formed in rising or stationary tracts, others in areas of depression.
The important question, from a geographical point of view, is not so
much how isolated atolls were formed as whether the great tracts in the
Pacific and Indian oceans in which no islands occur except atolls, for
instance, the Marshall, Gilbert and Low archipelagoes in the former, and
the Laccadives and Maldives in the latter, have been areas of extensive
subsidence during the later geological periods. Further evidence on this
question may perhaps in time be furnished by additional borings, for
one of which an island of the Maldive group would furnish an excellent
locality, since there is in this case independent evidence to indicate
that the archipelago occupies part of a sunken tract. Meantime any
additional details would be useful, such as careful soundings around
those atolls which have not been fully surveyed, so as to give an
accurate profile of the sea-bottom in the neighbourhood.
MEMORANDUM ON GLACIER OBSERVATIONS.
Revised by ALAN G. OGILVIE.
The recent movements of glaciers may be noted by the following signs:—
When the ice is advancing, the glaciers generally have a more convex
outline, the icefalls are more broken into towers and spires, and piles
of fresh rubbish are found shot over the grass of the lower moraines.
Moraines which have been comparatively recently deposited by advancing
ice are disturbed, show cracks, and are obviously being pushed forward or
aside by the glacier. There is a tendency for the glacier to terminate in
a vertical front, or “Chinese wall,” as distinguished from the sloping
snout of a stationary or retreating glacier, owing to the more rapid
advance of the upper layers. If the advance is rapid the overhanging
layers will fall, and an ice talus will collect in front. An inspection
of the ice will often disclose horizontal lines of sheering which in a
side view are seen to rise towards the terminal wall. Search should be
made along these sheer planes for included moraine material, and any
proofs of elevation of this material noted.
When the ice is in retreat it terminates in a gently sloping snout. The
marks of its further recent extension are seen fringing the glacier both
at the end and sides in their lower portions, the glacier fails to fill
its former bed, and bare stony tracts, often interspersed with pools or
lakelets, lie between the end of the glacier and the mounds of recent
terminal moraines.
Where a glacier has retreated to any considerable extent, careful
observations of the form of its bed are of value. What is the nature of
the rock surfaces exposed—convex or concave; are they rubbed smooth on
their leesides; how far have the contours of the cliffs or slopes, or
the sides of any gorge, been modified where they have been subjected to
ice-friction? Is there any evidence that the ice has flowed over large
boulders, or loose soils, such as gravel, without disturbing them? How
has it affected rocks of different hardness, for instance, veins of
quartz in a less hard rock? Generally, do the appearances indicate that
the glacier has excavated, or only abraded and polished its bed; that
it has scooped out new rock-basins, or only cleaned out, scratched, and
preserved from filling-up by alluvial deposits or earthslips, existing
basins? What is the general character of the valley bottom and the slopes
above and below the most conspicuous ancient moraines?
With a view to ascertaining the oscillations in length of a glacier,
the traveller or surveyor should, if possible, mark on the ground the
position of the end of the glacier at the time of his visit, so that
the next visitor will be able to measure the movement that has taken
place since his predecessor’s visit. Leaving out of question elaborate
trigonometrical methods, such, for instance, as have been carried out on
the Rhone Glacier in Switzerland, the following means may be adopted for
recording the position of the glacier front with considerable accuracy.
Paint some signs on large boulders, not too far from the end of the
glacier, and measure their distance from it by a tape (Richter’s system),
or build a low wall of stones of a few yards in length, and, say 15 to
20 inches in height, some distance from the ice-end, and measure this
distance (Gosset’s system). It is to be recommended that the stones of
these walls should also be painted. In either case the date and distance
should be painted on the stones. If the traveller himself returns after
some interval—even after only two or three weeks—he will be able to
judge of the movement of the glacier, and he will have laid down a basis
for further observations by future travellers. A plane-table sketch on
a fairly large scale with contours or form lines of the ice front and
its immediate vicinity is of the greatest value, as it records not only
the position but also the form of the glacier. The sketch should, of
course, show the position of the painted boulders or other fixed points
near the ice. To ascertain the recent retreat of a glacier, measure the
distance from the ice front to the most advanced terminal moraine, where
vegetation first shows itself. The bare ground recently left by glaciers
is easily recognisable. The diminution of volume is best measured by
ascertaining the height of bare soil left on the sides of the lateral
moraines in the portion of the glacier within the zone of vegetation. All
photographic representations of the glacier end, and of the ground which
has been freed from the glacier ice, are of great value. Those will be of
most service that show the position of the glacier-snout with relation
to some conspicuous rock or other feature in the local scenery. Each
photograph should be dated, and the bearings and distance of the camera
with reference to any such feature accurately noted.
Neighbouring glaciers often furnish very different results as regards
advance or retreat, owing to the fact that steep glaciers anticipate in
their oscillations those the beds of which are less inclined.
One of the results most to be desired is an exact knowledge of the dates:
I. Of the maximum extension of the ice.
II. Of the commencement of retreat.
III. Of the minimum.
IV. Of the commencement of fresh increase.
and even information giving approximate dates—say, to within a decade,
may prove to be of value.
In dealing with a mountain group, therefore, the traveller should note
where he can get the information as to the past, the date of the
commencement of the actual movement of _each glacier_, and in all cases
whether the ice is in advance, or retreat, or stationary. Of course the
rate of forward movement, or velocity of the ice, and the oscillations in
the extension of the ice must be kept carefully distinct. Observations
should also be made on the presence of blue bands, and their relation to
the lines of stratification in the névé noted.
Should time and circumstances permit, a series of observations of the
velocity of the ice is of value. These may be made after Tyndall’s
method, by planting a line of sticks across the glacier, or by painting
marks on boulders, the position of which relatively to ascertained points
on the mountain-side has been accurately fixed. The size of the glacier
that is, the area of its basin and its length, also the slope of its
bed above, as well as at the point measured, should be noted. The rate
of movement of the ice appears to be connected both with the volume of
the glacier and the inclination of its bed, and is considerably affected
by temperature. Thus a rise in temperature may even be accompanied by a
temporary advance, but in this case a sagging will take place higher in
the névé, producing a concave cross-section, showing that the advance is
not due to increased snowfall, but to a decrease in the viscosity of the
ice.
The advance or retreat of a glacier are not the only factors to take into
account in estimating the decrease or diminution of the volume of ice.
The highest level of the transverse convexity of the glacier at various
points in its course should also be noted. If the glacier is bounded
laterally by rocky walls, marks may conveniently be painted on these,
opposite one another. The vertical height of the marks above the ice at
the sides should be noted, and the date of the observation recorded.
A society, entitled the Commission Internationale des Glaciers, has
been formed to promote the study of glacial movements and other points
of interest and importance. Their reports from their inception to 1905
were published in the ‘Archives des Sciences,’ Geneva, the journal of
the Swiss Alpine Club, and from 1906 to 1913 in the ‘Zeitschrift für
Gletscherkunde,’ Berlin. A summary of the reports in English appeared
throughout these years in the ‘Journal of Geology,’ Washington. The
European War has disorganised this international society, but steps are
being taken to establish some organisation to replace it.
IV.
NATURAL HISTORY.[7]
_By the late H. W. BATES, F.R.S._
Revised by W. R. OGILVIE-GRANT, _British Museum (Natural History)_.
In the present state of Biological Science, travellers who intend to
devote themselves specially to the zoological or botanical investigation
of new or little-known countries, require to be trained for the work
beforehand, and are consequently well-informed as to methods and
appliances. It is not for them that these ‘Hints’ are drawn up, but for
general travellers and explorers, who, whilst engaged chiefly in survey,
wish to know how best to profit by their opportunities of benefiting
science by collecting examples of new or rare species, and how to
preserve and safely transmit their specimens. The observations refer only
to explorations by land.
_Outfit_[8]—
A magazine sporting rifle, either Mannlicher ·256, or
Lee-Enfield ·303, and ammunition (solid and soft-nosed, split
or hollow-point bullets).
Double-barrel 12-bore gun—for choice a Keeper’s hammerless
non-ejector gun and ammunition (Nos. 3 and 5 shot).[9]
Double-barrel ·410 hammer-gun and ammunition (Nos. 8, 10 and 12
shot).
Cartridges with a full charge of powder and No. 8 shot will
kill larger birds at a considerable distance; those with Nos.
10 and 12 shot are specially loaded for collecting smaller
birds at closer quarters, and may be used at distances of from
fifteen to twenty-five yards without damaging the specimens.
The loads are: ⅜ oz. No. 12 shot, ¾ dr. black powder, or 9
grains Schultz; ½ oz. No. 10 shot, ¾ dr. black powder, or 9
grains Schultz. In damp climates black powder will be found
more reliable. If shot larger than No. 8 is used with this
gun, the pattern is erratic and the result uncertain. Messrs.
Cogswell and Harrison, 226 Strand, W.C., have had considerable
experience in loading cartridges for these guns, and their Nos.
10 and 12 shot is even and carefully screened.
No. 1 saloon pistol and ammunition (turned-over caps with dust
shot). This pistol will be found of great value for collecting
small birds at very close quarters in thick cover, or the more
active lizards. It can be easily carried in a holster on a
belt, to which is also attached a small pouch for ammunition.
Small brass turned-over caps, loaded with a pinch of dust-shot,
can be had of Messrs. Cogswell and Harrison.
Telescope.
Binocular field-glasses.
Traps can be procured from Mr. S. J. Beckett, 39 Dresden Road,
Highgate, N. (apply, in the first place, by letter). For
catching hyænas, etc., large traps are supplied; for smaller
mammals, Brailsford live-traps and Cyclone and Schuyler
break-back traps are the best, and should be procured in
several sizes. Pitfall-traps made by sinking earthenware jars
flush with the ground are also useful.
Several air-tight zinc-lined collecting boxes, fitted with
light wooden trays. These are made by Messrs. Lovelace and
Co., 20 Gloucester Road, S.W., and will be found extremely
serviceable for packing, storing, and transmitting skins of
smaller mammals and birds. When starting they can be packed
full of stores. Uniform cases may be substituted, but, unless
protected by wooden travelling-covers, are liable to get
damaged and to admit insects.
A set of carpenter’s tools; screws and French nails of various
sizes.
A set of soldering irons and soft solder, etc.
_For skinning large Mammals_*—
2 shoemakers’ knives.†
3 large scalpels.
1 small saw.†
1 pair cutting-pincers.†
1 pair pliers.†
_For skinning small Mammals and Birds_*—
Taxidermist’s box containing:
6 scalpels.†
1 oil-stone.†
2 pairs of scissors (one short-bladed, one dissecting).†
2 pairs of tow-pliers (like curling-irons, for inserting tow or
cotton-wool into the necks of bird-skins).†
1 pair of forceps.†
1 pair of tweezers.†
1 pair cutting-pliers.†
1 pair compasses.†
1 2-foot rule marked in tenths of an inch.†
1 millimetre rule.
3 darning needles.†
Needles and thread.
1 tin of mixed pins.
Bundles of galvanized wire (for inserting in tails of small
mammals and in necks of bird-skins).
3 hog-hair brushes for applying arsenical soap.
2 egg-drills (two sizes).†
2 blow-pipes (two sizes).†
2 pencils.
1 small biscuit tin of fine boxwood sawdust.
1 2-lb. tin of candle naphthaline.
1 2-lb. tin crystal.
1 2-lb. tin plaster of Paris.
3 1-lb. tins of arsenical soap (in treacle tins), or the same
weight of powdered arsenic.
1 2-lb. tin burnt alum.
1000 labels for bird-skins.
500 labels for small mammals.
2 bundles of wool.
Tow (which can be used as packing).
6 pieces of fine mesh wire-netting (for making cages, etc.).
* All the articles mentioned in this list can be best procured from Mr.
S. J. Beckett, 39 Dresden Road, Highgate, N. Apply, in first place, by
letter.
† Those marked with a cross (†) can be obtained from Messrs. Buck, 242
Tottenham Court Road, W.C.
_For preserving Reptiles, Batrachians, and Fish_—
These should be preserved in spirits whenever practicable.
_For larger specimens_—
2 or 4 four-sided copper tanks with a round opening of six
inches diameter, closed with a screw cover. Each tank is fitted
into a strong wooden case with a lid secured by hinges and
lock, and furnished on two opposite sides with a rope handle.
_For smaller specimens liable to be damaged_—
2 or 4 wooden cases divided into four or six compartments,
each containing a pickle jar, with glass rubber-edged stopper
secured by an adjustable iron fastening.
3 dozen or more corked glass tubes of various sizes.
A supply of sheets of zinc, soldering irons and soft solder (to
make extra tanks).
1000 parchment labels bearing numbers.
If the above specially constructed zinc tanks cannot be
procured, wide-mouthed earthenware jars, tightly closed with
cork or rubber, may be used.
The glass tubes will be found specially useful for collecting
Arachnida, Myriopoda, small Mollusca, etc.
_For collecting Insects_—
Store boxes lined with cork-carpet.
Triangular envelopes of smooth foolscap paper for butterflies
and thin-bodied moths.
Card fly-discs.
Entomological pins (boxes of various sizes).
2 zinc oval pocket boxes lined with cork-carpet (two sizes).
6 or more sets (four each) of glass-bottomed pill-boxes covered
with jaconet.
2 pairs of entomological forceps.
4 insect killing-bottles (two sizes) in leather cases. (Hinton
& Co., 38 Bedford Street, Strand, W.C.)
A small bottle of oxalic acid, with stabbing quill fixed in
cork, for killing large insects.
2 flat killing-bottles for beetles, with glass tube passing
through the cork and fitted with a cork plug.
2 small entomological lamps.
6 tins of bicycle oil.
1 dozen 1-lb. tins of golden syrup or treacle.
2 sugar brushes.
1 3-oz. bottle of acetate of amyl (“Essence of Pear Drops,” for
mixing with treacle) (Hinton & Co.).
3 butterfly-nets (two round, one kite-shaped) with extra
bags.[10]
1 water-net (for aquatic insects).
Several pieces of cork-carpet about a foot square (for making
extra store boxes).
1 pocket lens.
2 large pickle-jars of carbolized sawdust to be used as packing
for beetles after they have been killed.
3 dozen corked glass tubes (three sizes).[11]
_For instructions regarding the collecting and preservation of specimens
in all branches of natural history, travellers and others are recommended
to provide themselves with a ‘Handbook of Instructions for Collectors,’
issued by the British Museum (Natural History). With illustrations.
Second edition, 1904. Price 1s. 6d._
[Illustration]
In humid tropical countries, where the ubiquitous ants are likely to
destroy specimens before they are ready to be packed away, drying-cages,
suspended from the roof of a hut or tent, are absolutely necessary.
These can be readily made from old packing-cases, but a few square feet
of wire gauze must be provided for the back and front of the cages, and
the cord by which they are suspended must be threaded through a small
calibash containing oil, or, better still, naphthaline, to prevent ants
from descending from the roof. The cages may be so arranged as to be
taken to pieces and put together again readily; one, for birds, should
be about 2 feet 6 inches long by 1 foot 6 inches high and 1 foot broad;
the other, for insects and other small specimens, may be about one-third
less. They should have folding doors in front, with panels of wire gauze,
and the backs wholly of the latter material; the sides fitted with racks
to hold six or eight plain shelves, which in the smaller cage should be
covered with cork, or any soft wood that can be obtained in tropical
countries. A strong ring fixed in the top of the cage, with a cord having
a hook attached at the end by which to hang it in an airy place, will
keep the contained specimens out of harm’s way until they are quite dry,
when they may be stowed away in suitable close-fitting boxes. An even
simpler and perfectly effective plan is to take a number of pieces of
stout wire each about 18 inches long, bend each end into a loop, and
round the middle solder a funnel-shaped piece of tin to contain powdered
candle-naphthaline. The upper loop of each wire can be secured with
string to a rafter, and between the lower loops flat boards, or a series
of boards, can be suspended on which skins may be placed to dry. This
method has been proved to be safe, no ants ever venturing to cross the
naphthaline.
A few yards of india-rubber waterproof sheeting may be found useful as a
temporary covering to collections in wet weather or in crossing rivers.
To those who have had little or no experience in field-collecting it may
be useful to give some idea of the impedimenta considered absolutely
essential for an ordinary day’s work when it is desired to collect, as
far as possible, in all branches of zoology, and the most convenient
means of disposing of such. The collector should be accompanied, if
possible, by two intelligent natives to act as bearers, who may, with
patience, be developed into useful assistant-collectors.
A 12-bore gun or rifle, according to circumstances, with ammunition, to
be carried by the first bearer.
A ·410 collecting gun and twenty-five cartridges, including a few
cartridges with full loads of 8 shot: the cartridges to be carried by
self, the gun, when not in use, to be carried by the second bearer. The
10 shot and 12 shot ·410 cartridges should be carried in the two lower
waistcoat pockets, where they are easily accessible, and the few 8 shot
cartridges in some other pocket.
Saloon pistol in holster with pouch for carrying ammunition on belt,
strapped round the waist, so that it can be easily and quickly made use
of.
A butterfly-net carried by self, or by the second bearer if not in use.
Large oval zinc pocket-box lined with cork carpet, containing a stock of
pins, both large and small, stuck in one side of the cork carpet ready
for use; to be carried in the right-hand side-pocket of the coat.
Entomological forceps, pointed forceps, and larger forceps for picking up
scorpions, large spiders, etc., and entomological killing-bottle; to be
carried in the left-hand side-pocket of the coat.
Two larger-sized corked glass tubes half-full of spirits and
a camel’s-hair brush to be carried in the right and left top
waistcoat-pockets, for collecting small spiders, etc. It is difficult to
pick up the swift-running ground-haunting species without injury, but,
by dipping the brush in spirits and placing it on them, they are at once
stupefied, and may then be easily transferred to the tube.
The spirit is also required for saturating the small plug of cotton-wool
to be pushed down the throat of each bird as soon as it has been killed;
the gape should then be plugged with dry cotton. Specimens thus prepared
may be carried, even in a hot climate, for several hours without
deteriorating.
A game bag carried by the second bearer, with a large supply of paper for
wrapping up birds when shot.
Several sets of glass-top pill-boxes carried in the ‘hare’-pocket, or in
one of the pockets of the game-bag, to which they can be transferred when
filled.
A pickle pot in Willesden canvas or basket-work cover with handle,
half filled with spirits, for collecting small snakes, lizards, frogs,
scorpions, etc.; to be carried by the first bearer, who should be
instructed how to hunt for reptiles, etc.
If possible, a beetle-killing bottle should be added to the above
impedimenta, and may be carried in the left-hand breast-pocket of the
coat.
A Norfolk coat is a most useful article of clothing, and should be
provided with a deep ‘hare’ pocket running round the skirt and divided in
the middle.
After a very short time the collector will be able to find any article he
may require by instinct, and without loss of time. To have a pocket for
each article, and to know where it is, saves an infinity of trouble.
At daylight the traps should be visited, and any specimens to be
preserved should at once be sent back into camp.
Collecting should always, if possible, be vigorously prosecuted during
the early morning hours, when birds, etc., are feeding, and are much more
easily procured.
When butterflies and thick-bodied moths are placed in the killing-bottle,
care should be taken to see that they die with their wings turned the
‘right way,’ _i.e._, with the underside outermost. Those which die with
the upper side outermost should be at once reversed with the aid of a
pin or the sharp-pointed forceps, and then replaced in the bottle. If
not attended to at once they become rigid, and the wings get rubbed and
spoilt before they are quite dead.
_Where and what to collect._—The countries which are now the least known
with regard to their natural history are New Guinea and some of the large
islands to the east of it, East Sumatra, the highlands of Mindanao and
other Philippine Islands, Formosa, Tibet, Indo-China, and other parts of
Central Asia, Equatorial Africa, and Central South America. A special
interest attaches to the indigenous products of oceanic islands, _i.e._,
islands separated by a deep sea from any large tract of land. Those who
have opportunities could not fail to make interesting discoveries by
collecting specimens of the smaller animals (insects, molluscs, etc.,)
and plants in these isolated localities. Both in continental countries
and on islands the truly indigenous species will have to be sought for
on hills and in the remote parts, where they are more likely to have
escaped extermination by settlers and the domestic animals introduced by
them. In most of the better-known countries the botany has been better
investigated than the zoology, and in all these there still remains
much to be done in ascertaining the exact station, and the range, both
vertical and horizontal, of known species of animals and plants. This
leads us to one point which cannot be too strongly insisted on, namely,
that some effective means should be adopted by the traveller to record
the _exact locality_ and _date_ of every specimen he collects.[12]
A traveller may be puzzled, in the midst of the profusion of animal
and vegetable forms which he sees around him, to know what to collect
and what to leave. Books can be of little service to him on a journey,
and he had better at once abandon all idea of encumbering himself with
them. A few days study at the principal museums before he starts on his
voyage may teach him a great deal, and the cultivation of a habit of
close observation and minute comparison of the specimens he obtains will
teach him a great deal more. As a general rule all specimens which he
may meet with for the first time far in the interior should be preferred
to those common near the civilised parts, and he should bear in mind
that the few handsome kinds which attract the attention of the natives,
and are offered for sale to strangers, are almost sure to be of species
well known in European museums. He should strive to obtain as much
variety as possible, and not fill his boxes and jars with quantities of
specimens of one or a few species, but as some of the rarest and most
interesting species closely resemble others which may be more common, he
should avail himself of every opportunity of comparing the objects side
by side. In most countries, as already remarked, the truly indigenous,
and often the rarest, species are to be found only in the mountains
at considerable elevations and in the primitive forests, the products
of cultivated districts being nearly all widely distributed and well
known. In Botany a traveller, if obliged to restrict his collecting,
might confine himself to those plants which are remarkable for their
economic uses; always taking care to identify the flowers of the tree
or shrub whose root, bark, leaves, wood, etc., are used by the natives,
and to preserve a few specimens of them. But if he has the good fortune
to ascend any high mountain not previously explored, he should make as
complete a collection of the flowering plants as possible, at the higher
elevations. The same may be said of insects found on mountains, where
they occur in great diversity—on the shady and cold sides rather than on
the sunny slopes—under stones, and about the roots of herbage, especially
near springs, on shrubs and low trees, and so forth; for upon a knowledge
of the plants and insects of mountain ranges depend the solution of many
curious questions regarding the geographical distribution of forms over
the earth. In Reptiles, the smaller Batrachians (Frogs, Salamanders,
etc.) should not be neglected, especially the extremely numerous family
of tree-frogs; the arboreal, or rock-haunting species of Lizards seen out
of reach, and the swift-running forms that inhabit sandy plains may be
secured with a charge of dust-shot, the saloon pistol being especially
handy for this purpose. Snakes should be taken without injuring the head,
which is the most important part of the body: a cleft stick may be used
in securing them by the neck, or they may be shot, and on reaching camp
placed in the jars of spirits. As large a collection as possible should
be made of the smaller Fishes and Tortoises of lakes and rivers.
_Mammals and Birds._[13]—An ordinary geographical expedition will hardly
have the means at its disposal for bringing home many specimens of the
larger animals, but many species in regions visited only by adventurous
explorers are still desiderata in the large museums of Europe; and
additional specimens of all genera of which there are numerous closely
allied species (_e.g._, Rodents, Antelope, Deer, etc.), and of all the
small nocturnal mammals would be welcome to zoologists. If only portions
can be obtained, skulls with horns attached are to be preferred. The
smaller birds shot on an excursion should be carried to camp in the game
bag, folded in paper, the mouth, anus and any wounds being first plugged
with cotton-wool. In a hot climate when the birds have to be carried for
some distance before they are skinned, a plug of cotton-wool dipped in a
weak solution of formaline or in spirits should be pushed down the gullet
into the stomach, before the mouth is plugged with dry cotton-wool. This
precaution will insure specimens remaining fresh for many hours.
Small dull-coloured birds are most likely to be new or interesting.
Immediately after killing a small mammal or bird, make a note of the
colour of its eyes and soft parts, and, if time admits, of the dimensions
of its trunk and limbs. Full directions for skinning will be found in the
British Museum ‘Handbook,’ pp. 15-29. It should however be mentioned that
in large-headed Parrots, Woodpeckers, Ducks, and some other birds, in
which the skin of the head cannot be turned back, an incision has to be
made in the nape, through which the skull can be pushed and cleansed, the
incision being afterwards closed by two or three stitches. In finishing
the skin of a bird the feet should be placed side by side, with the claws
folded and fastened together by means of a pin run transversely through
the soles. The protruding ends of the pin can afterwards be cut off close
to the feet. This is Mr. W. Foster’s plan, and is by far the best and
neatest method. When the skin is dry, it should be laid on its back in
one of the trays fitted into the zinc-lined collecting boxes, and secured
by means of a couple of stout pins passed through the head at the base of
the lower mandible and through the root of the tail. By dovetailing the
specimens into one another, they can thus be packed with the least loss
of space, and need not again be moved. They require no wrapping or paper,
and are much more easily looked over to see that no insects have attacked
them.
_Preserving Mammals, etc., in Alcohol._—When Mammals cannot be prepared
as skins with skulls, according to the British Museum directions, they
may prove of service if preserved in spirits. Indeed, when a series of
skins has been made, additional specimens may well be placed in spirits,
while in the case of Bats half the individuals taken of any species
should be skinned and half put in spirits.
On the subject of the preservation of such spirit specimens, the late Dr.
G. E. Dobson has published the following ‘Hints’:—
[Illustration: GENERAL COLLECTING-CASE.]
The general collecting case should be made of strong block tin, or,
better still, of copper, rectangular in form, about 2 feet × 1 foot ×
1 foot 8 inches in height, having in the top a circular aperture from
6 to 8 inches in diameter, closed by a well-fitting brass screw-cap,
the flange of which is made air-tight by a well-greased leather collar.
This should fit accurately into a similarly shaped box of inch boards,
having a simple flat lid (not projecting beyond the sides), secured by
eight long screws, and provided with a strong iron handle. This case
should be filled with the strongest methylated spirits procurable (in
foreign countries over-proof rum, brandy, or arrack will suit equally
well). If circumstances admit, two or more such cases should be taken,
or four wide-mouthed earthenware jars placed in a square wooden case,
separated by light wooden partitions, and having their mouths closed by
well-fitting bungs tied down with bladder and string. On arrival at the
collecting station one of the jars should be half filled with spirits
from the tin case. Into this each specimen, as it is obtained, having
been slit along the side of the abdomen, should be put, and allowed to
remain 24 hours before being transferred to the general collecting case.
When the latter can hold no more the specimens should be removed one by
one and packed in the moist state in the other wide-mouthed jars, one
above the other, like herrings in a cask, each rolled in a piece of thin
cotton cloth, in which a label, having the locality and date written
in pencil, should be placed. When the jar has been thus filled to the
mouth a glass or two of the strong spirits (kept in reserve) should be
poured in so as to fill up the interstices, but not to appear on the
surface, which should be covered with a thick layer of cotton-wool. A
few drops of carbolic acid, if the spirit be weak, will greatly aid its
preserving powers. The bung should then be replaced, secured round the
margin outside with a mixture of tallow and wax, and tied down securely
with bladder or skin, and the name of the collector and district written
legibly outside. The jar is now ready for transmission to any distance,
for specimens thus treated will keep good in the vapour alone of strong
spirits for months. Other jars may be filled in like manner, and finally,
the general collecting case. Incisions should invariably be made in the
_sides_ (not in the centre line) of all animals, so as to allow the
spirits to enter, and no part of the intestines should be removed. In the
case of _Tortoises_ the opening may be made in the soft parts round the
thighs; if this be not done, the body soon becomes distended with gases.
_Frogs_ should always be first placed in weak spirits, and after being
soaked for one or two days, be removed to strong alcohol. _Crabs_ should
be rolled up alive in thin cotton-cloths, secured by thread tied round,
and may then be readily killed by immersion in alcohol; if this be not
done they lose many of their limbs in their dying struggles.
_Preparation of Skeletons of Animals._—In many cases it will be found
impossible to preserve the whole animal, especially if of large size, but
it may advantageously be converted into a skeleton by attention to the
following directions of the late Sir W. H. Flower, F.R.S.
If the animal is of small size—say not larger than a Fox—take off the
skin except from the feet below the wrist and ankle joints. If it is
intended to preserve the skin as a zoological specimen as well as the
skeleton, the bones of the feet should all be left in the skin; they can
be easily extracted afterwards, and will be preserved much more safely
in their natural covering. Remove all the contents of the abdominal
and thoracic cavities; also the larynx, gullet, and tongue. In doing
this be careful to leave attached to the base of the skull the chain of
bones which supports the root of the tongue. These may either be left
in connection with the skull, or cleaned separately and tied to the
skeleton. Then clear away, with the aid of a knife, as much as possible
of the flesh from the head, body, and limbs, without cutting or scraping
the bones, or separating them from each other. At any intervals that may
be necessary during this process it will be desirable, if practicable,
to leave the body in water, so as to wash away as much of the blood as
possible from the bones, and a few days’ soaking in water frequently
changed will be an advantage.
The body, with all the bones held in connection by their ligaments,
should then be hung up to dry in a place where there is a free current
of air, and out of the way of attacks from animals of prey. Before they
get hard the limbs may be folded by the side of the body in the most
convenient position, or they may be detached and placed inside the trunk.
When thoroughly dry the skeletons may be packed in boxes with any
convenient light packing material between them. Each should be well
wrapped in a separate piece of paper or canvas, as sometimes insects will
attack the ligamentary structures and allow the bones to come apart.
If it can be avoided, skeletons should never be packed up so long as any
moisture remains in them, as otherwise decomposition will go on in the
still adhering soft parts, and cause an unpleasant smell.
If the animal is of larger size it will be most convenient to take it
partially to pieces before or during the cleaning. The head may be
separated from the neck, the vertebral column divided into two or more
pieces, and the limbs detached from the trunk; but in no case should the
small bones of the feet be separated from one another. The parts should
then be treated as above described, and all packed together in a canvas
bag.
In the cetacea (porpoises, etc.), look for two small bones suspended in
the flesh, just below the vertebral column, at the junction of the lumbar
and caudal regions (marked externally by the anal aperture). They are the
only rudiments of the pelvis, and should always be preserved with the
skeleton.
If there is no opportunity of preserving and transporting entire
skeletons, the skulls alone may be kept. They should be treated as above
described, picked nearly clean, the brain being scooped out through the
_foramen magnum_, soaked for a few days in water, and dried.
Every specimen should be carefully labelled with the popular name of the
animal, if known, and at all events, with the sex, the _exact locality_
at which it was procured, and the _date_.
For the purpose of making entire skeletons, select, if possible, adult
animals; but the skulls of animals of all ages may be advantageously
collected.
Collectors of skins should always leave the skull intact. It should be
taken out, labelled with a corresponding number to that on the skin, and
dried with as much flesh on it as possible.
_Reptiles and Fishes._—Full directions for preserving these will be
found in the British Museum ‘Handbook,’ pp. 33-47. The following ‘hints’
were prepared by the late Mr. Osbert Salvin, F.R.S., who collected these
animals most successfully in Guatemala:—
Almost any spirit will answer for this purpose, its fitness consisting
in the amount of alcohol contained in it. In all cases it is best to
procure the strongest possible, as it is less bulky, and water can
always be obtained to reduce the strength to the requisite amount. When
the spirit sold retail by the natives is not sufficiently strong, by
visiting the distillery the traveller can often obtain the first runnings
(the strongest) of the still, which will be stronger than he requires
undiluted. The spirit used should be reduced to about 20° over proof, and
the traveller should always be provided with an alcoholometer. If this is
not at hand, a little practice will enable him to ascertain the strength
of the spirit from the rapidity with which the bubbles break when rising
to the surface of a small quantity shaken in a bottle. When the spirit
has been used this test is of no value. When reptiles or fish are first
immersed, it will be found that the spirit becomes rapidly weaker. Large
specimens absorb the alcohol very speedily. The rapidity with which this
absorption takes place should be carefully watched, and in warm climates
the liquid tested at least every twelve hours, and fresh spirit added
to restore it to its original strength. In colder climates it is not
requisite to watch so closely, but practice will show what attention is
necessary. It will be found that absorption of alcohol will be about
proportionate to the rate of decomposition. Spirit should not be used
too strong, as its effect is to contract the outer surface, and close
the pores, thus preventing the alcohol from penetrating through to the
inner parts of the specimen. _The principal point, then, is to watch that
the strength of the spirit does not get below a certain point while the
specimen is absorbing alcohol when first put in._ It will be found that
after a few days the spirit retains its strength: when this is the case,
the specimen will be perfectly preserved. Spirit should not be thrown
away, no matter how often used, so long as the traveller has a reserve of
sufficient strength to bring it back to its requisite strength.
In selecting specimens for immersion, regard must be paid to the means
at the traveller’s disposal. Fishes up to 9 inches long may be placed
in spirit, after a slit has been cut in the side of the belly to allow
the spirit to enter to the entrails. With larger specimens, it is better
to pass a long knife outside the ribs, so as to separate the muscles on
each side of the vertebræ. It is also as well to remove as much food from
the entrails as possible, taking care to leave all these in. The larger
specimens can be skinned, leaving, however, the intestines in, and simply
removing the flesh. Very large specimens preserved in this way absorb
very little spirit. All half-digested food should be removed from snakes
and animals. In spite of these precautions, specimens will often appear
to be decomposing; but, by more constant attention to restrengthening the
spirit, they can, in most cases, be preserved.
A case (copper is the best), with a top that can be unscrewed and
refixed easily, should always be carried as a receptacle. The opening
should be large enough to allow the hand to be inserted; this is to hold
freshly-caught specimens. When they have become preserved, they can all
be removed and soldered up in tin or zinc boxes. Zinc is best, as it does
not corrode so easily. The traveller will find it very convenient to
take lessons in soldering, and to be able to make his own boxes. If he
takes them ready-made, they had best be arranged so as to fit one into
another before they are filled. When moving about, all specimens should
be wrapped in calico or linen or other rags to prevent their rubbing
one against the other. This should also be done to the specimens in the
copper case when a move is necessary, as well as to those finally packed
for transmission to Europe. These last should have all the interstices
between the specimens filled in with cotton-wool or rags. If a leak
should occur in a case, specimens thus packed will still be maintained
moist, and will keep some time without much injury. Proof spirit should
be used when the specimens are finally packed, but it is not necessary
that it should be fresh.
_Land and Freshwater Mollusca._[14] Full instructions for collecting
these will be found in the ‘British Museum Handbook,’ pp. 113-115.
Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-Austen, F.R.S., has contributed the following
notes on collecting these animals: Mollusca are always most abundant on
limestone rocks, and should be searched for under the larger stones
lying about the ground, and under fallen trees and logs in the woods
and forests. They may generally be found adhering to the surface of the
stone or wood. Many species are often only 0.05 inch in length, so that
very close examination is necessary. In damp spots, generally in ravines
with a northerly aspect, the dead leaves when damp with dew in the early
morning may be turned over one by one, and the under surface examined
for minute species; larger species will be found very frequently on the
surface of the ground below the layer of decaying vegetable matter. Many
may also be secured by tearing off the bark of decaying trees. In the
drier parts of the country some species are only to be found among the
roots of shrubs, at considerable depth; by digging these up and shaking
the earth on to paper, small shells may be found on close examination.
At a dry place like Aden, I should expect to find most of the living
land-shells in such a habitat. Look well in limestone caves on the damp
surface of the rock; some forms hide themselves under a coating of earthy
matter. Search also on damp moss and rocks near waterfalls.
Some species will be found high up on the bushes and trees. This is
the habit of certain African forms especially; not so in India. A very
good idea of the land-shells of a country may at first be obtained by
the examination of the beds of the streams, either along the highest
flood-line, or in the fine sand and mud collected in the bed. Land-shells
found in such situations are usually old and bleached, but the living
specimens will not be far off.
The leaves and stems of water plants should be examined, and Confervæ
taken out of the water and well washed in a basin; in these, and in the
mud of ponds and still rivers, many minute shells may be found.
The best way of preserving minute shells is to put them into glass tubes
plugged with wool; it is better than cork. Capital collecting tubes can
be made out of the smaller sorts of bamboo and the large grasses. A
certain number of every species (at least a dozen) should be preserved
in spirits for the sake of the anatomy. It is best to kill them first in
water and then put them into spirits; if this is not done they contract,
so that it is impossible to form any idea of the form of the mantle and
other parts, and they become so hard they are difficult to cut up.
A good method of keeping the small shells and slugs, especially in
spirits, is to put them with labels into small tubes plugged with wool,
and then place the tubes in a large jar, capable of holding three or four
dozen.
Other small shells, ½ to ¾ of an inch in diameter, may be put into
pill-boxes at once, for in a dry climate they very soon dry up. The very
large animals may be removed by boiling them in water, but when time does
not admit of attending to the cleaning of the shells, species, such as
Unios, may be put into empty soup-tins and then filled up with dry sand.
It is very important to make a few notes on the colour of the animal,
attaching a number for reference on the box or in the tube, and the
operculum, when present, should always be preserved.
With respect to slugs, note the surface of the mantle, and always the
form of the extremity of the foot, whether pointed or provided with a
mucous pore; and again the lobes of the mantle. Preserve them in spirits
as above. Drawings from the living animal are invaluable, and should be
made if possible. Very little is known of the Asiatic forms; they are of
much interest, and have been very little collected.
_Insects._—For the best means of preserving the various orders of insects
the traveller should consult the ‘British Museum Handbook,’ pp. 48-89.
_Botanical Collecting._—Full instructions will be found in the ‘British
Museum Handbook,’ pp. 116-125.
The following instructions have been prepared by the late Mr. J. Ball,
F.R.S.:—
To obtain good specimens of dried plants in a condition serviceable to
scientific men, the following are the chief points to be observed:—
1. _Selection of Specimens._—The object is to give as much information
as possible respecting the plant which it is intended to collect. Small
plants not exceeding 16 inches in height should be collected _entire with
the roots_. Slender plants of greater dimensions may be folded to the
same length, and may often be collected entire. Of larger plants, shrubs
and trees, the object is to show as much as possible of the plant within
the limit of the size of your drying paper. As an universal rule, both
the flower and fruit (seed-vessel) should, if possible, be preserved.
Of those plants whereon the male and female flowers grow separately,
specimens of both should, if possible, be collected.
2. _Conveyance of Specimens to Camp or Station._—Tin boxes made for the
purpose are generally used in Europe for carrying botanical specimens
until they can be placed in the drying press. They answer sufficiently
well in cool weather, but in hot countries specimens are often partly
withered before they can be laid out; and a rough portfolio, into which
the plants can be put when (or soon after) they are gathered, is much to
be preferred.
Such a portfolio is easily prepared with two sheets of millboard
connected by an endless tape, so as to be easily slung over the shoulder;
between these about thirty or forty sheets (60 to 80 folds) of thin soft
(more or less bibulous) paper may be carried and kept in place by a strap
or piece of twine. With two such portfolios a traveller can carry as many
plants as it is possible to collect with advantage in a day. As soon
as possible after being gathered, the specimens should be laid roughly
between the sheets of paper: except in the case of delicate flowers,
no special care is needed, and no harm comes of two or three being put
together.
[Illustration]
3. _The Drying Press._—The great object, both to secure good specimens
and to save labour and weight of paper, is to get the plants dried
quickly, and for this one of the first conditions is to lose as little
time as possible. When practicable, the specimens should always be put in
the press on the same day on which they are gathered. The press should
be made with two outer gratings of iron wire; the outer frame of strong
wire, about a quarter of an inch in diameter—the size being that of the
paper used. Between these the paper is laid. As to the choice of drying
paper, the general rule is, that the coarser it is the better, provided
it be quite or nearly quite free from size.
To enable the plants to dry quickly, the traveller should be provided
with light wooden gratings of the same size as the drying paper. I think
the size 18 inches × 12 inches is quite large enough. The iron wire outer
gratings may with advantage be a quarter of an inch longer and broader to
save the edges of the wooden gratings.
[Illustration]
[Illustration: GRATING SEEN FROM THE EDGE.]
[Illustration: GRATING SEEN FROM ABOVE.]
These should be made of light laths fastened with a few nails (all the
better if these are of copper), the interstices should be rather less
than three-quarters of an inch, at all events not more. Their use is
to allow the air to circulate through the pile of plants that are being
dried. One should be inserted at each interval of about two inches
(counting the drying paper and the plants laid out for drying), and
when this is done the parcel may with advantage be exposed to the sun
or placed near a fire, as the case may be. In dry warm climates, the
majority of plants may be dried in the course of a few days, and will be
fit to pack up, without any need of changing the drying paper in which
they were originally placed; but in damp weather, and in regard to plants
of thick fleshy foliage, it is usually necessary to change the paper more
than once before the specimens are thoroughly dry.
The pile of paper, with plants between each five or six thicknesses of
paper, and gratings at intervals of about two inches, should be squeezed
between the outer (iron) gratings by means of two strong straps. Too much
pressure is not desirable. For a pile ten or twelve inches thick, the
parcel may be pulled nearly as tight as a moderate man can do it; but in
proportion as the thickness is less, the pressure should be moderated.
Plants with fleshy leaves are very difficult to dry well. The best way
is to dip them in quite boiling water for a minute or less, then to lay
them between a few sheets of drying paper with slight pressure, merely
to remove the exterior moisture, and then place them (when externally
dry) in the drying press. Plants collected in rain should be treated in a
similar way to remove outer moisture before it is attempted to dry them.
4. When once dry, plants may be packed away between paper of almost any
kind. Old newspapers answer very well. The only precaution needed is to
preserve them from insects.
The chief trouble in collecting plants is to get the paper already used
thoroughly dry before it is again employed. The best resource in dry
climates is to stretch cords and hang these papers exposed to sun and
air. Artificial heat must be resorted to in wet seasons, but the process
is then slow and troublesome.
For a traveller wishing to make large collections, the time consumed in
changing the paper in which the plants are dried becomes an important
consideration. I have adopted with advantage a suggestion of the late
Professor A. Gray to use, instead of ordinary drying paper, sheets cut
to the proper size, of the paper-felt which is used for laying under
carpets. The specimens when originally laid out for drying are placed
within sheets of thin paper without size, such as filtering paper, and
as a rule these do not need to be changed. One sheet of felt-paper is
generally sufficient between each layer of plants, and the operation of
changing the paper is very quickly effected.
It is an important rule to note _the locality_ where the specimens have
been collected, _with the date_. If proper care be taken to keep together
all the specimens collected at the same time, it is not necessary to
place a separate scrap of paper within each sheet; but it is advisable to
do this when the dried specimens are packed for transmission home.
5. _Seeds._—Travellers may easily make valuable contributions to our
knowledge of the vegetation of distant countries by preserving seeds
of remarkable and unusual plants. The only precautions necessary are,
to select seeds that are fully ripe; if enclosed in a seed vessel, or
covering of a succulent character, to take care that this is thoroughly
dried before they are packed; and that they are preserved from moisture
during the homeward voyage. Small seeds may be enclosed in paper, the
larger kinds in canvas bags, and the whole wrapped in a piece of oiled
cloth. It is very desirable to keep each description of seed separate,
and to note the place where it was gathered, with indications of
altitude, soil, and climate.
6. _Bulbs._—These are easily obtained, but as a rule, they should be
taken only at the end of the growing season, and kept until the leaves
are quite withered. They should be packed dry in a small box with
shavings, or other elastic stuffing. The same treatment will suit the
pseudo-bulbs of some orchids.
7. _Fleshy Tubers._—Fleshy and thick tubers are best sent in boxes,
wrapped in slightly moist materials, such as cocoa-nut fibre, peat, or
leaf mould.
8. _Living Plants._—As a general rule, these require to be established in
pots or boxes for some time before being packed for transmission. They
travel best in what are called Wardian cases; but an ordinary wooden box
covered with a glass top, and with sufficient moisture in the soil and
air to prevent excessive evaporation, is found to answer the purpose. The
cases should be kept on deck under some protection from the direct heat
of the sun. Tropical plants should be despatched so as to reach England
during the summer months. At other seasons they are liable to perish from
cold.
9. _Succulent Plants_, such as cacti, aloe, houseleeks, &c., survive
for a long time if packed without earth in a perfectly dry box, with
sufficient openings for ventilation.
10. Small plants with woody roots and cuttings of larger species of
plants from the north or south temperate zones often travel successfully
when merely packed with a little soil, slightly moist, about the roots,
and a wrapping of damp moss, or similar substance, tied up in thick paper
or canvas. There is, however, much risk of failure in these cases where,
on the homeward voyage, it is necessary to pass through the tropics.
As a general rule, plants are more often injured by excess of moisture
than by being sent too dry.
It is desirable to make use of every favourable opportunity for sending
botanical collections of all kinds to England, as in hot countries they
are always exposed to risk of injury.
It is scarcely necessary to mention that living plants, as well as seeds,
and bulbs, should be placed in the hands of skilful gardeners after
reaching this country. The chance of preserving interesting specimens
is commonly much greater when they are sent to botanic gardens than when
entrusted to private cultivators. In all cases information as to the
soil and climate of the native home of the plant is a necessary guide to
proper treatment.
_Fossils._—The collection of fossils and minerals (except in the case
of the discovery of new localities for valuable metals) is not to be
recommended to the traveller, if he is not a geologist. Fossils from
an unexplored country are of little use unless the nature and order of
superposition of the strata in which they are found can be at the same
time investigated. In the cases, however, of recent alluvial strata or
the supposed beds of ancient lakes, or deposits in caves, or raised
sea-beaches containing shells or bones of vertebrate animals, the
traveller will do well to bring away specimens if a good opportunity
offers. If the plan of the expedition includes the collection of fossil
remains, the traveller will, of course, provide himself with a proper
geological outfit, and obtain the necessary instructions before leaving
Europe. (_See_ Section III.) For suggestions as to the collecting and
preserving fossils and minerals, cf. British Museum ‘Handbook,’ pp.
126-135.
_General Remarks._—All collections made in tropical countries should
be sent to Europe with the least possible delay, as they soon become
deteriorated and spoilt unless great care be bestowed upon them.
_Observations of Habits, etc._—Travellers have excellent opportunities
of observing the habits of animals in a state of nature, and these
‘Hints’ would be very deficient were not a few remarks made upon this
subject. To know what to observe in the economy of animals is in
itself an accomplishment which it would be unreasonable to expect the
general traveller to possess, and without this he may bring home only
insignificant details, contributing but little to our stock of real
knowledge. One general rule, however, may be kept always present to the
mind, and this is, that anything concerning animals which bears upon the
relations of species to their conditions of life is well worth observing
and recording. Thus, it is important to note the various enemies which
each species has to contend with, not only at one epoch in its life,
but at every stage from birth to death, and at different seasons and in
different localities. The way in which the existence of enemies limits
the range of a species should also be noticed. The inorganic influences
which inimically affect species, especially intermittently (such as the
occurrence of disastrous seasons), and which are likely to operate
in limiting their ranges, are also important subjects of inquiry. The
migrations of animals, and especially any facts about the irruption of
species into districts previously uninhabited by them, are well worth
recording. The food of each species should be noticed, and if any change
of customary food is observed, owing to the failure of the supply, it
should be carefully recorded. The use in nature of any peculiar physical
conformation of animals, the object of ornamentation, and so forth,
should also be investigated whenever opportunity occurs. Any facts
relating to the interbreeding in a state of nature of allied varieties,
or the converse—that is, the antipathy to intercrossing of allied
varieties—would be extremely interesting. In short, the traveller should
bear in mind that facts having a philosophical bearing are much more
important than mere anecdotes about animals.
To observe the actions of the larger animals, a telescope or field-glass
will be necessary. The traveller should bear in mind, if a microscope
is needed in his journey, that by unscrewing the tubes of the telescope
in which all the small glasses are contained, a compound microscope of
considerable power may be produced.
V.
ANTHROPOLOGY.
_By the late SIR E. B. TYLOR, D.C.L., F.R.S._
The characters of men’s bodies and minds being matters of common
observation, Europeans not specially trained in anthropology, who have
happened to be thrown among little-known tribes, often bring home
valuable anthropological information. Though explorers, traders, and
colonists have made their way into almost every corner of the earth, it
is surprising to find how many new facts may still be noted down by any
careful observer. If familiar with anthropological methods, he will, of
course, observe more and better. The hints here given will serve to draw
attention to interesting points which might otherwise be overlooked.
Directions for such investigation, drawn up in much greater detail, will
be found in the small British Association manual entitled: ‘Notes and
Queries on Anthropology’ (Royal Anthropological Institute, 50, Great
Russell Street, W., 4th edition (1912), price 5_s._) For fuller details
see the international agreement for the Unification of Anthropometric
Measurements to be made on the living subject. English translation of the
official version, W. L. H. Duckworth.
_Physical Characters._—On first coming among an unfamiliar race, such
as the Negroes, the traveller is apt to think them almost alike, till
after a few days he learns to distinguish individuals more sharply. This
first impression, however, has a value of its own, for what he vaguely
perceived was the general type of the race, which he may afterwards
gain a more perfect idea of by careful comparison. Among tribes who for
many generations have led a simple uniform life and mixed little with
strangers, the general likeness of build and feature is very close, as
may be seen in a photograph of a party of Caribs or Andamaners, whose
uniformity contrasts instructively with the individualised faces of a
party of Europeans. The consequence is that a traveller among a rude
people, if he has something of the artist’s faculty of judging form, may
select groups for photography which will fairly represent the type of
a whole tribe or nation. While such portrait-groups are admirable for
giving the general idea of a race, characteristic features belonging
to it should be treated separately. For instance, to do justice to the
Tartar eye or the Australian forehead, the individual feature must be
carefully sketched or photographed large.
How deceptive mere unmeasured impressions of size may be is shown by
the well-known example of the Patagonians, who, though really only tall
men (averaging 5 feet 11 inches), long had the reputation of a race of
giants. Such measurements as any traveller can take with a measuring-tape
and a three-foot rule with sliding square are good if taken with proper
precautions. As the object of the anthropologist is to get a general
idea of a race, it may be in some respects misleading to measure at
random one or two individuals who are perhaps not fair specimens. If
only a few can be measured, they should be selected of ordinary average
build, full-grown but not aged. What is much better is to measure a
large number (never less than thirty) of persons taken indiscriminately
as they come, and to record the measurements of each with sex, age,
name, locality, etc. Such a table can afterwards be so classified as to
show not only the average or mean size, but the proportion of persons
who vary more or less from that mean size; in fact, it represents on
a small scale the distribution of stature, etc., in the whole people.
Gigantic or dwarfish individuals, if not deformed, are interesting, as
showing to what extremes the race may run. The most ordinary measurements
are height, girth round chest, fathom or length of outstretched arms,
length of arm from shoulder and leg from hip, length of hand and foot.
The traveller may find that such measuring of another race shows very
different stature and girth from that of his own companions, who, if
they are well-grown Europeans, may stand 5 feet 8 inches to 6 feet,
and measure 34 to 36 inches round the chest. Beyond this, he will find
that the relative proportions of parts of the body differ from those
he is accustomed to. An example of this is seen by placing Europeans
and negroes side by side, and noticing how much nearer the knee the
negro’s finger-tips will reach. It will be found that body measurement
needs skill in taking the corresponding points, and in fact all but the
simplest measures require some knowledge of anatomy. This is especially
the case with skull measurements. There are instruments for taking the
dimensions of the living head, and with care and practice the untrained
observer may get at some of the more conspicuous, such as the relative
length and width of the skull as taken by hatters. This roughly indicates
the marked difference between dolichocephalic or long-headed peoples,
like the African negro, and brachycephalic or short-headed peoples, like
the Kalmuks and other Tartars. Attention should be paid also to the
degree of prognathism or projection of jaw, which in some races, as the
Australian, gives a “muzzle” unlike the English type. Where practicable,
native skeletons, and especially skulls, should be sent home for accurate
examination. How far this can be done depends much on the feeling of the
people; for while some tribes do not object to the removal of bones,
especially if not of their own kinsfolk, in other districts it is hardly
safe to risk the displeasure of the natives at the removal of the dead—a
feeling which is not only due to affection or respect, but even more to
terror of the vengeance of the ghosts whose relics have been disturbed.
In describing complexion, such terms as “brown” or “olive,” so often
used without further definition in books of travel, are too inexact
to be of use. Broca’s scale of colours (_see_ Final Report of British
Association Committee on Anthropometric Method. R. Anthrop. Institute,
1909) gives means of matching the tints of skin, hair and eyes; if
this is not forthcoming, the paint-box should be used to record them.
Among rude tribes, the colour of the skin is often so masked by paint
and dirt that the subject must be washed to see the real complexion.
Hair is also an important race-mark, varying as it does in colour from
flaxen to black, and also in form and size of the hairs; for instance
the American Indian’s coarse straight hair seems almost like a horse’s
tail in comparison with the Bushman’s hair with its natural frizz of tiny
spirals. Locks of hair should therefore be collected. The traveller,
however, will often find some difficulty in getting such specimens, from
the objection prevalent in the uncivilised world of letting any part of
the body, such as hair and nail-clippings, pass into strangers’ hands
lest they should be used to bewitch their former owner. Even in such
countries as Italy, to ask for a lock of a peasant-girl’s hair may lead
to the anthropologist being suspected of wishing to practise love-charms
on her.
Differences of temperament between nations are commonly to be noticed;
for instance, in comparing the shy and grave Malays with the boisterous
Africans. It is an interesting but difficult problem how far such
differences are due to inherited race-character, and how far to such
social influences as education and custom, and to the conditions of
life being cheerful or depressing. Nor has it yet been determined how
far emotions are differently expressed by different races, so that
it is worth while to notice particularly if their smiling, laughing,
frowning, weeping, blushing, etc., differ perceptibly from ours. The
acuteness of the senses of sight, hearing and smell, among wild peoples
is often remarkable, but this subject is one on which many accounts have
been given which require sifting. The skill of savages in path-finding
and tracking depends in great measure on this being one of their most
necessary arts of life to which they are trained from childhood, as, in
an inferior degree, gipsies are with us. The native hunter or guide’s
methods of following the track of an animal, or finding his own way
home by slight signs, such as bent twigs, and keeping general direction
through the forest by the sky and the sheltered sides of the trees, are
very interesting, though when learnt they lose much of their marvellous
appearance. The testing of the mental powers of various races is an
interesting research, for which good opportunities now and then occur.
It is established that some races are inferior to others in volume and
complexity of brain, Australians and Africans being in this respect
below Europeans, and the question is to determine what differences
of mind may correspond. Setting aside the contemptuous notions of
uneducated Europeans as to the minds of “black-fellows” or “niggers,”
what is required is, to compare the capacity of two races under similar
circumstances. This is made difficult by the fact of different training.
For instance, it would not be fair to compare the European sportsman’s
skill in woodcraft and hunting with that of the native hunter, who
has done nothing else since childhood; while, on the other hand, the
European, who has always lived among civilised people, owes to his
education so much of his superior reasoning powers, that it is mostly
impossible to get his mind into comparison with a savage’s. One of the
best tests is the progress made by native and European children in
colonial or missionary schools, as to which it is commonly stated that
children of African or American tribes learn as fast as or faster than
European children up to about twelve, but then fall behind. Even here it
is evident that other causes besides mental power may be at work, among
them the discouragement of the native children when they become aware of
their social inferiority. The subject is one of great importance, both
scientifically and as bearing on practical government.
Both as a matter of anthropology and of practical politics the
suitability of particular races to particular climates is of great
interest; sometimes this depends on one race being free from a disease
from which another suffers, as in the well-known immunity of negroes from
yellow fever. Or it may be evident that tribes have become acclimatised,
so as to resist influences which are deadly to strangers; for instance,
the Khonds flourish in the hills of Orissa, where not only Europeans but
the Hindus of the plains sicken of the malaria in the unhealthy season.
That such peculiarities of constitution are inherited and pass into the
nature of the race, is one of the keys to the obscure problem of the
origins of the various races of man as connected with their spread over
the globe. As yet this problem has not passed much beyond the stage of
collecting information, and no pains should be spared to get at facts
thus bearing on the history and development of the human species.
European medical men in districts inhabited by uncivilised races have
often made important observations of this kind, which they are glad to
communicate, though being occupied with professional work they do not
follow them up. In all races there occur abnormal varieties, which should
be observed with reference to their being hereditary, such as Albinos,
whose dead-whiteness is due to absence of pigment from the skin. Even
such tendencies as that to the occurrence of red hair where the ordinary
hue is black, or to melanism or diseased darkening of the skin, are worth
remark. It is essential to discover how far these descend from parents
to children, which is not the case with such alterations as that of the
Chinese feet, which, in spite of generations of cramping, continue of the
natural shape in the children.
_Language._—Before coming to actual language, remark may be made on the
natural communication of all races carried on by pantomimic signs without
spoken words. This is the “gesture language” to which we are accustomed
among the deaf-and-dumb, and which sometimes also comes into practical
use between tribes ignorant of one another’s languages, as on the
American prairies. It is so far the same in principle everywhere, that
the explorer visiting a new tribe, having to make frequent use of signs
to supplement his interpreter, or to eke out his own scanty knowledge
of the native language, soon adapts himself to the particular signs in
vogue. He will observe that, as to most common signs, such as asking for
food or drink, or beckoning or warning off a stranger, he understands
and is understood quite naturally. Signs which are puzzling at first
sight will prove on examination to be intelligible. Some are imitative
gestures cut short to save trouble, or they may have a meaning which was
once evident, like the American Indian sign for dog, made by trailing
two forked fingers, which does not show its meaning now, but did so in
past times, when one of the principal occupations of the dog was to trail
a pair of tent-poles attached to his back. Besides its practical use,
the gesture-language has much scientific interest from the perfect way
in which it exposes the working of the human mind, expressing itself by
a series of steps which are all intelligible. It will be particularly
observed that it has a strict syntax; for instance, that the quality or
adjective must always follow the subject or substantive it is applied to.
Thus, “the white box” may be expressed by imitating the shape and opening
of a box, and then touching a piece of linen or paper to show its colour;
but if the signs be put in the contrary order, as in the English words,
the native will be perplexed. It is worth while, in countries where
gesture-language is regularly used, to note down the usual signs and
their exact order.
In recording a vocabulary of a language not yet reduced to form in a
grammar and dictionary, the traveller may seek for equivalents of the
principal classes of words in his own grammar: verbs, substantives,
adjectives, pronouns, prepositions, etc. But the structure of the
language he is examining will probably differ from any he is familiar
with, the words actually used not coming precisely into these classes.
The best method is for the traveller to learn a simple sentence, such as
“the men are coming,” and to ascertain what changes will convert them
into “the men are going,” “the women are coming.” He thus arrives at the
real elements of the language and the method of combining them. Having
arrived at this point, he will be able to collect and classify current
ideas, such as the following:—
_Actions_—as stand, walk, sleep, eat, see, make, etc.
_Natural Objects and Elements_—as sun, moon, star, mountain,
river, fire, water, etc.
_Man and other Animals_—as man, woman, boy, girl, deer, buck,
doe, eagle, eagles, etc.
_Parts of Body_—as head, arm, leg, skin, bone, blood, etc.
_Trees and Plants._
_Numerals_ (noticing how far they extend, and whether referring
to fingers).
_Instruments and Appliances_—as spear, bow, hatchet, needle,
pot, boat, cord, house, roof, &c.
_Arts and Pastimes_—as picture, paint, carving, statue, song,
dance, toy, game, riddle, &c.
_Family Relationships_ (as defined by native custom).
_Social and Legal Terms_—as chief, freeman, slave, witness,
punishment, fine, &c.
_Religious Terms_—as soul, spirit, dream, vision, sacrifice,
penance, &c.
_Moral Terms_—as truth, falsehood, kindness, treachery, love,
&c.
_Abstract Terms_, relating to time, space, colour, shape,
power, cause, &c.
The interjections used in any language can be noted, whether they are
organic expressions of emotion, like _oh!_ _ugh!_ _ur-r-r!_ or sounds
the nature of which is not so evident. Also imitative words which name
animals from their cries, or express sounding objects or actions by their
sounds, are common in all languages, and strike the stranger. Examples
of such are _kah-kah_ for a crow, _twonk_ for a frog, _pututu_ for a
shell-trumpet, _haitschu_ for to sneeze. When such imitative words are
noticed passing into other meanings where the connection with sound
is not obvious, they become interesting facts in the development of
language; as, to take a familiar example from English, the imitative verb
to _puff_ becomes a term for light pastry and metaphorically blown-up
praise.
It is only when the traveller has a long or close acquaintance with a
tribe, that he is able to deal satisfactorily with the vocabulary and
structure of their language. To be able to carry on a conversation in
broken sentences is not enough, for an actual grammar and dictionary is
required to enable philologists to make out the structure and affinities
with other languages. It used to be customary to send out English lists
of thirty or forty ordinary words to have equivalents put to them in
native languages. As every detail of this kind is worth having, these
lists cannot be said to be quite worthless, but they go hardly any way
toward what is really wanted. They are liable to frequent mistakes, as
when the barbarian, from whom the white man is trying to get the term
“foot,” answers with a word meaning “my leg,” which is carefully taken
down and printed. Such poor vocabularies cannot even be relied on to
show whether a language belongs to a particular family, for the very
word which seems to prove this may be borrowed. Thus, in various African
vocabularies, there appears the word _sapun_ (or something similar) with
the meaning of _soap_; but this is a Latin word which has spread far
and wide from one country to another, and proves nothing as to original
connection between languages which have adopted it. While it is best
not to under-rate the difficulty of collecting such information as to
a little-known dialect as will be really of service to philology, it
must be remembered that travellers still often have opportunities of
preserving relics of languages, or at any rate special dialects, which
are on the point of dying out unrecorded. Where no proper grammar and
dictionary has been compiled, it is often possible to find some European
or some interpreter fairly conversant with the language, with whose aid
a vocabulary may be written out and sentences analysed grammatically,
which, when read over to intelligent natives and criticised by them,
may be worked into good linguistic material. It is worth while to pay
attention to native names of plants, minerals, &c., as well as of places
and persons, for these are often terms carrying significant meaning. Thus
_ipecacuanha_ is stated by Martius to be _i-pe-caa-guéne_, which in the
Tupi language of Brazil, signifies “the little wayside plant which makes
vomit.”
_Arts and Sciences._—The less civilised a nation is, the ruder are its
tools and contrivances; but these are often worked with curious skill
in getting excellent results with the roughest means. Stone implements
have now been so supplanted by iron that they are not easily found in
actual use. If a chance of seeing them occurs, as, for instance, among
some Californian tribe, who still chip out arrow-heads of obsidian, it is
well to get a lesson in the curious and difficult art of stone-implement
making. In general, tools and implements differing from those of the
civilised world, even down to the pointed stick for root-digging and
planting, are worth collecting, and to learn their use from a skilled
hand often brings into view remarkable peculiarities. This is the case
with many cudgel or boomerang-like weapons thrown at game, slings or
spear-throwers for hurling darts to greater distances than they can be
sent by hand, blow-tubes for killing birds, and even the bow-and-arrow,
which in northern Asia and America shows the ancient Scythian or Tartar
form, having to be bent inside out to string it. Though fire is now
practically made almost everywhere with flint and steel or lucifers,
in some districts, as South Africa or Polynesia, people still know the
primitive method of fire-making by rubbing or drilling a pointed stick
into another piece of wood. Europeans find difficulty in learning this
old art, which requires some knack. As is well known to sportsmen,
different districts have their special devices for netting, trapping
and other ways of taking game and fish, some of which are well worth
notice, such as spearing or shooting fish under water, artificial decoys,
and the spring-traps set with bent boughs, which are supposed to have
first suggested the idea of the bow. While the use of dogs in hunting
is found in most parts of the world, there is the utmost variety of
breeds and training. Agriculture in its lower stages is carried on by
simple processes; but interesting questions arise as to the origin of
its grain and fruits, and the alterations in them by transplanting into
a new climate and by ages of cultivation. Thus in Chili there is found
wild what botanists consider the original potato; but while maize was a
staple of both Americas at the time of Columbus, its original form has no
more been identified than that of wheat in the Old World. The cookery of
all nations is in principle known to the civilised European; but there
are special preparations to notice, such as bucaning or drying meat on
a hurdle above a slow fire, broiling kebabs or morsels of meat on the
skewer in the East, etc. Many peoples have something peculiar in the way
of beverages, such as the chewed Polynesian _kava_, or the South American
_maté_ sucked through a tube. Especially fermented liquors have great
variety, such as the _kumiss_ from mares’ milk in Tartary, the _pombe_ or
millet-beer of Africa, and the _kvass_ or rye-beer of Russia. The rudest
pottery made by hand, not thrown on the wheel, is less and less often met
with, but ornamentation traceable to its being moulded on baskets is to
be seen; and calabashes, joints of bamboo, and close-plaited baskets are
used for water-vessels, and even to boil in. Among the curious processes
of metal-working, contrasting with those of modern Europe, though
often showing skill of their own, may be mentioned the simple African
smelting-forge by which iron-ore is reduced with charcoal in a hole in
the ground, the draught being supplied by a pair of skins for bellows.
In the far East a kind of air-pump is used, of which the barrels are
hollowed logs. The Chinese art of patching cast-iron with melted metal
surprises a European, and the Hindu manufacture of native steel (_wootz_)
is a remarkable process. No nation now exists absolutely in the Bronze
Age, but this alloy still occupies something of its old place in Oriental
industry. As an example of the methods still to be seen, may be mentioned
the Burmese bell-founding, which is done, not in a hollow mould of sand,
but by what in Europe is called the _cire perdue_ process, the model of
the bell being made in beeswax and imbedded in the sand-mould, the wax
being melted and the hot metal taking its place. The whole history of
machinery is open to the traveller, who still meets with every stage
of its development, from savagery upward. He sees, for instance, every
tilling implement from the stake with fire-hardened point, and the hoe
of crooked branch, up to the modern forms of plough. In like manner he
can trace the line from the rudest stone-crushers or rubbers for grinding
seed or grain up to the rotating hand-mills or querns still common in
the East, and surviving even in Scotland. From time to time some special
contrivance may be seen near its original home, as in South America
the curious plaited tube for wringing out the juice from cassava, or
the net hammock which still retains its native Haitian name _hamaca_.
Architecture still preserves in different regions interesting early
stages of development, from the rudest breakwinds, or beehive huts of
wattled boughs, up to houses of logs and hewn timber, structures of mud
and adobes, and masonry of rough or hewn stone. Even the construction
of the bough-hut or the log-house often has its peculiarities in the
arrangements of posts and rafters. Among the modes of construction
which interest the student of architectural history is building with
rough unhewn stones. Many examples of “rude stone monuments” are to be
seen on our own moors and hills. The most familiar kinds are _dolmens_
(_i.e._, “table-stones”), formed by upright stones bearing a cap-stone;
they were burial-places, and analogous to the cists or chambers of rough
slabs within burial-mounds. Less clearly explicable are the single
standing-stones or _menhirs_ (_i.e._, “long-stones”), and the circles of
stones or _cromlechs_. Ancient and obscure in meaning as such monuments
are in Europe, there are regions where their construction or use comes
down to modern times, especially in India, where among certain tribes
the deposit of ashes of the dead in dolmens, the erection of menhirs
in memory of great men, and even sacrifice in stone circles, are
well-known customs. The traveller may also sometimes have opportunities
of observing the ancient architectural construction by fitting together
many-sided stones into what are sometimes called Cyclopean walls, a
kind of building which seems to have preceded the use of squared blocks,
fastened together with clamps or with mortar. Vaulting or roofing by
means of courses of stones projecting inwards one course above the other
(much as children build with their wooden bricks), so as to form what
architects call a “false arch,” is an ancient mode of construction found
in various parts of the world where the “true arch” with its keystone
has not superseded it. It often appears that rude nations have copied
the more artistic buildings of higher neighbours, or inherited ancient
architectural traditions. Thus traces of Indian architecture have found
their way into the islands of the Eastern Archipelago, and hollow squares
of mud-built houses round a courtyard in northern Africa have their plan
from the Asiatic caravanserai. In boat-building some primitive forms, as
the “dug-out,” hollowed by the aid of fire from a tree-trunk, and the
bark-canoe, are found in such distant regions that we cannot guess where
they had their origin. When, however, it comes to the outrigger-canoe,
this belongs to a district which, though very large, is still limited, so
that we may at least guess whereabouts it first came into use, and it is
important to note every island to which it has since travelled. So there
is much in the peculiar build and rig of Malay prahus, Chinese junks,
etc., which is worth noting as part of the history of ship-building.
This may suffice to give a general idea of the kind of information as to
the local arts which it is worth while to collect, and to illustrate by
drawings and photographs of objects too large to bring away.