SUSPENDED IMPURITIES OF AIR.
Pure air being essential to life and health, it is important to
ascertain the character and origin of the impurities of air.
Innumerable substance—in the condition of gases, vapours, or solid
particles—constantly pass into it, and deteriorate its quality. To
counteract this, certain purifying agencies are at work, the mechanism
of which will be considered hereafter.
Impurities are much commoner and more abundant in the air of
enclosed spaces than in the external air, as the natural processes
of purification cannot be brought to bear so efficiently in the
former case. In sick rooms, hospitals, etc., impurities arise, which
are not present where only healthy people are collected. The most
important impurities are derived from the respiration of animals,
and the combustion of gases, candles, or lamps in rooms, from sewage
emanations, from various occupations, and the air of marshes, mines,
church-yards, etc. These may be classed under two heads—_solid_
and _gaseous_; the solid being simply suspended in the air in a
finely divided condition, or floated about in a coarser condition
by currents of air. They are revealed in an atmosphere in which one
did not previously suspect their existence, by the passage of a beam
of sunlight. Light itself is invisible, but its course is rendered
visible by the particles from which its rays are reflected. Tyndall
demonstrated the presence of minute particulate matter in the air of
all ordinary situations, and showed that a large proportion of this
matter consists of germs (microbes). In his experiments with vapours
in closed tubes, floating matter was always revealed by a concentrated
beam of light, even though the air entering the tube had been first
drawn through sulphuric acid and through a strong solution of caustic
potash. If this air was then passed through a red-hot platinum tube and
across folds of red-hot platinum gauze, it became _optically empty_;
the floating matter had been burnt, and disappeared. It was therefore
organic. In subsequent experiments, he took organic solutions, as of
meat, turnip, and the like, and rendered them sterile by repeated
boiling. They remained sterile when kept in air-tight vessels or
in vessels covered with a thick layer of cotton-wool, which would
efficiently filter any entering air; but when exposed to the air,
they invariably became turbid, owing to an enormous multiplication of
germs. Clearly, therefore, air contains organic, matter, and much of
this organic matter consists of living germs. Most of these germs are
comparatively harmless under ordinary conditions. They are, however,
the causes of fermentation, putrefaction, and all the processes of
decomposition which occur in organic substances. The importance of the
exclusion of the dust of air has received an important application
in _Lister’s antiseptic_ and in the _aseptic_ system of treatment
of wounds. Formerly accidents and operations were frequently fatal;
now vast numbers of lives are saved by improved surgical methods.
The original _antiseptic_ method acted on the supposition that some
germicidal application to the wounds was necessary; now it is realized
that if, during the operation, germs are not allowed to remain in the
wound, all that is afterwards necessary to insure rapid recovery is
that they shall be prevented from entering the wound from the external
air during its process of recovery. By the adoption of such means,
large wounds can be made to heal, without the formation of a drop of
“pus” or “matter.” (See also page 110.)
=Suspended Matters= are _mineral_ or _organic_, the two being commonly
associated together. The _mineral matters_ consist largely of fine
particles of common salt, silica, clay, iron rust, dried mud, chalk,
coal, soot, and similar substances. Not uncommonly the mineral
particles are coated by, or mixed with, organic matter, the comparative
lightness of the organic matter enabling the mineral matter to float
about more easily. The objection to dust is thus intensified, for
not only is it irritating to the respiratory passages and generally
disagreeable, but it carries with it putrescent and possibly morbific
particles. The prevention of infectious diseases resolves itself
largely into means for preventing the inhalation of dust.
=Organic Suspended Matters= in the =open air= are, most commonly,
minute fragments of wood and straw, dried horse litter, fragments of
insects, the spores and pollen of plants, and microscopic plants and
animals. In addition, there is the putrescent organic matter resulting
from respiration and other organic functions.
=Indoors=, the air commonly contains, in addition, fragments of cotton,
linen, silk, or other fibres, fragments of vegetables, starch cells,
soot, charred wood, splinters from floors, etc.
=In Sick Rooms=, products of the morbid conditions may be evolved;
thus, pus-cells, particles from the expectoration, blood cells, fat
particles, epithelium, or the special germs or microbes to which
infectious diseases are due. These are disturbed by the movements
of persons, causing the dust to rise; and thus the infection of
consumption, and of the acute infectious diseases, is frequently spread.
Flies and other winged insects are important auxiliaries in the
diffusion of disease-carrying particles. Receiving some morbid
secretions on their limbs, or other parts of their bodies, they have
occasionally been the means of spreading erysipelas in hospitals, and
glanders in veterinary stables. The specific contagia of cholera,
enteric fever, and summer diarrhœa are occasionally conveyed to food by
flies which have previously alighted on latrines or privies or other
places where the stools of such patients have been deposited (page
281). The excreta of flies, which are not uncommonly deposited on
food, or on articles of furniture, have occasionally being found to
contain the minute ova of intestinal worms.
=Effects of Suspended Matters.=—The inhalation of dust is followed by
deleterious effects. We may divide the solid substances inhaled as dust
into three kinds:—dead substances, living substances, and the contagia
(microbes or germs) of various diseases.
1. =Dead Substances= inhaled for a prolonged period in various
occupations are a common cause of premature death. The _potter_ draws
into his lungs a fine silicious dust, which irritates his lungs, and
finally produces a fatal disease, known as =potter’s asthma=.
=Mill-stone Cutters= and =Stone Masons= inhale the fine particles of
stone given off from the material which is being chiselled. These
produce serious disease of the lungs.
=Pearl Cutters= inhale fine particles of pearl-dust, and as they
generally work in close rooms, and the dust is light and tasteless,
serious disease of the lungs results.
=Sand-paper Makers= inhale minute portions of glass and sand; and
=needle and knife grinders= are exposed to similar dangers, and at one
time the mortality among them was frightful. It has greatly diminished
since the introduction of wet grinding, the use of steam fans, and
wearing of respirators.
=Hemp and Flax Dressers= inhale a dust which is peculiarly irritating.
=Workers in rags and in wool= suffer in like manner from dust. The
dust from fleeces of wool, and especially from the alpaca fleece, has
produced in many cases (in the neighbourhood of Bradford and elsewhere)
an acute disease (anthrax) proving fatal in a few days. The spores
of this disease are very persistent of life (page 274), and remain
active for mischief for months after the death of the animal which had
suffered from it. The fleece can be disinfected by steam; and the use
of fans for diverting the dust created during “sorting” minimises the
danger from it.
The =miller= commonly suffers from a form of asthma, not so severe
as potter’s asthma, as the particles in this case are not equally
irritating. The =hairdresser= is liable to inhale the short fragments
of hair cut by the scissors, and the mortality of this class of workers
is high. =Miners= in coal have a surprisingly low mortality, when
accidents are excluded from the calculation; except in South Wales,
where it is slightly higher than for all males in the same district.
Coal dust is relatively free from sharp angles, and is therefore not
so irritating to the lungs as metallic dust. Consumption is relatively
rare among miners.
=The Fur-dyer= is very prone to suffer from the dust of the dyed furs,
great irritation and disease resulting in many cases.
=Artificial Flower-makers=, and those engaged in colouring arsenical
wall-papers, suffer from the inhalation of arsenical vapours, as well
as from the irritating effects of its absorption by the skin. These are
now seldom seen, owing to the almost complete abandonment of the use of
arsenic for wall-pigments.
=Cigar-makers= are liable to have their lungs irritated by inhalation
of the dust of the tobacco-leaf; and may suffer from tobacco-poisoning.
=Workers in Lead= are very liable to be poisoned by the metal, _e.g._,
house painters, potters engaged in the glazing process, in which the
ware is dipped into a solution containing lead, manufacturers of white
lead, and others. The lead is partly absorbed by the skin; in some
cases it is inhaled as dust; and more often it is swallowed, when the
workman eats his meals with unwashed hands. Of the symptoms “painter’s
colic” and “drop-wrist” are the two most important, though, in some
cases, lead shews its effects more insidiously, leading to gout and
chronic renal disease. It is now compulsory on employers to provide in
the workshop, complete washing arrangements for the use of workers in
lead. Every doctor called to attend a case of lead or phosphorus or
arsenic poisoning or anthrax, which has been acquired in an industrial
occupation, must notify the same to H.M. Inspector of Factories. This
implies inspection of the factory or workshop and the subsequent
adoption of further measures of precaution.
=Brass-founders= occasionally inhale the fumes of oxide of zinc; and
diarrhœa, cramp, waterbrash, and other troubles are the result. Those
engaged in the manufacture of =bichromate of potass=, are liable
to partial destruction of the mucous membrane of the nose, and to
irritation of the skin, with the formation, in some cases, of small
ulcers.
=Workers with Phosphorus=, as those engaged in the making of phosphorus
matches, not uncommonly suffer from a gradual necrosis (death) of the
jaw-bone. Those having carious teeth are especially attacked by this
disease, which is due to the fumes of oxide of phosphorus, attacking
the jaw. Improved ventilation of workshops, careful attention to the
teeth, and other measures, have greatly diminished this disease; and
it has disappeared where safety matches made from red non-volatile
phosphorus, have replaced matches made from the yellow variety.
=Chimney Sweeps= occasionally suffer from irritative skin diseases, as
well as bronchitis. In some cases the chronic irritation of the soot
has produced cancer of the skin.
The effect of dust on workers can be seen in the mortality returns:
Among men aged 25 to 65 years in 1881-90, the comparative mortality
figure in England and Wales was as follows, all males throughout the
country being taken as a standard and given as 1,000:—
COMPARATIVE MORTALITY FIGURES.
All males 1000
OCCUPATIONS WITH NO DUST. DUSTY OCCUPATIONS.
Clergyman 533 Coal miner (Derby and Notts.) 727
Gardener 553 Carpenter 783
Farmer 563 Bricklayer, mason 1,001
Teacher 604 Coal miner (Lanc.) 1,069
Tool and scissors maker 1,412
Potter 1,706
File-maker 1,810
=Remedial Measures.=—Means have been taken to diminish the prevalence
of the above dust diseases, in several cases with remarkable success.
In the case of steel-grinding, for instance, the mortality is greatest
with dry grinding, and least with =wet grinding=. Wet processes have
been applied to others of the industries named, with a like success.
Where the dust cannot be avoided, the use of =steam or electric fans=,
to deflect the dust away from the workman, has been found successful;
and in many cases, =free ventilation= of the workshops has greatly
diminished the mortality. Where none of the above measures suffice, the
use of =respirators= ought to be insisted on. Breathing through the
nostrils ought to be carefully maintained, as thus the dust is to a
large extent stopped before reaching the lungs.
The dangers of lead poisoning may be avoided by absolute =cleanliness=,
the hands being always washed before taking meals, and the nail-brush
used to secure complete cleanliness beneath the nails.
2. =Living Substances.=—The pollen of plants in some persons produces
a distressing form of disease, called =hay-asthma=, which is apt to
recur each year, and is sometimes only curable by living in a town or
removing to the sea-coast. The amount of pollen floating about in the
atmosphere is considerable; 95 per cent. of it is grass-pollen, and
this form and the pollen from pine-trees appear to be the most powerful
in inducing hay-asthma. According to some authorities, hay-asthma is
rather due to the minute particles constituting the scent of various
flowers, than to the pollen; but that is probably not the usual mode of
origin of the disease, though it may be in some cases. In some cases,
true asthma results from smelling particular plants. Here as in the
case of hay-asthma a peculiar idiosyncrasy is involved, only a very
small proportion of those exposed to the minute particles suffering
from asthma.
The spores of many fungi and of other living organisms are constantly
being floated about in the air, until they find a suitable resting
place, when they settle and proceed to grow and multiply. The souring
of milk, the fermentation of a saccharine solution, the moulding of
bread, the presence of mildew, the blighting of corn, and numerous
other phenomena are due to the growth of organisms carried by the
atmosphere from one part to another.
3. =The Contagia= (microbes or germs) of the acute infectious diseases
are minute living organisms, known as bacteria. Hence these diseases
may be carried about by currents of air, some much more easily than
others. Some of the contagia have a persistent vitality. Thus the
contagia of scarlet fever, diphtheria, or small-pox may infect a room
for months, causing the disease in question, when infected articles in
the room are disturbed. The contagia of typhus fever and of measles,
on the other hand, are short-lived, and do not usually resist free
ventilation and exposure to sunlight.
Besides the contagia of the acute fevers, _septic organisms_ may be
carried by the atmosphere. Formerly, blood-poisoning from operation
and other wounds was common; but Lister, by insisting on absolute
cleanliness of wounds, and only allowing air to have access to the
wound which had been filtered through layers of gauze and deprived of
its septic germs, has secured that wounds can now be kept perfectly
“sweet,” the suppuration in them reduced to a minimum, and the danger
of blood-poisoning almost annihilated (page 106). It had often been
noticed that recovery from even very severe injuries was common, if
only the skin remained unbroken; while the same injuries, with the
addition of a rupture of the skin, and consequent access of air, were
rapidly fatal. But to Lister is due the great honour of proving that
it was not the air which produced the mischief, but the germs it
contained, and that filtered air might be admitted with impunity.
_Erysipelas_ and _hospital gangrene_ have occasionally been carried
about in hospital wards by dirty sponges and dressings; and if the
ventilation is not perfect, particles of epithelium and pus from
diseased persons may be carried to other patients at a distance. Some
forms of _purulent disease of the eyes_ are transferable from patient
to patient, and in children some forms of _eczema_ are also contagious.