_Text._ | _Translation._
|
66. Hittask Æsir | 66. The Asas meet
Á Ithavelli | On the wold of Ida
Ok um moldwinur | And of the earth engirdler
Mátkan dæma; | Mightily judge;
Ok minnask war | And call to mind
Á megindóma | Their [bygone] greatness
Ok á Fimbultys | And the ancient runes
Fornar runar. | Of Fimbultyr.
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68. Munu ósánir | 68. Then shall the acres
Akrarvaxa, | Unsown bear harvest,
Böls mun alls batna, | All ill is amended,
Mun Baldr koma; | Balder is coming;
Búa weir Häthr ok Baldr | Dwell Hader and Balder
Hropts sigtoptir | In Hropt’s blessed dwellings
Vel valtívar. | In friendship the wargods.
Vituth ér enn etha hvat? | Know ye ought yet, or what?
From another chapter of the Elder Edda—that called Hávamál, and the
most interesting after the Völuspá—we we will quote also a specimen.
The whole chapter is made up of such proverbs or reflections, said to
have been indited by Odin himself:
’Tis far out of the way
To an ill friend,
Though he dwell by the roadside;
But to a good friend
Is the path short,
Though he be a great way off.
Thou shalt move on,—
Shalt not be a guest
Always in one place:
The well-beloved becomes odious
If he sit long
In the house of another.
Among the other divisions of the first Edda we will mention the
mystical Vafthruthnismál, or words of Vafthruthnir in reply to Odin,
who has made inquiry about the cosmogony and chronology of Norse
theology; the Grimnismál, or sayings of Grimnir, which describe the
imprisonment and maltreatment which Odin suffered at the hands of King
Geirröd; the Thrymskvitha, or lay of Thrym, who stole Thor’s hammer,
and refused to restore it unless Freyja were given him to wife: by a
device of Thor he is slain and the hammer recovered; the Alvismál,
a learned dialogue between the dwarf Alvis and Odin. Deserving of
separate mention is the famous Vegtams-kvitha, or Vegtam’s lay. Odin
has been troubled with dreams concerning Balder, the helpless god, and
applies to a Nala, or Sibyl, for their interpretation. Finally we will
name the Völundarkvitha, or Song of Wayland. This contains the story of
his toils and adventures at the court of Nidud, a Swedish king.
The Younger Edda is written in prose, and is believed to be the
compilation, for the most part, of Snorre Sturleson. It must then have
been put together about the same time as the Elder Edda, for Snorre
was murdered in the year 1241. The materials of the Younger Edda, as
of the Elder, are legends concerning the earth-life of the gods. It
begins with a sort of preface, which repeats the story of the first
chapters of Genesis, as far as the confusion of tongues. The narrative
then abruptly shifts to Troy, and from Priam to Saturn and Jupiter.
From Memnon, a Trojan prince and son-in-law of Priam, the author
next traces the genealogy of Odin, whom he assigns to the nineteenth
generation after Priam. Odin possessed the gift of knowing the future;
and becoming aware that great renown awaited him in the north regions,
set out to find them, with a large company of followers. They reach
first Saxland, which they stop to subjugate, and over the conquered
lands Odin leaves three sons to bear rule. Then the army of eastern
conquerors begins again to march. They occupy Denmark, then Sweden
and Norway. Sweden was at that time ruled by a king named Gylfe, who
submitted to Odin without battle. From this country Odin selected the
site for a city, which he called Sigtown (city of Victory). With this
account of the origin of the Scandinavian chieftains and deities, the
first part of this Edda closes.
The second portion, or Deception of Gylfe, is full of the most
interesting myths of the Teutonic religion. This Gylfe is the king of
Sweden mentioned in the introduction, who repairs to the court of the
Æsir to find out the secret of their power. He disguises himself and
asks admittance to the hall of the gods. They recognize him, and make
him the victim of ocular illusion. The hall is so high he can scarcely
see the top, and the shingles on the roof are golden shields. Gylfe is
admitted, and engages in conversation with Odin himself, who is called
Har. Gylfe asks all manner of questions about the various deities, the
creation of the world and of man, the steed of Odin, Frey’s famous
ship, the life of the gods in Valhall, and the final destruction of all
things at Ragnarök. Har answers patiently, and in detail, until Gylfe
proceeds to inquire about the new order of things that should spring
up after Ragnarök. Har gives him a short answer, and unceremoniously
closes the dialogue. The illusion of the city and gold-roofed hall
vanishes, and Gylfe finds himself alone on a desolate plain. He returns
to his home, and tells what he has heard and seen. In this way, fables
the author, the race of Northmen became possessed of their knowledge of
divine things.
The other important portions of the Younger Edda are the Discourse of
Brage, the Skaldskaparmál, and the Hattatal. Brage is the northern
Apollo, and never opens his lips except to utter words of wisdom.
His discourse is mythologic and supplemental to the Gylfaginning, or
Delusion of Gylfe. The Skaldskaparmál is also partly narrative, partly
a digest of the rules and principles to be followed in composing verse.
The Hattatal is merely an enumeration of the various meters employed in
Icelandic poetry.[D]
We will now resume with Sweden. It will be remembered that we know much
less of Sweden in early times than of Norway or Denmark. The Swedes did
not join, so far as is known, the viking expeditions which ravaged the
south and west of Europe. They robbed and oppressed the Finns and other
tribes living near them on the north and east, and sent forth the bands
of Varangians which conquered Russia and threatened Constantinople.
Thus they came less in contact with France and Britain, and left no
foreign record of their internal history. We are told, doubtfully,
of various sovereigns who ruled Sweden in the tenth century, and
of one Erik Sejrsöl, who humbled Denmark. This king died in 993,
leaving an infant son Olaf, the “Lap-King.” In boyhood he was brought
under the instruction of an English missionary and baptized into the
Christian faith. Olaf’s reign was a stormy one, partly on account
of the hostility of the Swedes to the Christian religion, partly on
account of a bitter quarrel with Norway. Olaf was at best a very ill
Christian. He broke his solemn word pledged to his subjects, and came
near losing his crown in consequence. After his death the new religion
had a harder struggle than ever, and at times seemed virtually extinct.
For the next hundred years anarchy and idolatry prevailed together.
With the accession of Sverker Carlson, in 1135, both evils ceased,
and Sweden was enrolled among the faithful subjects of Rome. King
Sverker’s religion, however, seems rather an affair of temperament than
of choice. Like the Anglo-Saxon King Ethelwulf, he was incapable of
energetic action. On Christmas eve of the year 1155 he was murdered by
his servants while on the way to mass. Erik the “Saint” succeeded, who
made the Christian religion respected at home as well as feared abroad.
He added Finland to the royal domains, and established an archbishop’s
see at Upsala. Thus Sweden was put fairly on the road to civilization
and prosperity.
The Sverker dynasty continued in power until 1250, then giving way to
the Folkungar line of kings. A century later, under the rule of Magnus
Smek, a revolution occurred which set upon the throne Count Albrecht,
of Mecklenburg, nephew of the deposed Magnus. This did not bring peace
or quiet, and upon the invitation of one of the contending factions,
Margaret, Queen of Denmark and Norway, invaded the country and captured
the Swedish throne. She was succeeded by her nephew, Erik of Pomerania,
who married Philippa, daughter of Henry the Fourth of England. Erik
proved utterly incapable of managing the three kingdoms his aunt
had united, and after a quarter of a century of civil war lost the
allegiance of each of the three. Denmark and Norway chose for their
ruler Erik’s nephew, Christopher of Bavaria, and Sweden was induced
to ratify their choice. Upon his death, in 1448, the Oldenburg line,
in Norway and Denmark, begins with Christian I. This king attempted
to subjugate Sweden, but Karl Knudson, her marshal king, succeeded
in keeping his crown. After his death, Hans, son and successor to
Christian I., won Sweden by the aid of German mercenary troops. Again
Sweden shakes off the Danish yoke, and again is subjugated by Christian
II. At length in 1523 Gustaf I., known commonly in history by the title
of Gustavus Vasa, liberated Sweden forever from foreign domination.
But foreign domination was scarcely worse than the domestic tyranny
of the nobles and the clergy. Gustaf set himself the task of breaking
down this also. In his twenty-seven years of rule he established the
reformed or Lutheran faith, elevated the peasantry, developed the
resources of the country, replenished the national treasury and created
a navy and army of defence.
Thus was established the Vasa line, destined to remain in power until
the time of Napoleon. Gustaf was succeeded by his son Erik, a young
man of promise, who is most easily remembered for having been a suitor
for the hand of the English queen, Elizabeth. He soon fell a victim
of insanity and resigned the crown to his brother John. The latter
king, who attempted to restore Catholicism, proved almost as great a
failure. Sigismund and Charles IX continue the line, when we reach the
famous name of Gustavus Adolphus (Gustaf Adolf II.) This king, the most
accomplished prince of his age, came to the throne in 1611. He had
at once to measure his strength against Denmark, Poland, and Russia,
but found no difficulty in adjusting with each an advantageous peace.
It was a reign like Elizabeth’s in England: there was ability on the
throne, there was wise counsel beside it, and the people loved and
confided in both. As soon as the pressing affairs of his government
were adjusted Gustavus determined to go over to Germany and assist the
Protestants in their struggle with the Catholic league. At the head of
only 15,000 Swedes he assumed the leadership of the Protestant cause,
and won the important battles of Leipsic and Lützen,—the latter at the
cost of his life. The Swedes have never ceased to cherish the memory of
their hero king, who combined the most generous and chivalrous impulses
with a bravery not unworthy of the viking age.
The death of Gustaf II was the first of a succession of calamities to
Sweden. The cause of the German Protestants ceased to prosper, and the
Swedish co-operation was abandoned. The late king had left no heir
except a daughter Christina, whose administration ended in disgrace.
The reign of Charles X followed, 1656-1660, four years of disorder and
unprofitable drain upon the national resources. A regency followed,
for Charles XI was but four years old. After assuming the reins of
government, he suffered various defeats, and lost for Sweden many of
her former conquests. Like the first Gustavus he was the friend of
the lower orders, and by their aid overcame the power of the nobility
and made himself an absolute sovereign. After his death in 1697, his
son, Charles XII, succeeded at the age of fifteen. The rival powers
of Denmark, Poland and Russia, thinking it a favorable opportunity to
crush Sweden, formed a league with this intent. Charles at once proved
himself equal to the occasion by forcing Denmark to conclude peace,
and defeating an army of 50,000 Russians with 8,000 Swedes. Poland was
next attacked and King Augustus driven from his throne. Charles then
made the same mistake of moving upon Moscow in the winter, which broke
the power of Napoleon a century later. Defeated by Peter the Great at
Pultowa, Charles retreated to Bender in the dominions of the Sultan.
Here he was for a time imprisoned, but at length escaping returned to
Sweden in safety. For a time he seemed likely to regain the prestige
he had lost, but the fatal “shot” which pierced his brain at the
siege of Friedrichshall, in 1718, crushed the hopes of Sweden. From a
dictatorial position in the politics of Europe, she had fallen to the
rank of a third-rate power. Though thus the occasion of his country’s
ruin, Charles XII is the idol of every Swede. How fondly the memory of
his age (“Den Karolinska Tiden”) is still cherished in Sweden, we shall
see in our next paper.