THE MATERIALS USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF A HOUSE.
In this country walls of houses are usually built of brick, stone,
timber, or concrete, of which the first two are the most important.
Timber is, owing to its inflammability, only allowed to be used in
towns under special restrictions. Bricks and stones are bonded together
and imbedded in mortar or cement.
There are several kinds of =bonds= in brickwork, of which the strongest
is the _English_. This consists of alternate courses of “headers” and
“stretchers,” the former being bricks carried through the wall from
face to back, the short end showing on the face, and the latter bricks
laid lengthwise along the face of the wall. Hence the wall is held
together in every direction. A _Flemish bond_ consists of alternate
headers and stretchers in the same course. It is used where a specially
smooth wall is desired, but is not so strong as the English bond.
=Bricks= are generally of a uniform size, of 9 inches in length by
4½ in width and 2-3∕4 inches in thickness. Those bricks which are
heaviest and hardest are generally the most durable; bricks of good
quality when knocked together give a clear ringing sound.
The relative conductivity for heat of brick as compared with other
materials, is shown in the following table, from Galton, which gives
the units of heat transmitted per square foot per hour by a plate 1
inch thick, the two surfaces differing in temperature 1° Fahr.:—
_Stone—ordinary free stone_ 13·68
_Glass_ 6·6
_Brickwork_ 4·83
_Plaster_ 3·86
_Fir planks_ 1·37
_Brick dust_ 1·33
It is evident that in this respect, brick walls compare very favourably
with stone walls, and are much more economical of heat. Increased
conductivity of a material may be counteracted by increased thickness.
Brick is very porous, as shewn by its power to absorb moisture. A good
brick can absorb from 10 to 20 per cent. of its weight of water; while
good granite only takes up 1∕2 per cent., sandstone usually from 8 to
10 per cent., marble only a trace, and Portland limestone 13½ per
cent.
Being porous, brick allows the passage of a considerable amount of air,
unless its pores are occupied by moisture. The following table, from
Galton, shews the number of cubic feet of air which every hour pass
through a square yard of wall-surface of equal thicknesses, built of
the following materials, there being a temperature of 72° Fahr. on one
side the wall, and of 40° on the other:—
_Wall built of brick_ 7·9 _cubic feet_.
„ _quarried limestone_ 6·5 “
„ _sandstone_ 4·7 “
„ _limestone_ 10·1 “
„ _mud_ 14·4 “
=Mortar= should consist of clean sharp sand and slaked lime, usually in
the proportion of three of the former to one of the latter. Grouting,
or liquid mortar, is merely ordinary mortar to which a larger quantity
of water has been added. It is used for filling up the crevices between
the brickwork about every fourth course, and is required to a greater
extent in stone work, owing to the difficulty in filling up spaces left
by inequalities in the stone.
The sand used in mortar should be free from small stones. It should not
contain any earthy or clayey matters, as these greatly diminish the
adhesive quality of the mortar, which depends on the combination of the
sand and lime. All the sand used in a building should be washed, unless
it is perfectly clean, in order to remove impurities. Many builders use
an inferior mortar, in which other materials, such as “road scrapings,”
are substituted for sand. Sand taken from the sea-shore is unfit for
making mortar, as the salt contained in it is apt to deliquesce and
weaken the mortar.
=Lime= is obtained by burning chalk or limestone in a kiln. Thus CaCO₃
= CaO + CO₂. There are three kinds of lime: (1) Fat or quicklime, used
for internal plastering, (2) stone lime, used for ordinary building
work, and (3) hydraulic lime, used for building in damp situations. The
last named contains a quantity of silicates, and sets under water.
Common mortar crumbles away, if laid under water before it has had time
to harden.
=Portland cement= is an artificial cement, of a dark grey colour. It
is made by grinding chalk, mixing it with blue clay or river-mud in
certain proportions, and then burning it in a kiln and afterwards
grinding it to a fine powder. It is used, mixed with sand, for external
plastering (“compoing”) of walls, for making concrete, or instead of
lime for making mortar if extra strength is required.
=Compo= consists of Portland cement and sand, and is used for covering
walls when an impervious smooth surface is required, and for keeping
out rain. It is laid on in two coats. The first or rough coat 3∕4 inch
thick, is composed of one part cement to 5 parts compo sand, _i.e._
coarse sand mixed with fine beach. The outer or fine coat is composed
of two parts fine or washed sand to one part cement. To “render”
or “compo” a wall is to cover it with this material. The internal
plastering of a chimney flue is called “pargetting.”
=Concrete= is of two kinds, lime or cement concrete. It is composed of
three parts broken ballast or large beach, two parts of sand, and one
part of lime or cement. Lime concrete has no resisting strength, and is
only used for surrounding drain-pipes, or where no great strength is
required.
=Stone= varies very greatly in character. It is uncommon for the whole
thickness of the walls of a house to be built of stone; usually there
is merely a facing of stone and a backing of brickwork. If good stone
is not available, the less it is used the better.
The stone chosen should be durable, and able to resist the action
of the sulphuric, sulphurous, and carbonic acids absorbed from the
atmosphere, and brought in contact with it by means of rain. The stone
of which a considerable part of the Houses of Parliament consists is
dolomite, a double carbonate of lime and magnesia. The acid fumes in
the air produce on its surface sulphate of magnesium, which is washed
away in successive layers.
If the stone presents any stratification, it should be laid in the
wall in the same position as that in which it was originally deposited
in the quarry. Thus, any planes of stratification will be horizontal,
and the scaling off by the action of frost and rain is minimised.
Comparatively homogeneous stones, such as granite and millstone-grit,
can be laid in any position. In testing the character of any stone, the
least porous, densest, and most resistent to crushing, will as a rule
be the most durable.
The chief difficulty in the use of stone for the walls of houses, is
that of keeping out the wet. To obviate this, stone-houses are often
built of great thickness, and are consequently cooler in summer and
warmer in winter.
In and near large towns brick is chiefly used for walls of houses,
and stone employed only for window-sills, columns, steps, etc. It is
even more important in these cases to carefully select the stone, as
the parts where it is placed are those most exposed to the weather. If
a soft, friable freestone is used, after a sharp frost large scales
are seen falling off in flakes, owing to the freezing and subsequent
thawing of the moisture in the stone.
_Portland stone_ is the best-wearing stone to be had in the
neighbourhood of London. _Bath stone_ is also considerably used, but it
varies greatly in quality, and should be very carefully selected. For
landing-steps and paving, _Yorkshire stone_ is extensively used, but
artificial cement pavings are replacing it to some extent. Most kinds
of stone can only be economically used near the quarries from which
they are derived.
The _Slate_ used for roofs is an altered form of clay, possessing a
laminated structure. The ease with which it splits along the planes,
renders it peculiarly suitable for this purpose. The Welsh slates are
considered the best.
=Terra-cotta= is made from certain kinds of clay, mixed with glass,
pottery or sand; then ground up, strained, and kneaded; and lastly
thrown into moulds and baked in a kiln.
=Iron and Wood= have occasionally been employed alone in building
houses. The former, owing to its good conducting powers for heat, is
cold in winter and hot in summer; while the latter becomes rotten
from exposure to wet, and is also very combustible. Corrugated
iron buildings lined with wood are also employed, but are not very
satisfactory.
For roofs, slates or tiles are the materials most frequently employed;
but occasionally lead and corrugated iron are used, also thatch in
country places, and tarred felt for temporary buildings.
=Lead= is the most suitable metallic covering for roofs, as it
is durable and easily worked. It is, however, heavy and demands
considerable strength in the timbers by which it is supported.
=Galvanized iron= has also been largely used. It is cheaper and lighter
than lead. Both lead and zinc require very careful laying if they are
to be weather-tight.
=Thatch= protects the interior of a house well from extremes of heat
and cold.