OLD CHAIRS AND SOFAS
There is a charm about old furnishings that cannot fail to appeal to all
lovers of the quaint and interesting, and a study of their
characteristics is a diversion well worth while. Old-time cabinet-makers
understood the value of bestowing upon details the same consideration
they gave main features, and, as a result, their work shows that harmony
that gives to it an interest not found in later types, and which, more
than anything else, has helped bring it into prominence in the equipment
of modern dwellings. While this is true of all colonial fittings, it is
especially true of the chair, for this article more than any other
depicts the gradual betterment of rudely formed beginnings culminating
in the work of the three master craftsmen, Chippendale, Hepplewhite, and
Sheraton, whose designs, even to-day, serve as an inspiration to
high-class cabinet-makers.
In the early days of the colonies, chairs were scarce appurtenances,
and the few used, generally not more than three in number in each home,
and known as forms, were very rudely constructed, being in reality
stools or benches, fashioned after the English designs then in vogue.
Later, these developed into the high-backed settles, which are so much
used in a modified form to-day.
[Illustration: PLATE XXIV.--Queen Anne, Fiddle Back; Queen Anne, stuffed
chair; Dutch Chair, carved; Empire Lyre-backed Roundabout on Chippendale
lines, 1825.]
By the middle of the seventeenth century, chairs had come into more
common usage, the type then in favor being strong and solid of frame,
with seat and back covered with durable leather or Turkey work.
Generally, the legs and stretches were plain, though sometimes the legs
and back posts were turned.
Specimens of the turned variety, which are the first seats that really
could be termed chairs, are very scarce to-day, the best examples being
found at Pilgrim Hall at Plymouth, in the home of Hon. John D. Long at
Hingham, Massachusetts, in the Heard house at Ipswich, Massachusetts,
and in the Waters collection at Salem, where one specimen shows a
covering which is a reproduction, having been fashioned to exactly match
in design and texture the original one it replaced when that one wore
out.
The year 1700 marked the introduction of the slat-back chair, which
enjoyed a long period of popularity. The number of slats at the back,
characteristic of this type, varied with the time of making, the first
specimens showing but two, while later types showed five. These chairs
were solid and strong of frame, and in Pennsylvania were made curved to
fit the back, affording a comfortable support. They included, in
addition to ordinary chairs, armchairs, and it was to an armchair of
this make that Benjamin Franklin affixed rockers, thus inventing the
first American rocking-chair and inaugurating a fashion that has never
waned in popularity. This first rocking-chair and its contemporaries,
which did not antedate the Revolutionary War by any great number of
years, had rockers that projected as far in the front as they did at the
back,--a peculiarity that makes them easily recognizable to-day. Later,
this objection was remedied, and the present type of rocking-chair came
into fashion.
[Illustration: PLATE XXV.--Chippendale, Lord Timothy Dexter's
Collection, H. P. Benson; French Chair, showing Empire influence;
Flemish Chair; Banister-back Chair.]
From 1710 to 1720 the banister-back chair was much used, though it never
enjoyed equal favor with the slat-back type. Instead of the horizontal
slats typical of the earlier model, the banister-back chair showed
upright spindles, usually four in number, and generally flat, though
sometimes rounded at the back. Its seat, like that of the slat back,
was of rush, and it was fashioned of either hard or soft wood, and
almost always painted black. One interesting example of this make is
found at "Highfield," the ancestral home of the Adams family at Byfield,
Massachusetts, having been brought here in the early days of the
dwelling's erection by Anne Sewall Longfellow, who came here the bride
of Abraham Adams, and who brought the chair herself from her old home
across the fields that divided the two estates, so that no harm would
befall it. It has been carefully treasured by her descendants, and
to-day occupies its original resting place by the side of the wide old
fireplace, where, on the night before the Battle of Bunker Hill, leaden
bullets used in that historic encounter were cast.
Slightly later than these types came the Dutch chair, sometimes severely
plain in design, and again pierced and curiously carved. One excellent
example of this model, formerly owned by Moll Pitcher, the famous
soothsayer of Lynn, who told one's fate by the teacup at her home at
High Rock, is now preserved in a Chestnut Street dwelling at Salem, and
shows the straight legs and straight foot of the best class of the
Dutch type, and the usual rush seat. Most Dutch specimens found their
way to Dutch settlements, though many were brought to New England direct
from northern Holland.
Easy chairs which came into style not long after the slat-back model,
proved the most comfortable type yet invented, and served as a welcome
variation from the straight and stiff-backed chairs up to that time in
favor. They were stuffed at back and sides, and covered with patch or
material of like nature. Owing to the amount of material which was used
in stuffing and covering them, their cost was considerable, varying from
one to five pounds, according to the style and quality of covering used.
The most common and popular chairs of the eighteenth century were those
of the Windsor type, manufactured in this country as early as 1725, and
deriving their name from the town in England where they originated. The
story of their origin is most interesting. The reigning George of that
day, the second of his name, saw in a shepherd's cottage a chair which
he greatly admired. He bought it to use as a model, thus setting the
stamp of kingly approval on this type, and bringing it into immediate
favor. It is not related what color he had his chairs painted, but
the general coloring employed was either black or dark green, though
some chairs were not painted at all. The finish of the back of this type
was varied to suit different fancies, some few having a comblike
extension on top as a head-rest, while others had a curved or bowlike
horizontal top piece, like a fan. These types originated the names comb
back and fan back, by which Windsor chairs of these types are known.
American manufacturers in general copied the English styles, though they
also developed several variations. Many American Windsors, particularly
the fan backs, are equipped with rockers, the date of their manufacture
coming after the Revolution.
[Illustration: PLATE XXVI.--Chippendale Arm Chair, showing straight,
square legs; Chippendale Chair; Chippendale, one of a set of six,
showing Rosette design; Chippendale Arm Chair with Cabriole legs, Ball
and Claw feet.]
But Windsor chairs, popular and fine as they were, by no means were the
best type developed in this century, for this period marked a great
change in the history of cabinet-making, resulting in the development of
wonderful designs, exquisitely blended and finished. First on the list
of the new master craftsmen was Chippendale, who in 1753 issued his
first book of designs, and whose models were given first consideration
for more than thirty years. Then, in 1789, followed Hepplewhite, and two
years later came Sheraton, while lesser lights, such as the Brothers
Adam, Manwaring, Ince, and Mayhew, all contributed their share to the
betterment of chair manufacture.
The chair seems to have been Chippendale's favorite piece of furniture,
and in its design he has blended the finest points in French, Dutch, and
Chinese patterns. His first chairs showed Dutch influence, and for these
he used the cabriole leg, greatly improving its curving, with the Dutch
or ball-and-claw foot, the latter more frequently than the former. His
chair seats were broad and flat, and in his backs he disregarded the
usual Dutch types, his uprights generally joining the top at an angle,
and his top piece being usually bow-shaped. His backs were a little
broader at the top than at the bottom, and he used the central splat
carved and pierced.
Next, his chairs showed Louis the Fifteenth characteristics, notably in
the splats, which were often handsomely carved and pierced. During this
time he produced his ribbon-back chair, though his best chairs, showing
this influence, were upholstered armchairs, with legs terminating in
French scroll feet. Later, he introduced in his chairs Gothic and
Chinese features, even though the backs still preserved the Dutch and
French features. Finally, the details of the several features became
much mixed, and at length resulted in a predominance of Chinese
characteristics. Most of his chairs were done in mahogany, which was a
favorite wood in his day, and his skill is especially displayed in the
wonderful carving which is typical of much of his work. Not only are his
chairs excellently proportioned, but they are so substantially built
that even to-day, after more than one hundred and fifty years' usage,
they show no sign of wear.
[Illustration: PLATE XXVII.--Empire Sofa; Cornucopia Sofa; Sofa in Adams
style, about 1800.]
Not a little of his work found its way to New England homes, many fine
specimens at one time gracing the dwelling of "Lord" Timothy Dexter,
Newburyport's eccentric character, who made his fortune by selling
warming pans to the heathen, who used the covers for scooping sugar, and
the pans for sirup. His home was filled with quantities of beautiful
furniture, including many excellent Chippendale chairs.
Hepplewhite, the second of the master cabinet-makers, succeeded
Chippendale in popular favor in 1789, and his furniture, while much
lighter and consequently less durable than that of his predecessor,
showed a beauty of form and a wealth of ornamentation that rendered it
most artistic. He employed not only carving of the most delicate and
exquisite nature, but inlay and painting as well, introducing japanning
after the style of Vernis-Martin work.
The shield or heart-shaped back is one of the characteristics of his
chairs, though he also used oval backs and sometimes even square backs.
They are all very graceful and delicate, with carved drapery, and many
of the shield-shaped type show for decoration the three feathers of the
Prince of Wales, Hepplewhite being one of the Prince's party when
sentiment ran strong during the illness of George III. Other decorations
employed by him were the urn, husk and ear of wheat. The wood he
generally used was mahogany, though occasionally he made use of painted
satinwood.
[Illustration: PLATE XXVIII.--Sheraton, mahogany frame, about 1800;
Sheraton with solid arms and straight, slender legs; Sheraton, about
1790. Note the graceful curve of the arms.]
Following close upon the heels of Hepplewhite came Sheraton, the last of
the three great masters in cabinet-work. His designs were delicate, but
strong, and generally his chair backs were firmer than those of
Hepplewhite. When he had exhausted other forms of decoration, he
indulged his fancy for brilliant coloring, mixing it with both inlay and
carving. Later he embellished his work with the white and gold of the
French style, finally employing features of the Napoleonic period,
such as brass mounts and brass inlay. His last seats show the
influence of the Empire type, which came into vogue in the early days of
the nineteenth century, and the curved piece which he brought in about
1800 served as a model for nearly a century, though it was not adorned
with the brass mounts that he had intended.
His greatest glory as a constructor lies in his skillful workmanship and
his excellent choice of woods,--satinwood, tulipwood, rosewood,
applewood, and occasionally mahogany, being his selection; and as a
decorator in the color and arrangement of his marquetry, as well as in
the fact that he never allowed consideration of ornament to affect his
work as a whole.
Among the chairs he fashioned was one that has come to be known in this
country as the Martha Washington chair, from the fact that a specimen of
this type was owned at Mount Vernon. Several excellent examples of his
chairs are found at "Hey Bonnie Hall," in Bristol, Rhode Island, one of
them being the chair in which John Adams is said to have died.
Chairs of all types are found in any number of old-time homes, those in
Salem being as representative as any, for to this old seaport more than
to any other, in proportion, rare furnishings were brought. Many of the
pieces are of historic interest, such as the old-time chair of Flemish
make, brought over in the ship _Angel Gabriel_, which was wrecked off
the coast of Maine; much of its cargo was recovered, including this old
chair, which was later brought to Salem in another ship. Another fine
old specimen is the armchair, for many years the prized possession of
Hawthorne, and an heirloom in his family, which he presented to the
Waters family, in whose possession it now is.
With the passing of Sheraton, Empire models held full sway, and, while
some of these were comfortable and graceful, the majority were massive,
stiff, and extreme in style. Early nineteenth-century chairs
manufactured in America are of this type, some of them of rosewood, some
of mahogany, and some painted, while many are of mahogany veneer.
But while chairs were the most common seats in the colonies, they were
not the only ones, for old-time homes were supplied with sofas as well.
To be sure, these did not come into use until many years after the
advent of the chair, the time of their appearance being about the year
1760; the majority shown are the work of the master cabinet-makers.
Sheraton models are those most commonly found here, though the earliest
specimens are of Chippendale manufacture, excellent examples of his work
being still found, many of them characterized by Louis XV features. A
special design of Chippendale's much in favor was "The Darby and Joan"
sofa, in reality a double seat, which model, as well as many others that
became very popular, was never shown in his catalogue.
[Illustration: Plate XXIX.--Sheraton, about 1800; Sofa, about 1820;
Sofa, about 1820, winged legs.]
Sheraton sofas came in vogue about 1800, their graceful designs and
handsome carving making them at once favorites. Many of these showed
eight legs, though later, when his designs became heavier and more
elaborate, only four legs were used. The coverings of these later
specimens were generally haircloth, fastened with brass nails.
The Brothers Adam also made some of the sofas found here, their designs
showing a peculiar slanting or curved leg which is known as the Adam
leg, and which is also characteristic of some of Sheraton's pieces.
About 1820 what was known as the Cornucopia sofa came into style, the
carving at the arms showing horns of plenty, which design was often
repeated in the top-rail, while the hollow made by the curve of the
decoration was filled with hard, round pillows, known as "squabs."
Contemporaneous with this type was the Empire sofa, with winged legs and
claw feet, often covered with haircloth. One example of this model,
exquisitely carved, is in the possession of a Salem family. But whatever
their type or characteristic, the old-time chair and sofa are
distinctive, and it is a tribute to their worth that in the equipment of
modern homes designers are reverting to them for inspiration. Likewise
it is with relief that we welcome them, after so long harboring the ugly
monstrosities that followed in favor the Empire types.