FERMENTED DRINKS.
=Properties of Alcohol.=—When a saccharine solution is subjected to the
influence of warmth and moisture, and exposed to the air, it rapidly
undergoes a process of =fermentation=. The most favourable temperature
is about 70° Fahr. The ferment or agent exciting the change in the
sugar is derived from the atmosphere; it is a minute fungus (_torula
cerevisiæ_), the spores of which are constantly floating in the air.
When once fermentation has started, exposure in the air is no longer
necessary; the process continues in closed vessels. The essential
change occurring in the vinous fermentation is that grape sugar
(C₆H₁₂O₆,H₂O) becomes split up into alcohol (C₂H₅OH) and carbonic
acid (CO₂). Thus—
C₂H₆O }
C₂H₆O } Two of alcohol
C₆C₆H₁₂O₆ =
CO₂ }
CO₂ } Two of carbonic acid.
There are other fermentations allied to the vinous. Thus the =Acetous=
fermentation results in the conversion of alcohol into vinegar, as in
the souring of beer or wine. The =Lactic= fermentation leads to the
conversion of milk-sugar into lactic acid, with consequent souring of
the milk.
=Alcohol=, or more correctly ethylic alcohol, is a colourless liquid,
having a pleasant vinous odour, and evaporating rapidly on exposure to
air. It burns with a bluish sootless flame, and is a capital solvent
for resins and other substances.
_Rectified spirit_ is absolute alcohol mixed with 16 per cent. of
water. _Proof-spirit_ is a mixture of 42·7 per cent. by volume of
absolute alcohol, and 57·3 per cent. of water. Thus the ratio of
alcohol to proof-spirit being as 1: 1·76, the amount of alcohol in
any liquid being given, the amount of proof-spirit can readily be
calculated. The fermented drinks containing alcohol may be classed as
(1) malt liquors, (2) wines, and (3) distilled spirits. The relative
properties of these will be considered afterwards; in the next two
sections will be considered the effects of diluted alcohol in whatever
form it is taken.
=Effects of Moderate Doses of Alcohol on the System.=—In studying the
physiological effects of alcohol, one has to guard against the fallacy
that these are the same, only differing in degree, whatever the dose
may be. The effects of large doses of alcohol are almost exactly the
reverse of those produced by small doses. It will be necessary to
define, therefore, what we mean by a moderate dose. By a moderate
dose, we understand the amount of alcohol which can be taken without
any alcohol being eliminated in the urine. Dr. Anstie found that 1½
ounces, that is three tablespoonsful, of absolute alcohol, taken in
twenty-four hours, caused its appearance in the urine; and Dr. Parkes
and Count Wollowicz obtained almost precisely the same result. Anything
below some quantity between 1 and 1½ fluid ounces per day can be
disposed of in the system, and is probably oxidised like ordinary foods.
The amount of alcohol, in the form of alcoholic beverages,
corresponding to this =maximum dose= of absolute alcohol is
approximately as follows:—
One imperial pint (20 fluid ounces)
of bottled beer (5 per cent. of alcohol).
One tumblerful (10 „ „ ){of claret, hock, and}
{other weaker wines } (10 „ „ ).
2½ glasses (5 „ „ ){of port, sherry, and}
{other strong wines } (20 „ „ ).
One glass (2 „ „ )of brandy or whiskey (50 „ „ ).
It will be understood, therefore, that in describing the effects of a
moderate amount of alcohol on the system, an amount below 1½ ounces
of absolute alcohol per day is meant, freely diluted, and taken as a
rule with meals.
1. =Effect on the Stomach.=—In very small quantities, alcohol seems
to stimulate digestion in the same way as mustard. But like all other
artificial helps to digestion, it is best avoided in the healthy
condition.
2. The =Effect on the Liver= is similar to that on the stomach—a
temporary redness and congestion being produced; this effect soon
disappearing if the dose is small and well diluted. But in all cases
where there is a tendency to biliousness, even small doses of alcohol
are injurious.
3. The =Effect on the Heart and Blood-Vessels= is first to increase
the force of the heart’s action and the rapidity of the pulse. The
stimulation of the heart is rapidly followed by a universal dilatation
of the small arteries of the body, which diminishes the blood-pressure.
Parkes and Wollowicz found that the daily administration of from 1 to
7½ ounces of rectified spirit raised the pulse rate by ten beats
per minute, as compared with other periods; and that this effect was
followed by a period of depression in which the beat was both slower
and feebler than usual.
4. The =Effect on the Nervous System= varies. In persons unaccustomed
to its effects, even small doses dull the power of thought and the
rapidity of perception, owing to the paralyzing effect which it exerts
on nerve cells. In most cases, however, it at first produces increased
rapidity of thought and excites the imagination, though even here
it makes it more difficult to keep to one train of thought. This is
clearly owing to the more rapid circulation of blood through the brain.
Dr. E. Smith’s experiments show that it diminishes the acuteness of
the senses. Its influence even in dietetic doses, on the capacity for
mental work, is slightly to diminish it.
5. The =Effect on the Muscular System= is never beneficial. Even when
only small quantities are taken, the power of controlling delicate
movements is slightly diminished. For persons engaged in laborious
occupations, a small quantity does not produce much apparent effect,
but where the quantity exceeds two fluid ounces per day the capacity
for strong and sustained muscular work is manifestly lessened (Parkes).
This effect is probably due partly to the dulling of the nervous
system, rendering the muscles less amenable to the will, and partly to
the over-excitation of the heart causing palpitation and breathlessness.
6. The =Effect on Metabolism= is to diminish it, thus favouring the
deposit of fat in the tissues. It acts as a poison to the protoplasm
of the cells of the body, diminishing their power to break down the
floating nutriment, especially fat and carbohydrate.
The =Effect on the Temperature= is to lower it; but unless the dose
is excessive, this effect is hardly appreciable. The resistance to
excessive cold is diminished by even moderate doses of alcohol, still
more by large doses. In the Arctic regions, this has been abundantly
proved. This effect is produced, notwithstanding the fact that alcohol
becomes oxidised in the system. The dilatation of the surface blood
vessels leads to a greater loss of heat than that produced by the
oxidation of the alcohol.
EFFECTS OF IMMODERATE DOSES OF ALCOHOL ON THE SYSTEM.—Bearing in mind
the definition given of a moderate dose, one is bound to admit that
a large number of individuals exceed this amount daily, apparently
without any very serious results. The system becomes habituated to
large doses, and if the occupation is a laborious one, they may in part
be oxidised in the system. Such, however, are exceptional cases. In
the majority of cases evil results are by no means confined to those
who indulge in very large quantities of alcohol at varying intervals.
In fact these very often escape comparatively free, while others who
never take a quantity sufficient to incapacitate them for their work,
are sowing the seeds of chronic and oft incurable disease. The labourer
who has a drinking bout at intervals is thoroughly nauseated; and the
condition of liver and stomach induced, enforces abstinence on him
for a time sufficient to bring his organs back to a normal condition;
while the city merchant who indulges more moderately, but whose organs
are almost continuously impregnated with alcohol, becomes gouty and
prematurely old.
The =Stomach= may become acutely inflamed, when a large dose of alcohol
is taken. The chronic irritation of alcohol, especially when taken
apart from meals, causes atrophy of the walls of the stomach, and a
change analogous to that in the liver.
The =Liver=, when alcohol is daily taken immoderately, becomes
seriously diseased. In some cases it becomes large and fatty; in others
the chronic irritation excites an overgrowth of fibrous tissue between
the lobules of the liver, which, gradually shrinking, squeezes the
liver cells and causes them to atrophy, at the same time obstructing
the small branches of the portal vein in the substance of the liver.
The consequence of this obstruction to the flow of blood through the
liver is that all the organs from which the portal vein brings blood
become overloaded with blood, and vomiting of blood and dropsy of the
abdomen occur at a later period.
The =Lungs= are irritated to a less extent by alcohol in large doses.
The tendency to chronic bronchitis is increased, followed by emphysema,
and sometimes an overgrowth of fibrous tissue (cirrhosis) like that in
the liver occurs.
The =Heart and Blood-vessels= tend to become diseased, owing largely to
the gouty condition of system developed.
The =powers of Metabolism= are diminished. Corpulence is, consequently,
a common result of alcoholism. There may also be fatty deposit in
the internal organs, such as the heart. This must not, however, be
confounded with a much more serious condition, fatty _degeneration_
of the heart, in which the substance of the muscular fibres becomes
partially converted into fat, and which also is sometimes due to
alcoholism.
The =Nervous System= is more prone to suffer in chronic alcoholism
than any other part of the body, except perhaps the liver. The first
effect of a large dose of alcohol is to stimulate the nervous system,
as already described. This is followed by a dulling of the nervous
faculties, which comes on rapidly in proportion to the amount taken.
The phenomena of _intoxication_ are unhappily too familiar to require
description, mental incoherence and muscular incoordination (lack of
control over the muscles) being the most prominent features.
When the dose of alcohol is still larger, a condition of profound
unconsciousness is produced (_coma_), which may be difficult to
distinguish from other forms of unconsciousness.
=Delirium Tremens= is another nervous condition, which may rarely
follow a single debauch, but much more commonly affects the chronic
toper. In some cases the immediate exciting cause is a mental shock, or
lack of food, or a surgical injury. Alcoholic subjects suffering from
any acute disease are liable to this form of delirium, and their chance
of recovery is greatly diminished.
=Insanity= of a more prolonged character than that characterising
delirium tremens is an occasional result of alcoholism.
Besides the nervous diseases already named, a chronic thickening of the
membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, gradually progressing
and finally fatal, is often the consequence of prolonged alcoholic
indulgence.
=Various Degenerative Diseases= are produced by alcohol. It has been
well called by Dickinson the very “genius of degeneration.” Such
degenerations are by no means confined to the intemperate; they are
seen in those who are of what would usually be considered moderate
habits. The stomach, liver, lungs, and probably the kidneys, are the
main organs to suffer in this way. It is probable that the effect on
the kidneys only occurs when a gouty condition is developed. In all
these cases there is an overgrowth of fibrous tissue, with atrophy of
the proper gland structures.
=Gout= is the common nemesis of those indulging in alcoholic beverages,
more especially wine and beer, due to the excessive formation or
retention of urate of soda in the body. This produces inflammation of
the joints, and other evils—among them the gouty kidney, named above,
which is always ultimately fatal. Rigid arteries are likewise commonly
due to alcoholism and gout. If one of these bursts in the brain,
apoplexy results.
=Longevity= is diminished by immoderate indulgence in alcohol. The
statistics of Temperance Insurance Societies, show much better results
among teetotalers than among moderate drinkers. It is only fair to
add that although the latter are supposed to consist of moderate
drinkers—and particular enquiries are always made on this point before
insurance—it is probable that a large proportion of them exceed 1½
ounces of alcohol per day. Making due allowance for this fact, the
statistics show a great superiority in the expectation of life of
teetotalers.
=Factors Modifying the Effects of Alcohol.=—1. =Age and Sex.=—Until
adult life is reached, total abstinence from alcohol should be
enforced. The delicate nervous system of children is easily disturbed
by it, and it appears in some measure to retard growth. Another
argument against giving alcohol before adult age is reached, is still
more important. It is at this period of life that habits are chiefly
formed, and a craving for alcohol may be insidiously produced, destined
to have most baneful results.
Old people, if ordered spirits for medical reasons, should drink them
well diluted.
Women are much more easily affected by alcohol than men, and if they
acquire the habit of excess, the hope of reformation is even less than
with men.
2. =Exercise= has a most important influence in modifying the effects
of alcohol. Those of sedentary occupations and living in towns, cannot
oxidise as much as those engaged in active out-door work, and are
consequently much more prone to suffer. A game-keeper in the Scotch
Highlands may possibly live to a good old age, notwithstanding the fact
that he consumes an amount of whiskey that would have sent a sedentary
man to his grave in the course of a few years.
3. =The Condition of the Stomach= has also great influence. When
the stomach is empty, alcohol produces at once a powerful reflex
stimulation of the heart, and becomes quickly absorbed into the
circulation. Thus intoxication may be produced by a quantity that would
have had little effect if taken with a meal.
4. =The State of Concentration or Dilution= modifies greatly the action
of alcohol, the local action on the stomach and the reflex stimulation
being much greater than when it is concentrated, and injurious effects
being much more likely to occur.
5. =Cold and Heat= modify the action of alcohol. A smaller quantity
of hot spirits and water will intoxicate than of cold; the heat
stimulating the heart, and so making the absorption of the alcohol more
rapid. A glass of hot spirits and water will often cause sleep, by
drawing the blood towards the abdominal organs. The fact that persons,
who have been drinking spirits in a warm room, on going out into the
cold air become suddenly intoxicated, seems opposed to what has been
already said. But probably this is due to the cold causing contraction
of the arteries of the skin, and so driving more of the blood loaded
with alcohol to the internal organs and the brain (Brunton).
6. =Mental Occupation= has some influence in modifying the effects of
alcohol. Topers have found that if they try to converse during their
debauch—the conversation implying increased functional activity of the
brain, and therefore a freer circulation of blood in it—intoxication
occurs much more readily, than when the mind is not active.
7. =Disease= modifies greatly the effects of alcohol. In some diseases,
as in inflammation of the lungs and in fevers, it can be given in large
quantities without producing intoxication; and in these conditions it
lowers the temperature. In other diseases, especially gout and kidney
disease, its use is nearly always followed by bad results.
=The Advisability of Alcohol as an Article of Diet in Health.=—In
dealing with this difficult point, two sets of facts require
consideration, those obtained as the result of =Physiological=
observations (see page 56), and those which are the result of
=Experience=. There can be no doubt that the former are much more
reliable than the latter. Experience is very prone to give fallacious
results, especially when questions of appetite are concerned. In
making a trial of abstinence, the mistake has been commonly made of
only prolonging the investigation for a few weeks, and then comparing
results. Such a method is, however, very unfair, and is certain to lead
to an unreliable conclusion.
The records of experience under certain conditions have, however, been
so extensive, as to lead to trustworthy results. It has been abundantly
proved that prolonged muscular work is best undergone during total
abstinence from alcohol; and that the extremes of heat and cold and the
exposure and exertions of marching armies, are best borne under similar
conditions.
The artificial character of town life is commonly adduced as an
argument for the moderate use of alcohol. In the case of healthy
workers, this does not hold good; many of our hardest workers and
thinkers take no alcohol.
The universality of the habit of taking stimulants is a curious
argument on the same side, though if the habit be bad, this can be no
more reason for continuing it than can the prevalence of vice be an
excuse for indulgence in it.
The two chief physiological points bearing on the advisability of
alcohol as a part of one’s daily diet are—its =food properties=, and
its effect on the appetite and digestion.
It has been already stated that a quantity of alcohol under 1 or 1½
ounces may become oxidised in the system, and may thus form a source of
heat. But in all probability, although it may be regarded as a food,
it is a most inconvenient one, inasmuch as it diminishes the oxidation
of other foods. It has been aptly compared in this respect to
sulphur, which is an oxidisable material, but which, when it is burnt
in a chimney, in which the soot is on fire, will put an end to the
combustion of the latter. Its value as a food, under normal conditions,
is practically nil.
Its =Effect on the Digestive Organs= is three-fold. (_a_) The contact
of alcohol with the mucous membrane of the mouth and stomach, acts as a
reflex nervous stimulus, which in moderation excites an increased flow
of gastric juice. (_b_) It also increases the activity of the movements
of the stomach. In cases of weak digestion, therefore, small doses of
alcohol may, at times, be useful. (_c_) The effect of alcohol on the
food taken varies with its degree of dilution. Concentrated alcohol
coagulates albumin, and so stops digestion; largely diluted alcohol has
no such effect.
The late Dr. Parkes, the greatest authority on the dietetic use of
alcohol, has summarised the argument as to the dietetic use of alcohol
as follows:—
“But what, now, should be the conclusion as to the use of alcohol
in health after growth is completed? Admitting the impossibility
of proving a small quantity to be hurtful, and at the same time
acknowledging the dangers of excess, there arises an argument which
seems to me somewhat in favour of total abstinence. No man can say when
he has passed the boundary which divides safety from harm; he may call
himself temperate, and yet may be daily taking a little more than his
system can bear, and be gradually causing some tissue to undergo slow
degeneration. He may be safe, but he may be on the verge of danger.
“This uncertainty, coupled with the difficulty at present of saying
what dietetic advantage is gained by using alcohol, seems to me rather
to turn the scale in favour of total abstinence instead of moderate
drinking. But if any one honestly tries, and finds he is better in
health for a little alcohol, let him take it, but he should keep within
the boundary line, viz., that 1½ ounces of pure or absolute alcohol
in twenty-four hours form the limit of moderation. I do not then think
he can do himself any harm.”
=The Varieties of Fermented Drinks.=—The three chief kinds of alcoholic
beverages are malt liquors, wines, and ardent spirits. In addition, we
may mention cider and perry, which are the fermented juices of apples
and pears respectively; and koumiss, which the Tartars prepare by
fermenting mare’s milk, though it may also be made from the milk of
other animals.
All =Beers=, =Ales=, and =Porters= are prepared from malt, which is
the germinating grain of barley. The fermentation of the sugar in the
barley produces alcohol, the amount of which varies in different cases.
In Pilsener beer it is 3½ per cent. of absolute alcohol; in stout
and porter 5 to 6 per cent. The hop which is added to the fermenting
barley, gives to beer its characteristic bitterness.
=London Porter= is coloured with black or roasted malt; =stout= is only
a stronger form of porter. Bottled ales are generally stronger than
those on draught, and being slightly effervescent, may agree better.
The effect of alcohol in beer is modified by the _hops_, which help in
producing drowsiness. Beer has a marked tendency to produce obesity,
more so than any other alcoholic beverage. Its influence in the
production of gout is also very great.
=Substitutes for Malt= have been largely used. Thus by the action of
sulphuric acid on starch, an artificial form of sugar is produced,
which is largely used in place of malt for making beer. Many recent
cases of poisoning by arsenic have been traced to the use of impure
sulphuric acid in manufacturing this form of sugar.
The detection of arsenic in organic liquids requires great care, as so
many compounds of arsenic are volatile, especially in the presence of
chlorides, as in beer. To _detect arsenic in beer_ a pint of the beer
is evaporated to dryness, and treated with 20 c.c. of strong sulphuric
acid, heated, and 20 c.c. of strong nitric acid added drop by drop.
Violent action occurs: if possible 20 c.c. more of nitric acid are
worked in. Transfer the liquid to a small flask, and expel the nitric
acid by boiling. By this means all chlorine is expelled, the arsenic
is oxidised and the organic matter destroyed. SH₂ gas is now passed
into the acid liquid for some hours, the precipitated sulphur and any
sulphide filtered off and extracted with ammonia, which dissolves any
sulphide of arsenic. The liquid so obtained is subjected to Marsh’s
test. (See page 216.)
In the making of beer from malt, the first stage is to malt the barley,
_i.e._ leave it spread on floors for ten days after soaking. This
allows germination to take place, in which process the insoluble starch
is converted into starch, dextrine, maltose and glucose. After the
dried malt has been screened to break off the sproutings, the brewer
places it in the mash-tub, with water, at a temperature of 160° F. This
completes the transformation of the starch into glucose. The =wort= is
now boiled to stop the process, and the albumin from the grain is thus
coagulated. Hops are added at this stage. The boiled liquid is passed
into shallow vessels and cooled. The proper temperature for “top” yeast
is 60° F., for “bottom,” or Bavarian yeast, a much lower temperature is
desirable. When the desired temperature is reached, the liquid is run
into the fermenting tun along with yeast. The varieties of beer are due
in part to the degree of completeness of fermentation of sugar allowed.
If too complete, the beer does not keep well.
=Wines= are produced by the fermentation of the juice of the grape.
The wine produced may be bottled before or after fermentation is
complete; in the former case, an effervescing wine is produced, such as
the sparkling wines of the Rhine and the Moselle, or champagne. When
the sugar is nearly all fermented a _dry_ wine is obtained, of which
Bordeaux and Burgundy, Hock and Moselle, are examples.
The difference in colour between red and white wines is produced by
allowing the juice in the former to ferment in contact with the skins,
from which the colouring matter is extracted by the alcohol. Both red
and white wines may be obtained from either red or white grapes. From
the skins also are extracted a salt of iron, and a peculiar form of
tannin. Tartaric and acetic acids, and tartrate of potass, are present
in varying quantities in wines; in old wines the tartrate separates as
bitartrate of potass, forming with tannin and colouring matter the
“crust” of port and other wines. The “bouquet” of wines is due chiefly
to certain volatile bodies, such as pelargonic ether. The proportion
of alcohol in wines varies from 6 to 14 per cent. As fermentation is
stopped by the presence of 14 per cent. of alcohol, any larger amount
of alcohol than this must have been added to the wine.
Wine, like beer, has a strong tendency to produce gout, especially
the sweet and strong wines. It has not, however, the same tendency to
induce obesity.
=Spirits= differ from the two last groups, to begin with, in the amount
of alcohol they contain. Thus, English beers contain from 3 to 6 per
cent., German beers from 2 to 5 per cent., wines from 8 to 20, and all
kinds of spirits from 37 to 58 per cent. of alcohol. They differ in
the absence of the bitter principle of beer and much of the salts and
sugar and ether of wines. They are all prepared by the distillation
of some previously fermented liquor. =Brandy= ought to be made by the
distillation of wine; and then contains, besides alcohol and water,
small quantities of acetic, œnanthic, butylic, and valerianic ethers.
But much of the brandy sold is simply made from potato spirit, by the
addition of acetic ether, burnt sugar, etc. The starch of potatoes
is converted into dextrin and dextrose by dilute acids, and then
fermentation allowed. By the use of patent stills, all bye-products
can be separated, a fairly pure alcohol known as _silent spirit_ being
produced. This is largely employed in manufacturing spirits and in
fortifying wines.
=Whiskey= is prepared from malted barley, or from a mixture of grains,
to which a sufficiency of malt to convert their starch into sugar has
been added. In _grain whiskey_ the distillation is effected by steam
in a patent (Coffey’s) still, which separates most of the bye-products
(fusel oil, etc.) from the spirit. In _malt whiskey_, distilled in the
old-fashioned pot-still, these bye-products are not separated.
The improvement of whiskey effected by keeping is not due (Bell) to
the diminution of fusel oil. Such a diminution does not occur. The
percentage of alcohol diminishes by keeping, 6 to 8 per cent. proof
spirit being lost by five years’ storage in wood. “Fusel oil” is a
mixture of alcohols of higher boiling point than ethylic alcohol
(amylic, propylic, etc.). Even in a bad whiskey not more than 1∕10
per cent. of fusel oil is present (about one grain in a glassful).
Experimentally no marked effects have been produced by fusel oil, when
it is less than 1 per cent. Possibly the presence of furfurol, of
which there is a trace in malt whiskey, which disappears on keeping,
may partially explain the disagreeable flavour of new whiskey. But it
is fairly clear that those who argue that it is _bad_ whiskey and not
_good_ whiskey which does harm are speaking without knowledge. It is
not the quality but the quantity of whiskey which is responsible for so
much moral and physical evil.
=Gin= and =Hollands= are obtained from barley, and flavoured with
juniper berries and other materials. The oil of juniper stimulates the
urinary excretion.
=Rum= is obtained by the distillation of molasses, and is usually
kept for a long time in oak barrels. It is said thus to acquire more
astringent matters than other spirits contain.
The =legal limits= of dilution of whiskey, brandy and rum is down to 25
degrees under proof, and of gin down to 35 degrees under proof. (For
definition of proof spirit, see page 55). The amount of alcohol in an
alcoholic liquor is determined by distillation of 100 c.c., making up
the distillate to 100 c.c. by the addition of distilled water, and then
taking the specific gravity of a portion of this liquid by the aid of
the specific gravity bottle. The percentage of alcohol corresponding to
a given specific gravity is given in tables prepared for this purpose.
Prolonged indulgence in spirits produces the various organic diseases
already described, and unless well diluted they are more harmful than
beers or wines. They differ from wines and beers in not tending to
produce gout, and from beer in not leading to obesity.