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HANDWORK IN WOOD
by
WILLIAM NOYES, M.A.
Assistant Professor, Department of Industrial Arts.
Teachers College, Columbia University
New York City
[Illustration]
The Manual Arts Press
Peoria, Illinois
Copyright
William Noyes
1910
To my students
past present and future
a token of gratitude
for help and inspiration
FOREWORD
This book is intended primarily for teachers of woodwork, but
the author hopes that there will also be other workers in wood,
professional and amateur, who will find in it matter of interest and
profit.
The successful completion of the book is due chiefly to the untiring
assistance of my wife, Anna Gausmann Noyes, who has made almost all
of the drawings, corrected the text, read the proof, and attended to
numberless details.
Acknowledgments are hereby thankfully given for corrections and
suggestions in the text made by the following persons:
Mr. Chas. W. Weick of Teachers College, and Mr. W. F. Vroom of Public
School No. 5, of New York City, for revision of Chapters IV and V on
tools and fastenings.
Mr. Clinton S. VanDeusen of Bradley Polytechnic Institute, for
revision of Chapter X on wood finishing.
The Forest Service, Washington, D. C. for the originals of Figs. 1, 2,
3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 17, 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31,
33, and 54.
The New York State Forest Fish and Game Commission for the originals
of Figs. 12, 14, 15, and 47.
T. H. McAllister of New York for the originals of Figs. 16 and 20.
The Detroit Publishing Company for the original of Fig. 6.
The B. F. Sturtevant Company, Hyde Park, Mass., for the original of
Fig. 57.
Doubleday, Page & Co. for the original of Fig. 30.
Mr. Louis A. Bacon, Indianapolis. Ind., for the clamping device shown
in Fig. 255.
Sargent & Company, New Haven, Conn., W. C. Toles & Company, Chicago,
Ill., The Berlin Machine Works, Beloit, Wis., A. A. Loetscher,
Dubuque, Iowa, and the Stanley Rule and Level Co., New Britain, Conn.,
for electrotypes.
Allis Chalmers Company, Milwaukee, Wis., Clark Brothers, Belmont, N.
Y., The M. Garland Company, Bay City, Mich., The Prescott Company,
Menominee, Mich., for illustrations of sawmilling machinery.
And most of all, I wish to acknowledge my obligation to the numerous
writers of whose books and articles I have made free use, to which
references are made in the appropriate places.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER PAGE
General Bibliography 4
I Logging 7
II Sawmilling 30
III The Seasoning and Measuring of Wood 45
IV Wood Hand Tools 51
V Wood Fastenings 123
VI Equipment and Care of the Shop 136
VII The Common Joints 151
VIII Types of Wooden Structures 183
IX Principles of Joinery 203
X Wood Finishing 209
Index 224
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adams, Henry, _Joints in Wood-Work._ London: 60 Queen Victoria St.
1894.
Alexander, Jerome, _The Grading and Use of Glue._ _Wood Craft_, 5: 168,
Sep. '06.
Bailey, Charles H., _A Study of Manual Training Equipments._ _Manual
Training Magazine_, 6: 82. Jan. '05.
Barnard, Charles, _Tools and Machines._ N. Y.: Silver, Burdett and Co.
1903.
Barter, S. M., _Woodwork._ London: Whittaker and Co. 1892.
Benson, W. A. S., _Elements of Handicraft and Design._ London:
Macmillan and Co. 1893.
Brannt, W. T., _Painter, Gilder and Varnisher._ Philadelphia: H. C.
Baird & Co. 1893.
Bruncken, Ernest, _North American Forests and Forestry._ N. Y.: G. P.
Putnam's Sons. 1899.
Clark, R. I., _Varnish and Fossil Remains._ London: Chas. Letts & Co.
No date.
Compton, A. G., _First Lessons in Woodworking._ N. Y.: Ivison,
Blakeman, Taylor and Co. 1888.
Crawshaw, Fred D., _Problems in Furniture Making._ Peoria. Ill.: The
Manual Arts Press. 1906.
Disston, Henry, and Sons, _Handbook for Lumbermen._ Philadelphia, Pa.
Dunlap, Frederick. _Kiln-drying Hardwood Lumber._ _Wood Craft_, 6: 133,
Feb. '07.
Ellis, George, _Modern Practical Joinery._ London: B. T. Batsford, 486
pp., 1902, '03, '04 and '07.
Encyclopedia Britannica, _Lac, Varnish._ N. Y.: Scribner's. 1878.
Foster, Edwin W., _Elementary Woodworking._ Boston: Ginn and Co.
Goss, W. F. M., _Bench Work in Wood._ Boston: Ginn and Co. 1887 and
1905.
Griffith, Ira S., _Essentials of Woodworking._ Peoria Ill.: Manual
Arts Press. 1908.
Hammacher, Schlemmer & Co., _Tools._ Catalog No. 355. N. Y. 1908.
Hammacher, Schlemmer & Co., _Cabinet Hardware._ Catalog No. 151. N. Y.
1904.
Hodgson, Fred T., _The Up-to-date Hardwood Finisher._ Chicago: Fred J.
Drake and Co. 1904.
Hodgson, Fred T., _The Carpenter's Steel Square and Its Uses._ N. Y.:
Industrial Publishing Co. 1880.
Hovey-King, Alvin, _The Lumber Industry of the Pacific Coast._ _Review
of Reviews_, 27: 317, Mr., '03.
Hulbert, W. H., _The Lumber Jack and His Job. Outlook_, 76: 801, Ap.
2, '04.
International Correspondence School, _The Building Trades Pocketbook._
Scranton, Pa. International Textbook Co. 2nd edition. 1905.
International Encyclopedia, _Lac-Insect Varnish._ N. Y.: Dodd, Mead
and Co. 1902-1904.
Jones, J. E., _Lumbering in the Northwest._ _Cosmopolitan_, 15: 63, May
1893.
Larsson, Gustaf, _Elementary Sloyd and Whittling._ N. Y.: Silver,
Burdett & Co. 1906.
Maire, F., _The Modern Wood Finisher._ Chicago: Press of the Western
Painter.
Munn, M. J., _Great Industries of the U. S.--Lumber._ _Cosmopolitan_,
37: 441, Aug. '04.
Murray, M. W., _Problems in Wood-working._ Peoria, Ill.: Manual Arts
Press. 1905.
Murray, M. W., _The Manual Training Room and Its Equipment._ _Year Book
of the Council of Supervisors for-_ 1906, pp. 69-86.
Park, Joseph C. _Educational Woodworking for School and Home._ The
Macmillan Co., 1908.
Pichot, Gifford, _A Primer of Forestry._ Parts I and II, U. S. Dept.
of Agric. For. Serv. Bull. No. 24. 1899 and 1905.
Purfield, H. T., _The Length of Nails._ _Wood Craft_, 5: 181, Sp. '06.
Rivingston, see South Kensington Council on Education.
Rouillion, Louis, _Economies of Manual Training._ N. Y.: The Derry
Collard Company. 1905.
Roth, Filibert, _A First Book of Forestry._ Boston: Ginn & Co. 1902.
Sargent & Co., _Standard Steel Squares._ New Haven, Conn.
Seaton, Geo. A., _A Clamp for Use at the Grindstone._ _Woodcraft_, 6:
96. Jan., '07.
Selden, F. H., _Elementary Woodwork._ N. Y.: Rand, McNally & Co. 1906.
Sickels, Ivin, _Exercises in Woodworking._ N. Y.: D. Appleton & Co.
1889.
Smith, K., _Lumbering by Machinery._ _World's Work_, 7: 4435. Feb. '04.
Smith, R. H., _Cutting Tools._ London: Cassell & Co. 1884.
South Kensington Council on Education, _Notes on Building
Construction._ 3 vols. London: Rivington. 1883-1889.
Standage, H. C., _Glues and Cements for the Use of Woodworkers._ _Wood
Craft_, 7: 48, May, '07.
Tate, James M., _Training in Wood Work._ Minneapolis: North Western
School Supply Co. About 1905.
Trout, W. H., _The Modern Saw Mill._ _Cassier's Magazine_, 11: 83-95.
184-195, Dec. '96 and Jan. '97.
U. S. Department of Agriculture _Forest Service Classified List of
Publications. Forest Service Bulletins:_
No. 10. Filibert, Roth. _Timber._ 1895.
No. 34. Wm. F. Fox, _A History of the Lumber Industry in the
State of New York, 1902._
No. 41. Hermann von Schrenk, _Seasoning of Timber._ 1903.
Van Deusen, Clinton S., _Methods of Wood Finishing._ _Manual Training
Magazine_, 6: 93. Jan. '05.
Van Deusen, Clinton S., _Logging in the South._ _Manual Training
Magazine_, 1: 93. Jan. '00.
Wheeler, C. G., _Woodworking for Beginners._ N. Y.: G. P. Putnam's
Sons. 1899.
White, Stewart Edward, _The Blazed Trail._ N. Y.: McClure, Phillips &
Co. 1904.
White, Stewart Edward, _From Forest to Saw Mill._ _Junior Munsey_, 10:
362, Je. '01.
Anonymous.
_Nails. Wood Craft._ 5: 103, Jl. '06.
_A Dry-Kiln of Progressive Style._ _Wood Craft_, 6: 31. Nov. '06.
_Lumbering in Louisiana._ _Wood Craft_, 4: 55, Nov. '05.
_The Lac Industry of Assam. Journal of the Society of Arts._ 49: 192.
Feb 8 '01.
CHAPTER I.
LOGGING.
The rough and ready methods common in American logging operations are
the result partly of a tradition of inexhaustible supply, partly of
the fear of fire and the avoidance of taxes, partly of an eagerness to
get rich quick. Most of the logging has been done on privately owned
land or on shamelessly stolen public land, and the lumberman had no
further interest in the forest than to lumber it expeditiously.
[Illustration: Fig. 1. Making a Valuation Survey.]
[Illustration: Fig. 2. "Blazes" on Trees.]
Preliminary to the actual logging are certain necessary steps. First
of all is _landlooking_. This includes the survey of the forest land
for the purpose of locating good timber. Fig. 1. Most of the woodland
has previously been roughly surveyed by the government and maps made
indicating which parts are private land and which are still held
by the government. The boundaries of townships, sections, quarter
sections, eighties, forties, etc., are indicated by "blazes" on trees,
Fig. 2, so that the "cruiser" or "looker" as he goes thru the woods
can identify them with those on his oil paper map. The cruiser also
studies the kinds and character of the trees, the contour of the
ground, the proximity to streams,--all with the view to marketing the
product. Acting on the information thus gained by the cruiser, the
lumberman purchases his sections at the proper land office, or if
he is less scrupulous, buys only enough to serve as a basis for
operations. Enormous fortunes have been made by timber thieves, now
respectable members of the community. As a further preliminary step to
lumbering itself, the _tote road_ and _camp_ are built. The tote road
is a rough road on which supplies for crew and cattle can be taken to
camp from civilization.
It is barely passable for a team and a wagon, but it serves
its purpose, and over it come more men and horses. Lumber for
the floors and roofs of the shanties and for the rude pieces
of furniture that will be needed, tarred paper to make the
roofs tight, a few glazed window sashes, a huge range and a
number of box stoves, dishes and kitchen utensils, a little
stock of goods for the van, blankets by the dozen and score,
and countless boxes and barrels and bags of provisions.[1]
[Footnote 1: Hulbert: The Lumber Jack; Outlook, 76: 801, April
2, '04.]
The _camp_ itself, Fig. 3, is built of logs, roofed with plank,
covered with heavy tar paper, and dimly lighted. There are usually
five buildings,--the men's camp, the cook camp, the office, the barn,
and the blacksmith's shop. Many camps accommodate from eighty to one
hundred men. The men's camp is filled with bunks and is heated by a
stove and in general roughly furnished. Cooking and eating are done in
the cook camp, where the cook and his assistant, the "cookee," sleep.
The office is occupied by the foreman, log-sealers and clerks. Here
the books and accounts are kept, and here is the "van," stocked with
such goods as will supply the immediate needs of the lumber jacks.
[Illustration: Fig. 3. Winter Logging Camp. Itasco County, Minnesota.]
Before winter sets in the _main road_ is built, Fig. 15, p. 17, very
carefully graded from the camp down to the nearest mill or railway
siding, or oftener to the stream down which the logs are to be
floated. This road has to be as wide as a city street, 25 feet. The
route is carefully chosen, and the grade is made as easy as possible.
Much labor is spent upon it, clearing away stumps and rocks, leveling
up with corduroy, building bridges strong enough to carry enormous
loads, and otherwise making it as passable as can be; for when needed
later, its good condition is of first importance. This main road is
quite distinct from and much superior to the tote road.
At intervals alongside the main road, small squares called _skidways_
are cleared of brush and in each of them two tree trunks, "skids," are
laid at right angles to the road. On these the logs, when cut later,
are to be piled. Back from the skidways, into the woods the swampers
cut rough, narrow roads called _dray roads_ or travoy roads,--mere
trails sufficiently cleared of brush to allow a team of horses to pull
a log thru.
[Illustration: Fig. 4. Tools used in Logging.]
All these are operations preliminary to the felling of trees. The
tools commonly used in logging are shown in Fig. 4. When everything is
ready for felling, the "fitter" goes ahead _marking_ each tree to be
felled and the direction in which it is to fall by cutting a notch on
that side. Then come the sawyers in pairs, Fig. 5. First they chop a
deep gash on the side of the tree toward which it is to fall, and
then from the opposite side begin cutting with a long, Tuttle-tooth,
crosscut-saw. The saw is a long, flexible ribbon of steel, with
handles so affixed to each end that they can be removed easily. The
cut is made on the pulling stroke, and hence the kerf can be very
narrow. As soon as the saw is well within the trunk, the sawyers drive
iron wedges into the kerf behind it, partly to keep the weight of the
trunk from binding the saw, and partly to direct its fall. Then the
saw is pulled back and forth, and the wedges driven in farther and
farther, until every stroke of the maul that drives them sends a
shiver thru the whole tree. Just as the tree is ready to go over, the
saw handle at one end is unhooked and the saw pulled out at the other
side. "Timber!," the men cry out as a warning to any working near by,
for the tree has begun to lean slightly. Then with a hastening rush
the top whistles thru the air, and tears thru the branches of other
trees, and the trunk with a tremendous crash strikes the ground. Even
hardened loggers can hardly keep from shouting, so impressive is the
sight of a falling giant tree.
[Illustration: Fig. 5. Felling Red Spruce with a Saw. Adirondack
Mountains, New York.]
[Illustration: Fig. 6. Sawing Logs into Lengths.]
All this seems simple enough in outline, but the actual execution
requires considerable skill. Trees seldom stand quite vertical, there
is danger of lodging in some other tree in thick woods, and it is
therefore necessary to throw trees quite exactly. Some men become
so expert at this that they can plant a stake and drive it into the
ground by the falling trunk as truly as if they hit it with a maul. On
the other hand, serious accidents often happen in falling trees. Most
of them come from "side winders," i. e., the falling of smaller trees
struck by the felled trees.
After "falling" a tree, the sawyers mark off and saw the trunk into
log lengths, Fig. 6, paying due attention to the necessity of avoiding
knots, forks, and rotten places, so that some of the logs are eighteen
feet, some sixteen feet, some fourteen feet, and some only twelve feet
in length. Meanwhile the swampers trim off the branches, Fig. 7, a job
requiring no little skill, in order that the trunk may be shaved close
but not gashed.
[Illustration: Fig. 7. Trimming off Branches of Spruce. Adirondack
Mountains, New York.]
[Illustration: Fig. 8. Hauling Spruce Logs to the Skidway. Adirondack
Mountains, New York.]
This finishes the second group of operations, the felling. Next the
logs are _dragged_ out to the dray roads, Fig. 8. A heavy pair of
tongs, like ice-tongs, is attached to one end, and the log is snaked
out by horses to the skidway. If the log is very heavy, one end is put
on a dray. By one way or another the log is dragged out and across the
two parallel skids, on which it is rolled by cant-hooks to the end
of skids toward the road way. If other logs already occupy the skids,
each new log as it arrives is piled on the first tier. As the pile
grows higher, each log is "decked," that is, rolled up parallel poles
laid slanting up the face of the pile, by means of a chain passed
under and over the log and back over the pile, Fig. 11. A horse
hitched to the end of the chain hauls up the log, which is guided by
the "send-up men" with their cant-hooks.
Once piled the logs are "_scaled_," that is measured in order to
compute the number of board feet in them, Fig. 9. The scaler generally
has an assistant, for logs in large piles must be measured at both
ends in order to determine which is the top, the body of the log being
out of sight. When measured each end of the log is stamped with a
hammer with the owner's mark, by which it can afterward be identified.
Here the logs rest and the felling and skidding continue until deep
snow falls and then the sleigh haul begins.
[Illustration: Fig. 9. "Scaling" Logs on the Skids.]
[Illustration: Fig. 10. Making an Ice Road by Flooding.]
[Illustration: Fig. 11. Decking Logs on Skidway.]
For this the main road is especially prepared. First the road is
carefully _plowed_ with an immense V plow, weighted down by logs. To
the plow are attached fans. Only an inch or two of snow is left on
the ground by this plow, which is followed by another special plow
to gouge the ruts, and by a gang of "road monkeys" who clear the
road thoroly. Then follows an immense tank set on runners and holding
perhaps seventy-five barrels of water, and so arranged as to flood
the road from holes in the bottom of the tank, a sort of rough road
sprinkler, Fig. 10. The sprinkler goes over the road again and again
until the road is covered by a clear, solid sheet of ice often two
feet thick, extending from the skidways to the banking grounds. This
ice road is one of the modern improvements in logging. Once finished,
these roads are beautiful pieces of construction with deep, clear
ruts. They have to be constantly watched and repaired, and this is
the work of the "road monkeys." If possible the road has been made
entirely with down grades but some of these are so steep that a man
must be prepared with sand or hay to check too headlong a descent.
[Illustration: Fig. 12. Loading a Sled from a Skidway.]
[Illustration: Fig. 13. A Load of Logs. Flathead County, Montana.]
When all is ready the sleigh haul begins. Piling on the sleighs
or bobs, Fig. 12, is similar to piling on the skidways, but more
difficult, for the load has to be carefully balanced, Fig. 13. Chains
bind the loads but the piling is only too apt to be defective, and
the whole load "squash out" with a rush. It is a time of feverish
activity. The sprinklers are at work till after midnight, the loaders
are out long before daylight. The blacksmith is busy with repairs,
the road monkeys work overtime, and the cook works all the time.
"Everybody works." The haul itself is full of excitement. The
ponderous load of logs, weighing anywhere from eight to thirty-five
tons has to be conducted largely by its own momentum down this glassy
road. If a horse fall nothing can save its life. If the runners get
out of the ruts, the whole load, driver and all, is likely to be
upset. It is an extremely hazardous job, Fig. 15.
As each load comes down to the _banking grounds_, Fig. 14, or log
dump, it is stopped opposite long parallel skids. The wrapping chains
are unhooked and the lower log on the skid side is worked out with
cant-hooks till the whole load flattens out. The logs are then
"decked" on immense piles, sometimes a mile long and filling the whole
river from bank to bank. A decking chain 300 feet long is sometimes
required to roll the logs to their proper places. Here the logs rest
till the spring freshets come. This completes the transportation by
land.
[Illustration: Fig. 14. Banking Grounds.]
With the coming of the spring thaw, the river bed is filled with a
freshet of water which seizes and carries the logs down stream. Many
on the banks, however, have to be started on their way, and this is
called "breaking out the roll ways." They often start on their water
journey with a great crash.
[Illustration: Fig. 15. The Sleigh Haul.]
[Illustration: Fig. 16. Sacking the Rear.]
Now comes _the drive_, an arduous and often perilous task. Some of the
men are stationed along the shores to prevent the logs from lodging
or floating into bays or setbacks. Some stand at the heads of bars or
islands, where with pike poles they shove off the logs that might stop
there and form a jam; others follow "sacking the rear" to clean out
such logs as may have become stranded. This "sacking the rear"
takes most of the time, Fig. 16. While "on the drive" men often work
fourteen hours a day, a good part of the time up to their waists in
ice water. Their boots are shod with "caulks," or spikes, to keep
them from slipping on the logs, and they carry either pike poles or
peaveys, Fig. 17. The latter are similar to cant-hooks, except that
they have sharp pikes at their ends. So armed, they have to "ride
any kind of a log in any water, to propel a log by jumping on it, by
rolling it squirrel fashion with the feet, by punting it as one would
a canoe; to be skilful in pushing, prying, and poling other logs from
the quarter deck of the same cranky craft." Altho the logs are carried
by the river, they have to be "driven" with amazing skill and bravery.
[Illustration: Fig. 17. Log Driving on the Ausable River.]
The climax of hardship and courage is reached when a "_jam_" is
formed, Fig. 18. Sometimes one or two logs are caught in such a way
as to be locked or jammed and then soon other logs begin to accumulate
behind them, till the whole river is full of a seemingly inextricable
mass. Sometimes these jams can be loosened by being pulled apart, one
log at a time. A hundred men can pull out an amazing number of logs
in a day. The problem always is to set free or cut out certain "key"
logs, which lock the whole mass. Following is a description by Stewart
Edward White of the breaking of such a jam:
The crew were working desperately. Down on the heap somewhere,
two logs were crossed in such a manner as to lock the whole.
They sought those logs.
Thirty feet above the bed of the river six men clamped their
peaveys into the soft pine; jerking, pulling, lifting, sliding
the great logs from their places. Thirty feet below, under
the threatening face, six other men coolly picked out and set
adrift one by one, the timbers not inextricably imbedded. From
time to time the mass creaked, settled, perhaps even moved
a foot or two; but always the practised rivermen, after a
glance, bent more eagerly to their work. * * * Suddenly the
six men below the jam scattered. * * * holding their peaveys
across their bodies, they jumped lightly from one floating log
to another in the zig-zag to shore. * * *
[Illustration: Fig. 18. Log Jam. Adirondack Mountains, New York.]
In the meantime a barely perceptible motion was communicating
itself from one particle to another thru the center of the
jam. * * * The crew redoubled its exertion, clamping its
peaveys here and there, apparently at random, but in reality
with the most definite of purposes. A sharp crack exploded
immediately underneath. There could no longer exist any doubt
as to the motion, altho it was as yet sluggish, glacial. Then
in silence a log shifted--in silence and slowly--but with
irresistible force * * * other logs in all directions
up-ended. * * *
Then all at once down by the face something crashed, the
entire stream became alive. It hissed and roared, it shrieked,
groaned, and grumbled. At first slowly, then more rapidly, the
very fore-front of the center melted inward and forward and
downward, until it caught the fierce rush of the freshet and
shot out from under the jam. Far up-stream, bristling and
formidable, the tons of logs, grinding savagely together,
swept forward. * * *
Then in a manner wonderful to behold, thru the smother of foam
and spray, thru the crash and yell of timbers, protesting the
flood's hurrying, thru the leap of destruction, the drivers
zigzagged calmly and surely to the shore.
Sometimes cables have to be stretched across the chasm, and special
rigging devised to let the men down to their dangerous task and more
especially to save them from danger when the crash comes.
[Illustration: Fig. 20. Splash-Dam.]
[Illustration: Fig. 21. Logs in Boom. Glens Falls, New York.]
In case such efforts are unavailing, it is necessary to "shoot" the
jam with dynamite. Another device resorted to where the supply of
water is insufficient is the _splash-dam_, Fig. 20. The object is to
make the operator independent of freshets, by accumulating a head of
water and then, by lifting the gates, creating an artificial freshet,
sufficient to float the timber down stream.
[Illustration: Fig. 22. A Sorting Jack.]
Thus by one means and another, the logs are driven along until caught
by a boom, Fig. 21, which consists of a chain of logs stretched across
the river, usually at a mill. Since the river is a common carrier, the
drives of a number of logging companies may float into the mill pond
together. But each log is stamped on both ends, so that it can be
sorted out, Fig. 22, and sent into the boom of its owner.
MECHANICAL METHODS IN LUMBERING.
The operations described above are those common in the lumber regions
of the northeast and the Lake States. But special conditions produce
special methods. A very effective device where streams are small is
the flume, Fig. 23. This is a long wooden trough thru which water is
led, and the logs floated end on. It is sometimes many miles long; in
one case in California twenty-five miles.
In the South where there is no snow, logs are largely brought out to
the railway or river by being hung under immense two-wheeled trucks,
called slip-tongue carts, drawn by mules, Fig. 24. The wheels are
nearly eight feet in diameter.
[Illustration: Fig. 23. Six Mile Flume. Adirondack Mountains, New
York.]
Some kinds of wood are so heavy that they will not float at all, and
some sink so readily that it does not pay to transport them by river.
In such cases temporary railways are usually resorted to.
[Illustration: Fig. 24. Hauling Logs by Mules. Oscilla, Georgia.]
On the Pacific coast, where the forests are dense, the trees of
enormous size, and no ice road is possible, still other special
methods have been devised. On so great a scale are the operations
conducted that they may properly be called engineering feats. Consider
for a moment the size of the trees: red fir ranges from five to
fifteen feet in diameter, is commonly two hundred fifty feet high, and
sometimes three hundred twenty-five feet high. The logs are commonly
cut twenty-five feet long, and such logs often weigh thirty to forty
tons each, and the logs of a single tree may weigh together one
hundred fifty tons. The logging of such trees requires special
appliances. Until recently all the improved methods were in forms of
transportation, the felling still being done by hand with very long
saws, Fig. 25, but now even the felling and sawing of logs in the
forest is partly done by machinery.
[Illustration: Fig. 25. A Twenty-Five Foot Saw used for Crosscutting
Big Logs.]
[Illustration: Fig. 26. Hauling Big Logs by Donkey Engine.]
To work the saw, power is supplied by a steam or gasoline engine
mounted upon a truck which can be taken readily from place to place.
As the maximum power required is not over ten-horse-power, the
apparatus is so light that it can be moved about easily. The saw can
be adjusted to cut horizontally, vertically, or obliquely, and hence
is used for sawing into lengths as well as for felling.
_Falling beds._ Since the weight of a two hundred fifty foot fir is
such that if the impact of its fall be not gradually checked the force
with which it strikes the ground may split the trunk, a bed for its
fall is prepared by the swampers. Usually piles of brush are placed as
buffers along the "falling line" so that the trunk will strike these.
If the tree stands on the hill side, it is thrown up hill, in order to
shorten the fall.
After the felling comes the trimming of branches and knots and
"rossing" of bark, to lessen the friction in sliding along the
skidway.
_The skidway._ By the skidway in the Puget Sound region is meant a
corduroy road. This is constructed of trunks of trees ranging from a
foot to two feet in diameter. These are "rossed," that is, stripped of
their bark and laid across the road, where they are held in place by
pegs driven into the ground, and by strips spiked upon the tops of the
logs. If possible they are laid in swampy places to keep the surface
damp and slippery. At turns in the road, pulleys are hung, thru which
the hauling cables pass. The skidway runs to the railway siding or
water's edge. Over these skidways the logs are hauled out by various
means. Formerly "strings" of oxen or Percheron horses were used, but
they are now largely superseded by some form of donkey engine, Fig.
26. These are placed at the center of a "yard."
Yarding is the skidding of logs to the railway or water way by means
of these donkey engines. Attached to the donkey engine are two drums,
one for the direct cable, three-fourths to one inch in diameter and
often half a mile long, to haul in the logs, the other for the smaller
return cable, twice as long as the direct cable and used to haul back
the direct cable. At the upper end of the skidway, when the logs are
ready to be taken to the railway or boomed, they are fastened together,
end to end, in "turns" of four or more. The direct cable is attached
to the front of the "turn", and the return cable to the rear end. By
winding the direct cable on its drum, the "turn" is hauled in. The
return cable is used to haul back the end of the direct cable, and
also, in case of a jam, to pull back and straighten out the turn.
Instead of a return cable a horse is often used to haul out the direct
cable. Signaling from the upper end of the skidway to the engineer is
done by a wire connected to the donkey's whistle, by an electric bell,
or by telephone.
Sometimes these donkey engines are in relays, one engine hauling a
turn of logs to within reach of the next one, which passes it on to
the next until the siding is reached.
[Illustration: Fig. 27. Steam Skidder at Work. Grant County,
Arkansas.]
Where there are steep canons to be crossed, a wire trolley may be
stretched and the great logs carried over suspended from it.
In the South a complicated machine called a steam skidder, Fig. 27,
equipped with drums, booms, etc., is much used both for skidding in
the logs and then for loading them on the cars. It is itself mounted
on a flat car.
An improvement on this is the locomotive boom derrick which is widely
used both on the Pacific coast and of late in the Lake Superior
region. It is a combined locomotive, skidder and loader. Its most
unique feature is that it can be lifted off the track so as to allow
flat cars to run underneath it. This feat is accomplished thus: A
device, which is something like that used in elevating the bodies of
coal wagons, lifts the engine several feet above the rails. Then steel
legs, which are curved outwardly, are lowered until the shoes which
are attached to them rest on the outward end of the railroad ties. The
truck of the locomotive is then folded up under it out of the way and
cars can run under it, the curved legs giving plenty of clearance.
The derrick attached is of the breast type, the two legs being firmly
fastened. When anchored the engine can be used either for skidding or
loading. For skidding, there are two cables, one being run out while
the other is being wound on its drum.
[Illustration: Fig. 28. Log Train, Humboldt County, California.]
In loading, the machine is located so that the empty car will be
directly in front of it, and then the logs are lifted up and placed on
the car by the derrick. When the car is loaded the machine can either
move on to the next car, or pull it under itself into place. With the
help of four men it can load from 125,000 to 150,000 feet of timber
in a day. By means of the cable it can make up a train, and then
by lowering the truck and raising the legs out of the way, it is
converted into a locomotive and hauls the train away to the mill or
railway station at the rate of three or four miles at hour.
As forests are cut away along the water courses, railways have to be
resorted to more and more, Fig. 28. This has had a stimulative effect
on the logging business, for now the logger is independent of the
snow. On account of the steep grades and sharp curves often necessary
in logging railways, a geared locomotive is sometimes used, Fig. 29.
It can haul a train of twenty loaded cars up a twelve per cent grade.
The geared engine has also been used as a substitute for cable power,
in "yarding" operations. The "turns" of logs are drawn over the ground
between the rails, being fastened to the rear of the engine by hook
and cable. This has proved to be a very economical use of power and
plant.
[Illustration: Fig. 29. Donkey Engine Yarding.]
[Illustration: Fig. 30. Giant Raft. In the background is a completed
raft; in the foreground a cradle in which a raft is being built.]
Another method of traction where the woodland is open enough is with
a traction engine. The ones employed have sixty to one hundred horse
power. The great logs may be placed on wood rollers, as a house is
when moved, or the logs may be hauled in on a low truck with broad
wheels. The "tractor" hauls the log direct to the railway if the
distance is not too great.
[Illustration: Fig. 31. Snow Locomotive. Takes the place of 12
teamsters and 12 horses. Minnesota.]
In Northern Michigan a "snow locomotive," Fig. 31, is coming into
use, which has tremendous tractive power, hauling one hundred to one
hundred fifty tons of lumber over snow or ice. It moves on runners,
but there is between them a large cylinder armed with teeth. This
cylinder can be raised or lowered by the operator as it moves over the
surface of the ground. The teeth catch in the snow or ice, and since
the cylinder is heated by the exhaust steam, it melts and packs the
snow for the trucks following it. The drum is six feet in diameter,
with walls an inch and a half thick, and it weighs seven tons. It is
used in all sorts of places where horses cannot go, as in swamps, and
by substituting wheels for runners it has even been used on sand.
In the Canadian lakes there has been devised a queer creature called
an "alligator," a small and heavily equipped vessel for hauling the
logs thru the lakes. When its operations in one lake are finished, a
wire cable is taken ashore and made fast to some tree or other safe
anchorage, the capstan on its forward deck is revolved by steam and
the "alligator" hauls itself out of the water across lots to the next
lake and begins work there.
The greatest improvement in water transportation is the giant raft,
Fig. 30. When such a raft is made up, logs of uniform length are
placed together, the width of the raft being from sixty to one hundred
feet and its length, one thousand feet or more. It may contain a
million board feet of timber. The different sections are placed end to
end, and long boom sticks, i. e., logs sixty to seventy feet long,
are placed around them to bind the different sections together, and
finally the whole mass is heavily chained. Such a raft has been towed
across the Pacific.
LOGGING.
REFERENCES[*]:
River Lumbering.
Pinchot, _Primer_, II, pp. 40-53.
White, _Blazed Trail_, pp. 5-15, 25, 38-39, 52-53, 63-65, 72-85, 91-99,
113-125, 134, 181-196, 216-229, 257, 268, 320-343, 355, 365 ff.
_For. Bull._, No. 34, pp. 33-41, Fox.
White, _Jun. Mun._, 10: 362.
Hulbert, _Outl._, 76; 801.
_Wood Craft_, 4: 55.
Smith, K., _World's Work_, 7: 4435.
Mechanical Methods.
_World's Work_, 7: 4435.
_Outl._, 76: 812.
Bruncken, p. 86.
Bruncken, pp. 76-87.
Munn, _Cosmop._, 37: 441.
Roth, _First Book_, pp. 133-174.
Hovey-King, _Rev. of Rev._, 27: 317.
Jones, _Cosmop._, 15: 63.
Price, _World's Work_, 5: 3207.
_For. Bull._, No. 61.
_Cassier_, 29: 443, April, '06.
_Cosmop._, 37: 445.
_Rev. of Rev._, 28: 319.
[Footnote *: For general bibliography see page 4.]
CHAPTER II.
SAWMILLING.
The principal saws in a mill are of three kinds, the circular, Fig.
32, the gang, Fig. 33, and the band, Fig. 34. The circular-saw, tho
very rapid, is the most wasteful because of the wide kerf, and of
course the larger the saw the thicker it is and the wider the kerf.
The waste in sawdust is about one-fifth of the log. In order to lessen
this amount two smaller saws, one hung directly above the other, have
been used. One saws the lower half of the log and the other the upper
half. In this way, it is possible to cut very large logs with the
circular-saw and with less waste. The circular-saw is not a perfectly
flat disc, but when at rest is slightly convex on one side and concave
on the other. This fullness can be pushed back and forth as can the
bottom of an oil-can. When moving at a high rate of speed, however,
the saw flattens itself by centrifugal force. This enables it to cut
straight with great accuracy.
[Illustration: Fig. 32. Double Circular-Saw and Carriage.]
A gang-saw is simply a series of straight saw-blades set in a vertical
frame. This has a reciprocating motion, enabling it to cut a log into
a number of boards at one time. It has this drawback, that it must
cut the size of lumber for which it is set; that is, the sawyer has
no choice in cutting the thickness, but it is very economical, wasting
only one-eighth of the log in sawdust. A special form is the flooring
gang. It consists of a number of saws placed one inch apart. Thick
planks are run thru it to saw up flooring.
[Illustration: Fig. 33. Gang-Saw.]
[Illustration: Fig. 34. Band-Saw.]
The band-saw is fast displacing the other two, wherever it can be
used. It cuts with great rapidity and the kerf is narrow. When first
used it could not be depended upon to cut straight, but by utilizing
the same principle that is used in the circular-saw, of putting the
cutting edge under great tension by making it slightly shorter than
the middle of the saw, it now cuts with great accuracy. Band-saws are
now made up to 12 inches wide, 50 feet long, and run at the rate of
10,000 feet a minute. They are even made with the cutting teeth on
both edges, so that the log can be sawed both going and coming. This
idea was unsuccessful until the invention of the telescopic band-mill,
Fig. 35. In this the entire mechanism carrying the wheels on which the
band-saw revolves can be moved up and down, so as to bring the point
where the saw leaves the upper wheel as close to the top of the
different sized logs as possible.
[Illustration: Fig. 35. Double-Carrying Telescopic Band-Mill. Mill in
raised position for large log.]
[Illustration: Fig. 36. Jack-Ladder, with Endless Chain.]
The usual modern mill is a two story building, Fig. 37, built at a
convenient locality both for receiving the logs and for shipping the
lumber. Whether the logs arrive by water or by rail, they are,
if possible, stored in a mill-pond until used in order to prevent
checking, discoloration, decay, and worm attack. From the pond they
are hauled up out of the water on to a "jack-ladder," by means of an
endless chain, provided with saddles or spurs which engage the logs
and draw them up into the second story on to the log slip, Fig. 36.
[Illustration: Fig. 37. Two-Story Mill at Virginia, Minnesota, Showing
Jack-Ladders and Consumer.]
[Illustration: Fig. 38. Log-Flipper.]
[Illustration: Fig. 39. Log-Stop and Loader. By letting steam into the
cylinder, the projecting arm revolves, rolling one log over onto the
carriage and holding the next one till wanted.]
After the logs have entered the mill, they are inspected for stones
lodged in the bark, and for spikes left by the river men, and then
measured. Under the log-slip is the steam "flipper" or "kicker," Fig.
38, by means of which the scaler or his assistant, throwing a lever,
causes the log to be kicked over to one side or the other, on to the
log-deck, an inclined floor sloping toward the saw-carriage. Down this
the log rolls until stopped by a log-stop, or log-loader, Fig. 39,
a double-aimed projection, which prevents it from rolling on the
carriage till wanted. This stop is also worked by steam. By letting
the steam into the cylinder which controls it, one log is rolled over
on the carriage and the next one held. The log on the carriage is at
once "dogged," that is, clamped tight by iron dogs, the carriage is
set for the proper cut, and moves forward to the saw which cuts
off the first slab. The carriage is then "gigged" or reversed. This
operation offsets the carriage one-eighth of an inch so that the log
returns entirely clear of the saw. In the same way two or three 1"
boards are taken off, the dogs are then knocked out, and the log
canted over half a revolution. This is done by means of the "steam
nigger," Fig. 40, a long, perpendicular toothed bar which comes up
thru the floor, engages the log, and turns it over till the sawn side
comes up against the knees of the carriage. The log is dogged again
and a second slab and several boards are taken off. The log or "stock"
as it is now called, is 10", 12", 14", or 16" thick; the "nigger" then
gives it a quarter-turn, leaving it lying on a sawn side. It is dogged
again, and all sawn up except enough to make a few boards. This last
piece is given a half-turn, bringing the sawn side against the knees,
and it is sawn up. Each board as it is sawn off is thrown by the
board-flipper or cant-flipper,[2] Fig. 41, on to the "live rollers,"
which take it to the next process. Another log comes on the carriage
and the process is repeated.
[Footnote 2: A "cant" is a squared or partly squared log.]
[Illustration: Fig. 40. The Steam Nigger. The toothed bar turns the
log over into the desired position.]
[Illustration: Fig. 41. Steam Cant-Flipper. This machine is used to
move cants, timber, or lumber from live rollers to gangs, band resaw
mills, or elsewhere. The timber is discharged upon skid rollers, as
shown, or upon transfer chains.]
[Illustration: Fig. 42. Log-Carriage, holding quartered log in
position to saw.]
The saw-carriage, Fig. 42, is propelled forward and back by a piston
running in a long cylinder, into either end of which steam can be
turned by the operator.
[Illustration: Fig. 43. Double Gang Edger. This machine trims off the
rough edges of the "waney" boards by means of the four saws in the
main frame of the machine.]
[Illustration: Fig. 44. Automatic Steam Transfer for Timber, Lumber
and Slabs. The boards are carried along by the cylinders, CCC, until
they hit the bumper, B. This movement admits steam to the cylinder,
CY, which raises the revolving chains or skids, which transfers the
stock sidewise to other live rollers as required.]
As the sawn boards fall off the log, they land on "live," that is,
revolving rollers, which carry them along at the rate of 200 to 250
feet a minute. Stops are provided farther along to stop the boards
wherever wanted, as at the edger, Fig. 43, or the slasher. From the
live rollers the boards are transferred automatically, Fig. 44, by
chains running at right angles to the rollers and brought within reach
of the edger man. About one-third of the boards of a log have rough
edges, and are called "waney." These must go thru the edger to make
their edges parallel. The edger man works with great speed. He sees at
once what can be made out of a board, places it in position and runs
it thru. From the edger the boards are carried to the trimmer, which
cuts the length. The lumberman's rule is to "cut so that you can cut
again." The so-called 16' logs are really 16' 6". The trimmer, Fig.
45, now trims these boards to 16' 1", so that if desired they can
still be cut again. The trimmer may be set to cut at any desired
length according to the specifications.
[Illustration: Fig. 45. Automatic Gang Lumber-Trimmer. It may be set
to cut automatically to any desired length.]
[Illustration: Fig. 46. Lumber Sorting Shed. Virginia, Minnesota.]
[Illustration: Fig. 47.]
The boards are now graded as to quality into No. 1, No. 2, etc., Fig.
46, and run out of the mill, to be stacked up in piles, Fig. 47. Big
timbers go directly from the saw on the rolls to the back end of the
mill, where the first end is trimmed by a butting-saw or cut-off-saw
which swings, Fig. 48. The timber is then shoved along on dead rolls
and the last end trimmed by the butting-saw to a definite length as
specified, and shoved out.
One of the most remarkable features of the modern mill is its speed.
From the time the log appears till the last piece of it goes racing
out of the mill, hardly more than a minute may have elapsed.
[Illustration: Fig. 48. Cut-off-Saw. This saw trims the ends of
timbers.]
A large part of the problem of sawmilling is the disposal of the
waste. The first of these is the sawdust. In all first class mills,
this together with shavings (if a planing-mill is combined) is burned
for fuel. It is sucked up from the machines and carried in large tubes
to the boiler-room and there is mechanically supplied to the fires.
The slabs, once considered as waste, contain much material that is now
utilized. From the live rolls, on which all the material falls from
the main band-saw, the slabs are carried off by transfer chains,
and by another set of five rollers to the "slasher," Fig. 50, which
consists of a line of circular-saws placed 4' 1" apart. This slasher
cuts up the slabs into lengths suitable for lath or fence-pickets.
Fig. 49. Or they can be resawn into 16" lengths for shingles or
fire-wood.
[Illustration: Fig. 49. Ten Saw Gang Lath Bolter. This machine cuts up
material lengthwise into laths.]
[Illustration: Fig. 50. Slab-Slasher. This machine cuts up the slabs
into lengths suitable for lath or fence-pickets.]
From the "slasher" the 4' 1" lengths are carried on by traveling
platforms, chains, etc., to the lath-machines, Fig. 51, where they are
sawn up, counted as sawn, bound in bundles of 100, trimmed to exactly
4' in length and sent off to be stored. The shingle bolts are
picked off the moving platforms by men or boys, and sent to the
shingle-machine, Fig. 52, where they are sawn into shingles and
dropped down-stairs to be packed. Shingle-bolts are also made from
crooked or otherwise imperfect logs.
Of what is left, a good part goes into the grinder or "hog," Fig. 53,
which chews up all sorts of refuse into small chips suitable for fuel
to supplement the sawdust if necessary. Band-saws make so little dust
and such fine dust that this is often necessary.
[Illustration: Fig. 51. Combination Lath-Binder and Trimmer. With this
machine the operator can trim the bundles of lath simply by tilting
the packing frame over from him causing the bundles to pass between
the saws, thereby trimming both ends at one movement.]
[Illustration: Fig. 52. Hand Shingle-Machine. This machine is used in
Sawmills in which it is desired to utilize slabs and trimmings by
sawing shingles therefrom, or to saw shingles from prepared bolts.]
If there is any refuse that cannot be used at all it goes to the
scrap-pile, Fig. 54, or to the "consumer," the tall stack shown in
Fig. 37, see p. 33.
Boards ordinarily sawn from logs are "slash-sawn," i. e., they are
tangential or bastard, each cut parallel to the previous one. By this
process, only the central boards would be radial or "rift" boards.
[Illustration: Fig. 53. Edging grinder or Hog. It cuts any kind
of wood into coarse or fine chips suitable to be handled by chain
conveyor or blower.]
[Illustration: Fig. 54. Scrap-Pile. Oscilla. Georgia.]
But, for a number of reasons, radial boards are better. They warp
less because the annual rings cross the board more evenly. Yellow pine
flooring that is rift-sawn is more valuable than slash-sawn, because
the edge of the annual rings makes a more even grain, Fig. 55. Where
slash-grained flooring is used, the boards should be laid so that the
outside of each board will be up in order that the inner rings may not
"shell out."
[Illustration: Fig. 55. Slash-Grain and Comb-Grain Flooring.]
In sawing oak for valuable furniture or trim, the log is first
"quartered" and then the quarters sawn up as nearly radially as is
desired. There are various methods of cutting quartered logs, as
illustrated in Fig. 56.
[Illustration: Fig. 56. Methods of Sawing Quartered Logs.]
In making staves for water-tight barrels, it is essential that they be
cut radially in the log, in order that the staves be as non-permeable
to water as possible.
[Illustration: Fig. 57. Lumber-Kiln.]
SAWMILLING.
REFERENCES:[*]
Trout, Cassier 11: 83, 184.
Woodcraft 5: 56, May '06.
[Footnote *: For general bibliography see p. 4.]
CHAPTER III.
SEASONING.
The seasoning of wood is important for several reasons. It reduces
weight, it increases strength, it prevents changes in volume after it
is worked into shape, and it prevents checking and decay. Decay can
also be prevented by submergence and burying, if by so doing logs are
kept from fungal attacks. The piles of the Swiss Lake dwellings, which
are in a state of good preservation, are of prehistoric age. Wood
under water lasts longer than steel or iron under water. But for
almost all purposes wood has to be dried in order to be preserved. The
wood is cut up, when green, to as thin pieces as will be convenient
for its use later, for the rate of drying depends largely upon the
shape and size of the piece, an inch board drying more than four times
as fast as a four inch plank, and more than twenty times as fast as a
ten inch timber.
There are various methods of seasoning:
(1) Natural or air-seasoning is the most common, and in some respects
the best. In this method, the wood is carefully and regularly piled in
the seasoning-yard, so as to be protected as far as possible from sun
and rain, but with air circulating freely on all sides of the boards,
Fig. 47, see p. 38. To accomplish this, "sticking" is employed, i. e.,
strips of wood are placed crosswise close to the ends and at intervals
between the boards. In this way the weight of the superposed boards
tends to keep those under them from warping. The pile is skidded a
foot or two off the ground and is protected above by a roof made of
boards so laid that the rain will drain off.
Fire-wood is best dried rapidly so that it will check, making air
spaces which facilitate ignition, but lumber needs to be slowly dried
in cool air so that the fibers may accommodate themselves to the
change of form and the wood check as little as possible. Good
air-drying consumes from two to six years, the longer the better.
(2) Kiln-drying or hot-air-seasoning is a much more rapid process than
air-seasoning and is now in common use, Fig. 57. The drying is also
more complete, for while air-dried wood retains from 10% to 20% of
moisture, kiln-dried wood may have no more than 5% as it comes from
the kiln. It will, however, reabsorb some moisture from the air, when
exposed to it.
The wood of conifers, with its very regular structure, dries
and shrinks more evenly and much more rapidly than the wood of
broad-leaved trees, and hence is often put into the kiln without
previous air-drying, and dried in a week or even less time.
Oak is the most difficult wood to dry properly. When it and other
hardwoods are rapidly dried without sufficient surrounding moisture,
the wood "case-hardens," that is, the outer part dries and shrinks
before the interior has had a chance to do the same, and this forms a
shell or case of shrunken, and often checked wood around the
interior which also checks later. This interior checking is called
honeycombing. Hardwood lumber is commonly air-dried from two to six
months, before being kiln-dried. For the sake of economy in time,
the tendency is to eliminate yard-drying, and substitute kiln-drying.
Kiln-drying of one inch oak, takes one or two weeks, quarter-sawn
boards taking one and a half times as long as plain-sawn.
The best method of drying is that which gradually raises the
temperature of both the wood and of the water which it contains to the
point at which the drying is to take place. Care is therefore taken
not to let the surface become entirely dry before the internal
moisture is heated. This is done by retaining the moisture first
vaporized about the wood, by means of wet steam. When the surface is
made permeable to moisture, drying may take place rapidly. Curtains
of canvas are hung all around the lumber on the same principle
that windows in newly plastered buildings are hung with muslin.
The moisture is absorbed on the inner surface of the curtain and
evaporates from the outer surface. Improvements in kiln-drying are
along the line of moist air operation. In common practice, however,
the moist air principle is often neglected.
There are two methods in operation, the progressive method and the
charge method. In the progressive, the process is continuous, the
loads going in at one end of the kiln, and out at the other, the
temperature and the moisture being so distributed in the kiln, that
in passing from the green to the dry end, a load of lumber is first
moistened, then heated, and finally dried out. In the charge system,
the process is intermittent, one charge being removed before a new one
is admitted. This gives the best results with high grade lumber for
special uses.
A modification of hot-air-seasoning is that which subjects the wood to
a moderate heat in a moist atmosphere charged with the products of the
combustion of fuel.
(3) Small pieces of wood may be effectively seasoned by being boiled
in water and then dried. The process seems to consist of dissolving
out albuminous substances and thus allowing freer evaporation. Its
effect is probably weakening.
(4) Soaking in water is sometimes used as a good preparation for
air-seasoning. Previous soaking hastens seasoning. River men insist
that timber is improved by rafting. It is a common practice to let
cypress logs soak in the swamps where they grow for several months
before they are "mined out." They are eagerly sought after by joiners
and carpenters, because their tendency to warp is lessened. Ebony is
water-soaked in the island of Mauritius as soon as cut. Salt water
renders wood harder, heavier, and more durable and is sometimes
applied to ship timbers, but cannot be used with timbers intended for
ordinary purposes, as the presence of salt tends to absorb atmospheric
moisture.
(5) Boiling in oil is resorted to for special purposes, both for
preservation and to give strength. For example, the best handscrews
are so treated. The oil also prevents glue from sticking, the most
frequent cause of injury to handscrews.
(6) There are a number of "impregnation" methods of preserving timber,
and their practice is spreading rapidly. Of the various preservative
processes, those using coal tar creosote and zinc chloride have proved
most efficient. The purpose is to force the preservative into the
pores of the wood, either by painting, soaking, or putting under
pressure. Such impregnation methods double or treble the life of
railway ties. It is now being used with great success to preserve
electric wire poles, mine-props, piling, fence-posts, etc.
Wood preservation has three great advantages, it prolongs the life
of timbers in use, reduces their cost, and makes possible the use of
species that once were considered worthless. For example, the cheap
and abundant loblolly pine can be made, by preservative methods, to
take the place of high priced long-leaf pine for many purposes.
PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS FOR STORING LUMBER.
Under the hasty methods prevalent in the mill, very little wood comes
to the shop well seasoned, and it should therefore be carefully stored
before using, so as to have the fullest possible air circulation
around it. Where the boards are large enough, "sticking" is the best
method of storage, i. e., narrow strips of wood are placed at short
intervals between the pieces which are piled flat. The weight of the
boards themselves helps to prevent warping. Boards set upright or
on edge are likely to be distorted soon. It is often wise to press
together with weights or to clamp together with handscrews boards that
show a tendency to warp, putting the two concave sides together. Then
the convex side is exposed and the board may straighten thus: Fig. 58.
By wrapping up small boards in paper or cloth in the intervals between
work on them, they may be kept straight until they are assembled.
[Illustration: Fig. 58. Clamping up Boards to Prevent Warping.]
Another precaution to take is to be sure to plane both sides of a
board if either is planed, especially if the board has been exposed to
air-drying for some time.
WOOD MEASUREMENTS.
Lumber is a general term for all kinds of sawn wood. Logs may be sawn
into timber, that is, beams and joists, into planks, which are 2" to
4" thick, or into boards which are from 1/4" to 1-3/4" thick. These
may be resawn into special sizes.
Lumber is measured by the superficial foot, which is a board 1" thick,
12" wide, and 12" long, so that a board 1" thick, (or 7/8" dressed) 6"
wide and 12' 0" long, measures 6' B. M. (board measure). Boards 1"
or more thick are sold by the "board foot" which is equivalent to 12"
square and 1" thick. Boards less than 1" thick are sold by the square
foot, face measure. Dressed lumber comes in sizes 1/8" less than sawn
lumber. Regular sizes are:
5/8" dressed to 1/2"
3/4" dressed to 5/8"
1" dressed to 7/8"
1-1/4" dressed to 1-1/8"
1-1/2" dressed to 1-3/8"
2" dressed to 1-7/8"
Any of these may be dressed down to thinner boards, or resawn on a
special band-saw.
In ordering it is common to give the dimensions wanted, in the order
of thickness, width, and length, because that is the order in which
dimensions are gotten out. E. g.:
6 pcs. quar. oak, 7/8" × 6" × 3'0"
2 pcs. quar. oak, 3/4" × 7-1/2" × 15"
If a piece wanted is short the way the grain goes, the order would
be the same, thus: 3/4" × 11" (wide) × 6" (long). That is, "long"
means the way the grain runs. It is always safe to specify in such a
case. It is common when small pieces are ordered to add one-quarter
to the cost for waste.
In large lots lumber is ordered thus: 800' (B. M.) whitewood, dressed
2 sides to 7/8", 10" and up. This means that the width of any piece
must not be less than 10". Prices are usually given per "M," i. e.,
per 1000 ft.: e. g.: basswood may be quoted at $40.00 per M.
When thin boards are desired it is often economical to buy inch stuff
and have it resawn.
Some lumber is also ordered by the "running" or lineal foot,
especially moldings, etc., or by the piece, if there is a standard
size as in fence-posts, studs, etc. Laths and shingles are ordered
by the bundle to cover a certain area. 1000 4" shingles (=4 bundles)
cover 110 sq. ft. with 4" weather exposure. 100 laths (1 bundle) each
1/4" × 1-1/2" × 4'0" cover about 150 sq. ft.
There are several methods of measuring lumber. The general rule is to
multiply the length in feet by the width and thickness in inches and
divide by 12, thus: 1" × 6" × 15' ÷ 12 = 7-1/2 feet. The use of the
Essex board-measure and the Lumberman's board-measure are described in
Chapter 4, pp. 109 and 111.
THE SEASONING AND MEASURING OF WOOD.
REFERENCES:[*]
SEASONING.
_For. Bull._, No, 41, pp. 5-12, von Schrenk.
Dunlap, _Wood Craft_, 6: 133, Feb. '07.
_For. Circ._ No. 40, pp. 10-16, Herty.
Barter, pp. 39-53.
Boulger, pp. 66-70, 80-88.
_Wood Craft_, 6: 31, Nov. '06.
_For. Circ._ No. 139.
_Agric. Yr. Bk._, 1905, pp. 455-464.
MEASURING
Sickels, pp. 22, 29.
Goss, p. 12.
_Building Trades Pocketbook_, pp. 335, 349, 357.
Tate, p. 21.
[Footnote *: For general bibliography see p. 4.]
CHAPTER IV.
WOOD HAND TOOLS.
The hand tools in common use in woodworking shops may, for
convenience, be divided into the following classes: 1, Cutting;
2, Boring; 3, Chopping; 4, Scraping; 5, Pounding; 6, Holding; 7,
Measuring and Marking; 8, Sharpening; 9, Cleaning.
1. CUTTING TOOLS.
The most primitive as well as the simplest of all tools for the
dividing of wood into parts, is the wedge. The wedge does not even
cut the wood, but only crushes enough of it with its edge to allow its
main body to split the wood apart. As soon as the split has begun,
the edge of the wedge serves no further purpose, but the sides bear
against the split surfaces of the wood. The split runs ahead of the
wedge as it is driven along until the piece is divided.
It was by means of the wedge that primitive people obtained slabs
of wood, and the great change from primitive to civilized methods
in manipulating wood consists in the substitution of cutting for
splitting, of edge tools for the wedge. The wedge follows the grain
of the wood, but the edge tool can follow a line determined by the
worker. The edge is a refinement and improvement upon the wedge and
enables the worker to be somewhat independent of the natural grain of
the wood.
In general, it may be said that the function of all cutting tools
is to separate one portion of material from another along a definite
path. All such tools act, first, by the keen edge dividing the
material into two parts; second, by the wedge or the blade forcing
these two portions apart. If a true continuous cut is to be made, both
of these actions must occur together. The edge must be sharp enough
to enter between the small particles of material, cutting without
bruising them, and the blade of the tool must constantly force apart
the two portions in order that the cutting action of the edge may
continue.
The action of an ax in splitting wood is not a true cut, for only
the second process is taking place, Fig. 59. The split which opens in
front of the cutting edge anticipates its cutting and therefore the
surfaces of the opening are rough and torn.
[Illustration: Fig. 59. Wedge Action.]
[Illustration: Fig. 60. Edge Action.]
When a knife or chisel is pressed into a piece of wood at right angles
to the grain, and at some distance from the end of the wood, as in
Fig. 60, a continuous cutting action is prevented, because soon the
blade cannot force apart the sides of the cut made by the advancing
edge, and the knife is brought to rest. In this case, it is
practically only the first action which has taken place.
Both the actions, the cutting and the splitting, must take place
together to produce a true continuous cut. The edge must always be in
contact with the solid material, and the blade must always be pushing
aside the portions which have been cut. This can happen only when the
material on one side of the blade is thin enough and weak enough to
be readily bent out of the way without opening a split in front of
the cutting edge. This cutting action may take place either along the
grain, Fig. 61, or across it, Fig. 62.
The bending aside of the shaving will require less force the smaller
the taper of the wedge. On the other hand, the wedge must be strong
enough to sustain the bending resistance and also to support the
cutting edge. In other words, the more acute the cutting edge, the
easier the work, and hence the wedge is made as thin as is consistent
with strength. This varies all the way from hollow ground razors to
cold-chisels. For soft wood, the cutting angle (or bevel, or bezel)
of chisels, gouges and plane-irons, is small, even as low as 20°;
for hard wood, it must be greater. For metals, it varies from 54° for
wrought iron to 66° for gun metal.
[Illustration: Fig. 61. Edge and Wedge Action With the Grain.]
[Illustration: Fig. 62. Edge and Wedge Action Across the Grain.]
Ordinarily a cutting tool should be so applied that the face nearest
the material lies as nearly as possible in the direction of the cut
desired, sufficient clearance being necessary to insure contact of the
actual edge.
There are two methods of using edge tools: one, the chisel or straight
cut, by direct pressure; the other, the knife or sliding cut.
The straight cut, Fig. 63, takes place when the tool is moved into the
material at right angles to the cutting edge. Examples are: the action
of metalworking tools and planing machines, rip-sawing, turning,
planing (when the plane is held parallel to the edge of the board
being planed), and chiseling, when the chisel is pushed directly in
line with its length.
[Illustration: Fig. 63. Straight Cut.]
[Illustration: Fig. 64. Sliding Cut.]
The knife or sliding cut, Fig. 64, takes place when the tool is moved
forward obliquely to its cutting edge, either along or across the
grain. It is well illustrated in cutting soft materials, such as
bread, meat, rubber, cork, etc. It is an advantage in delicate
chiseling and gouging. That this sliding action is easier than the
straight pressure can easily be proved with a penknife on thin wood,
or by planing with the plane held at an angle to, rather than in line
with, the direction of the planing motion. The edge of the cutter then
slides into the material. The reason why the sliding cut is easier,
is partly because the angle of the bevel with the wood is reduced
by holding the tool obliquely, and partly because even the sharpest
cutting edge is notched with very fine teeth all along its edge so
that in the sliding cut it acts like a saw. In an auger-bit, both
methods of cutting take place at once. The scoring nib cuts with a
sliding cut, while the cutting lip is thrust directly into the wood.
The chisel and the knife, one with the edge on the end, and the
other with the edge on the side, are the original forms of all modern
cutting tools.
The _chisel_ was at first only a chipped stone, then it came to be a
ground stone, later it was made of bronze, and still later of
iron, and now it is made of steel. In its early form it is known
by paleontologists as a celt, and at first had no handle, but later
developed into the ax and adze for chopping and hewing, and the chisel
for cuts made by driving and paring. It is quite likely that the celt
itself was simply a development of the wedge.
In the modern chisel, all the grinding is done on one side. This
constitutes the essential feature of the chisel, namely, that the back
of the blade is kept perfectly flat and the face is ground to a bevel.
Blades vary in width from 1/16 inch to 2 inches. Next to the blade on
the end of which is the cutting edge, is the shank, Fig. 65. Next, as
in socketed chisels, there is the socket to receive the handle, or,
in tanged chisels, a shoulder and four-sided tang which is driven into
the handle, which is bound at its lower end by a ferrule. The handle
is usually made of apple wood.
[Illustration: Fig. 65. Firmer-Chisel.]
The most familiar form is the _firmer-chisel_, Fig. 65, which is said
to get its name from the fact that it is firmer or stiffer than the
paring-chisel. (See below.) The firmer-chisel is a general utility
tool, being suited for hand pressure or mallet pounding, for paring or
for light mortising.
Different varieties of chisels are named; (1) according to their uses;
as paring-chisels, framing-chisels, mortise-chisels, carving-chisels,
turning-chisels, etc.
[Illustration: Fig. 66. Paring-Chisel.]
[Illustration: Fig. 67. Framing-Chisel.]
[Illustration: Fig. 68. Mortise-Chisel.]
The _paring-chisel_, Fig. 66, has a handle specially shaped to give
control over its movements, and a long thin blade, which in the
best form is beveled on the two edges to facilitate grooving. It is
intended only for steady pressure with the hand and not for use with a
mallet.
The _framing-chisel_, Fig. 67, is thick and heavy and was formerly
much used in house framing. It is usually made with the handle fitting
into a socket on the shank, in order to withstand the shock of heavy
blows from the mallet.
The _mortise-chisel_, Fig. 68, is made abnormally thick to give the
stiffness necessary for levering the waste out of mortises.
(2) Chisels are also named according to their shapes: as,
skew-chisels, corner-chisels, round-nosed chisels, etc.
[Illustration: Fig. 69. Paring with a Chisel.]
The angle of the bevel of a chisel is determined by the kind of wood
for which it is most used, hard wood requiring a wider angle than soft
wood, in order to support the edge. For ordinary work, the bevel is
correctly ground to an angle of about 20°. The chisel is a necessary
tool in making almost every kind of joint. It may almost be said that
one mark of a good workman is his preference for the chisel. Indeed an
excellent motto for the woodworker is: "When in doubt, use a chisel".
In general, there are two uses for the chisel (1), when it is driven
by a push with the hand, as in paring, and (2), when it is driven by
blows of a mallet, as in digging mortises.
In relation to the grain of the wood, it is used in three directions:
(1) longitudinally, that is with the grain, called paring; (2)
laterally, across the surface, called cutting sidewise; (3)
transversely, that is across the end, called cutting end-wood.
1. _Paring._ To remove shavings rapidly, the chisel is held flat side
up, the handle grasped by the right hand, with the thumb pointing
toward the shank, and the blade held in the left hand, as in Fig. 69.
Held in this way great control can be exerted and much force applied.
For paring the surface as flat and smooth as possible, the chisel
should be reversed, that is, held so that the flat side will act as a
guide. Held in this way the chisel has no equal for paring except
the plane. Paring with the chisel is the method used in cutting stop
chamfers. (See p. 185, Chapter VIII.) By holding the cutting edge
obliquely to the direction of the grain and of the cut, the effective
"sliding cut" is obtained, Fig. 64.
[Illustration: Fig. 70. Chiseling Out a Dado. (First Step).]
[Illustration: Fig. 71. Chiseling Out a Dado. (Second Step).]
2. In _sidewise chiseling_ the chisel is held in the same manner as in
paring. A typical form of sidewise chiseling is the cutting out of a
dado, Fig. 70. The work may be placed on the bench-hook or held in the
vise with the side up from which the groove is to be cut. The chisel
is pushed directly across the grain, the blade being somewhat inclined
to the upper surface so as to cut off a corner next the saw kerf.
After a few cuts thus made with the chisel inclined alternately both
ways, the ridge thus formed is taken off, Fig. 71. In this way the
surface is lowered to the required depth. If more force be required,
the palm of the hand may be used as a mallet.
[Illustration: Fig. 72. Perpendicular Chiseling.]
3. In _chiseling end-wood_, it is well, if possible, to rest the piece
to be trimmed flat on the cutting board or on a piece of waste wood.
Work done in this way is often called perpendicular chiseling, Fig. 72.
The handle is grasped in the right hand, thumb up, while the blade of
the chisel passes between the thumb and first finger of the left hand,
the back of which rests on the work and holds it in place. As the
right hand pushes the chisel downwards the thumb and first finger of
the left hand control its motion. When chiseling it is well to stand
so as to look along the line being cut. Incline the chisel toward you,
and use the near part of the cutting edge for a guide and the farther
corner for cutting, pushing the handle both down and forward at the
same time, Fig. 73. Or, by pushing the chisel sidewise with the
thumb of the left hand at the same time that the right hand pushes it
downward, the effective sliding cut is obtained.
[Illustration: Fig. 73. Chiseling End Wood.]
[Illustration: Fig. 74. Paring a Corner Round.]
[Illustration: Fig. 75. Right and Wrong Ways of Perpendicular
Chiseling.]
End chiseling requires considerable force and therefore only thin
shavings should be cut off at a time. Or the mallet may be used with
caution. In order to leave a smooth surface the chisel must be very
sharp. Even then the lower arris (corner) is likely to be splintered
off. This can be prevented by clamping the work down tight with a
handscrew to a perfectly smooth cutting board. It is often advisable
however, to set the piece upright in the vise and pare off thin
shavings horizontally, Fig. 74. In rounding a corner, both this and
perpendicular chiseling are common methods. In both cases care should
be taken to cut from the side toward the end and not into the grain,
lest the piece split, Fig. 75. In horizontal end paring, Fig. 74,
in order to prevent splintering, it is well to trim down the arrises
diagonally to the line and then to reduce the rest of the end surface.
In all hand chiseling, it is a wise precaution not to try to cut out
much material at each stroke but to work back gradually to the line.
[Illustration: Fig. 76. Mallet Chiseling. The Piece is Clamped Down on
the Bench With the Bench Hook.]
A typical form of mallet chiseling is the digging of a mortise, Fig.
76. (See also p. 56.) The chisel is held perpendicular in the left
hand, while the right hand drives blows with the mallet. The hammer
should never be used. (See mallet, p. 96.) By rocking the chisel and
at the same time giving it a twisting motion while the edge is kept
on the wood, the edge can be stepped to the exact place desired. Care
should be taken to work back to the lines gradually, to cut only part
way thru from each side (in the case of a thru mortise-and-tenon), and
to keep the cut faces perpendicular to the surfaces.
In sharpening a chisel it is of first importance that the back be
kept perfectly flat. The bevel is first ground on the grindstone to
an angle of about 20° and great care should be taken to keep the edge
straight and at right angles to the sides of the blade.
[Illustration: Fig. 77. Whetting a Plane-Bit.]
After grinding it is necessary to whet the chisel and other edged
tools. (See also under oilstones, p. 121.) First see that there is
plenty of oil on the stone. If an iron box be used, Fig. 77, the oil
is obtained simply by turning the stone over, for it rests on a pad of
felt which is kept wet with kerosene.
Place the beveled edge flat on the stone, feeling to see if it does
lie flat, then tip up the chisel and rub it at an angle slightly more
obtuse than that which it was ground, Fig. 78. The more nearly the
chisel can be whetted at the angle at which it was ground the better.
In rubbing, use as much of the stone as possible, so as to wear it
down evenly. The motion may be back and forth or spiral, but in either
case it should be steady and not rocking. This whetting turns a light
wire edge over on the flat side. In order to remove this wire edge,
the back of the chisel, that is, the straight, unbeveled side, is held
perfectly flat on the whetstone and rubbed, then it is turned over and
the bevel rubbed again on the stone. It is necessary to reverse the
chisel in this way a number of times, in order to remove the wire
edge, but the chisel should never be tipped so as to put any bevel at
all on its flat side. Finally, the edge is touched up (stropped) by
being drawn over a piece of leather a few times, first on one side,
then on the other, still continuing to hold the chisel so as to keep
the bevel perfect.
[Illustration: Fig. 78. Grinding Angle, 20°. Whetting Angle, 25°.]
To test the sharpness of a whetted edge, draw the tip of the finger
or thumb lightly along it, Fig. 79. If the edge be dull, it will feel
smooth: if it be sharp, and if care be taken, it will score the skin a
little, not enough to cut thru, but just enough to be felt.
[Illustration: Fig. 79. Testing the Sharpness of a Chisel.]
The _gouge_ is a form of chisel, the blade of which is concave, and
hence the edge curved. When the bevel is on the outside, the common
form, it is called an outside bevel gouge or simply a "gouge," Fig.
80; if the bevel is on the inside, it is called an inside bevel, or
inside ground, or scribing-gouge, or paring-gouge, Fig. 81.[3]
[Footnote 3: Another confusing nomenclature (Goss) gives the name
"inside gouges" to those with the cutting edge on the inside, and
"outside gouges" to those with the cutting edge on the outside.]
Carving tools are, properly speaking, all chisels, and are of
different shapes for facility in carving.
For ordinary gouging, Fig. 82, the blade is gripped firmly by the left
hand with the knuckles up, so that a strong control can be exerted
over it. The gouge is manipulated in much the same way as the
chisel, and like the chisel it is used longitudinally, laterally, and
transversely.
In working with the grain, by twisting the blade on its axis as it
moves forward, delicate paring cuts may be made. This is particularly
necessary in working cross-grained wood, and is a good illustration of
the advantage of the sliding cut.
[Illustration: Fig. 80. Firmer-Gouge Outside Bevel.]
[Illustration: Fig. 81. Inside Bevel Gouge.]
In gouging out broad surfaces like trays or saddle seats it will
be found of great advantage to work laterally, that is across the
surface, especially in even grained woods as sweet gum. The tool is
not so likely to slip off and run in as when working with the grain.
The gouge that is commonly used for cutting concave outlines on end
grain, is the inside bevel gouge. Like the chisel in cutting convex
outlines, it is pushed or driven perpendicularly thru the wood laid
flat on a cutting board on the bench, as in perpendicular chiseling.
Fig. 72, p. 56.
[Illustration: Fig. 82. Gouging.]
In sharpening an outside bevel gouge, the main bevel is obtained on
the grindstone, care being taken to keep the gouge rocking on its
axis, so as to get an even curve. It is then whetted on the flat side
of a slipstone, Fig. 83, the bevel already obtained on the grindstone
being made slightly more obtuse at the edge. A good method is to rock
the gouge on its axis with the left hand, while the slipstone held in
the right hand is rubbed back and forth on the edge. Then the concave
side is rubbed on the round edge of the slipstone, care being taken to
avoid putting a bevel on it. Inside bevel gouges need to be ground on
a carborundum or other revolving stone having a round edge. The outfit
of the agacite grinder, (Fig. 224, p. 120), contains one of these
stones. The whetting, of course, is the reverse of that on the outside
bevel gouge.
[Illustration: Fig. 83. Whetting a Gouge.]
The _knife_ differs from the chisel in two respects, (1) the edge is
along the side instead of the end, and (2) it has a two-beveled edge.
Knives are sometimes made with one side flat for certain kinds of
paring work, but these are uncommon. The two-beveled edge is an
advantage to the worker in enabling him to cut into the wood at any
angle, but it is a disadvantage in that it is incapable of making flat
surfaces. The knife is particularly valuable in woodwork for scoring
and for certain emergencies. The sloyd knife, Fig. 84, is a tool
likely to be misused in the hands of small children, but when sharp
and in strong hands, has many valuable uses. A convenient size has a
2-1/2 inch blade. When grinding and whetting a knife, the fact that
both sides are beveled alike should be kept in mind.
[Illustration: Fig. 84. Sloyd Knife.]
[Illustration: Fig. 85. Draw-Knife.]
The _draw-knife_, Fig. 85, is ground like a chisel, with the bevel
only on one side, but the edge is along the side like a knife. Instead
of being pushed into the wood, like a chisel, it is drawn into it by
the handles which project in advance of the cutting edge. The handles
are sometimes made to fold over the edge, and thus protect it when not
in use. The size is indicated by the length of the cutting edge. It
is particularly useful in reducing narrow surfaces and in slicing off
large pieces, but it is liable to split rather than cut the wood.
SAWS.
[Illustration: Fig. 86. Hand Saw.]
The object of the saw is to cut thru a piece of material along a
determined line. Its efficiency depends upon (1) the narrowness of the
saw cut or "kerf," and (2) upon the force required to drive it thru
the material. The thinner the blade, the less material will be cut out
and wasted, and the less force will have to be applied. In order to
have the saw as thin as possible, almost all the people of the world,
except the Anglo Saxons, have saws that cut when they are pulled
toward the worker. The blade is in tension while cutting and in
compression only when being returned for a new cut. German carpenters
use a saw like our turning-saw. English and Americans have developed
the saw on the opposite principle, namely, that it should cut on the
pushing stroke. As a matter of fact, the crosscut-saw cuts somewhat on
the back stroke. The pushing stroke necessitates a thickening of the
blade sufficient to prevent buckling,--a not uncommon occurrence
in the bands of a novice, in spite of this thickening. But tho
this requires more force, and involves more waste, there are the
compensations that the arm can exert more pressure in pushing than in
pulling, especially when the worker stands upright or stoops over his
work, and the stiffer wide blade acts as a guide to the sawyer. Each
method has its advantages. Whatever may be true of hand-saws, in
machine-saws the tension method, as illustrated by the gang-saw and
the band-saw, is steadily displacing the compression method utilized
in the circular-saw. Many kinds of work, however, can be done only on
the circular-saw.
In order to diminish the disadvantages of the thrusting stroke, the
modern hand-saw, Fig. 86, has been gradually improved as the result
of much experience and thought. The outline of the blade is tapered in
width from handle to point; it is thicker also at the heel (the handle
end) than at the point; its thickness also tapers from the teeth to
the back. All these tapers gives stiffness where it is most needed.
It is made wide for the sake of giving steadiness in sawing. The fact
that it is thinner at the back than along the teeth gives it clearance
in passing back and forth in the kerf, but the friction is still
great, especially in sawing soft or damp wood. To avoid this binding
still further, the teeth are "set" alternately one to one side and the
next to the other, and so on.
[Illustration: Fig. 87. Rip Saw Teeth: A-edge view, B-side view,
C cross-section. Crosscut-Saw Teeth: A'-edge view, B'-side view,
C'-cross-section.]
The size of saws is indicated by the length of the blade in inches.
The coarseness of the tooth is indicated by the number of "points"
to the inch. "Points" should not be confused with teeth as there is
always one more point per inch than there are teeth. For example,
a five point rip-saw has five points to the inch but only four
full teeth, Fig. 87. Rip-saws run from 4 to 7 points per inch;
crosscut-saws from 6 to 12 points per inch.
In general, saws are of two kinds, rip-saws and crosscut-saws.
The _rip-saw_, Fig. 87, may be thought of as a series of chisels set
in two parallel rows which overlap each other, for each tooth is filed
to a sharp edge which, at each stroke, chisels off a small particle
from the end of the wood fibers.
The shape of the teeth is the result of experience in uniting a number
of factors: as, strength of the individual tooth, the acuteness of
the cutting angle, and the ease of sharpening. The steel of a saw is
softer than that of a chisel, in order that it may be filed and set.
Hence it is weaker and the edge cannot be so acute. A typical form
of tooth is shown in Fig. 87, in which A is an edge view, B the side
view, and C a cross section. The angle of each tooth covers 60°, one
side, the "face", being at right angles to the line of the teeth. The
cutting edge runs at right angles to the sides of the blade.
This arrangement works with entire success along the grain, but if a
rip-saw is used to cut across the grain, since there is no provision
for cutting thru the fibers, each tooth catches in them and tears them
out, thus leaving a rough and jagged surface.
In the _crosscut-saw_, therefore, the teeth are filed to points, and
the cutting edge is on the forward side of each alternate tooth.
In Fig. 87. A' is the edge view, B' is the side view and C' is a
cross-section. In a properly filed crosscut-saw a needle will slide
between these two rows of teeth from one end of the saw to the other.
[Illustration: Fig. 88. Rip-Sawing on a Horse.]
In action the points, especially their forward edges, cut or score the
fibres of wood, and then the triangular elevation of wood left between
the two rows of points is crumbled off by friction as the saw
passes through. Thus it drops farther and farther into the cut. A
crosscut-saw may be thought of as a series of knife points, arranged
in two parallel rows. Ordinarily the angle of the "face" of each tooth
with the line of the teeth is about 65°, and slightly steeper than the
back of the tooth. The angle of the cutting edge of each tooth may be
filed more acute when the saw is to be used for soft wood only.
A crosscut-saw when used to rip a board, works slowly, for there is no
chisel action to cut out the fibres between the points, but the cut,
tho slow, is smooth. In cutting diagonally across a piece of wood,
especially soft wood, a rip-saw cuts faster, but a crosscut, smoother.
In ripping a board, allowance should always be made for planing to the
line afterward. In starting a cut with the rip-saw, the weight of the
saw should be borne by the right hand so that the teeth may pass over
the edge of the wood as lightly as possible. The left thumb acts as
a guide. If the saw be handled thus, and the angle with the board be
quite acute, it is not necessary to start with a back stroke. When the
kerf is well started, the whole weight of the saw may be applied. An
easy light stroke is better than a furious one. The line should
be followed carefully, but if the saw runs from the line it may be
brought back by taking short strokes near the point of the saw and
twisting the blade slightly in the desired direction. If the saw binds
and buckles because of the springing together of the wood, the kerf
may be wedged open with a screwdriver or a bit of waste wood. A drop
of oil rubbed across each side of the saw will make it work more
easily.
Care should be taken in finishing a cut to hold up firmly the part
of the wood which is being sawn off so that it will not split off or
splinter.
[Illustration: Fig. 89. Rip-sawing with Wood Held in Bench-Vise.]
Sawing may be done either on a saw-horse, Fig. 88, or at a bench. For
big, rough work, the former is the common way, the worker holding the
material in place with one knee, because this method enables him to
exert his greatest strength. A convenient way for rip-sawing a small
piece of wood is to insert it in the vise, Fig. 89, with the broad
side of the board parallel to the vise screw, and the board inclined
away from the worker who stands upright. The start is easy, the
sawdust does not cover the line, and the board is not in danger of
splitting. The board, however, has to be reversed after it is sawn
part way thru, in order to finish the saw cut.
The _back-saw_ or _tenon-saw_, Fig. 90, is a fine crosscut-saw, with
a rib of steel along the back, which gives to it its name. Since it is
intended for small accurate work, the teeth have little or no set.
In sawing, the wood may be held either in the vise or on the
bench-hook. To help start the saw and at the same time to keep the
edges of the cut sharp, it is well to make a little groove with the
knife, on the waste side of the line to be followed, cutting the side
of the groove next to the line at right angles to the surface. The saw
drops directly into this groove, Fig. 91. In starting the saw cut, the
saw should be guided by holding the thumb of the left hand against the
side of the saw just above the teeth. Until the kerf is well started,
the saw should be held so that the teeth just touch the wood. It is
better not to attempt to start the saw level, i.e., with the teeth
resting clear across the wood, but the handle should be raised so that
the start is made only at the farther edge of the wood. Then as the
saw is gradually lowered, the kerf will extend quite across the wood.
Fig. 92. When the back-saw is used for ripping, the wood is held in
the vise, end up. Begin sawing as in crosscutting, that is, at the
farther corner with the handle end of the saw up, and gradually drop
the handle. Watch the lines on both the front and back sides, and if
necessary, reverse the piece to follow them.
[Illustration: Fig. 90. Using the Back-Saw with Bench-Hook.]
[Illustration: Fig. 91. Starting a Saw Cut in a Trough Cut With Knife.]
[Illustration: Fig. 92. Direction of the Back-Saw.]
[Illustration: Fig. 93. Dovetail-saw.]
[Illustration: Fig. 94. Compass-Saw.]
The _dovetail-saw_, Fig. 93, is a small back-saw for delicate work.
The _compass-saw_, Fig. 94, is narrow, pointed, thick, to prevent
buckling, and with a wide set to the teeth, to help in following the
curves. The teeth are a cross between the rip and crosscut teeth. It
is used in sawing curves.
The _turning-saw_, Fig. 95, is a narrow saw, set in a frame, which
stretches the saw tight, so that it works as a tension saw (cf. p. 62).
The best frames are made so that the handles which hold the blade
can revolve in the frame. The turning-saw is used chiefly for cutting
curves. A 14 inch blade, 3/16 of an inch wide is a good size for
ordinary use. The teeth are like those of a rip-saw, so that they are
quite likely to tear the wood in cutting across the grain. Allowance
should be made for this and the surplus removed with a spokeshave. The
turning-saw may be used to cut on either the pulling or the pushing
stroke, with the teeth pointed either toward or away from the worker.
The pulling cut is generally better, as it puts less strain on the
frame than the pushing cut. Both hands should grasp the frame as near
the end of the blade as possible, Fig. 95. Turns are made by revolving
the frame on the blade as an axis, which should always be kept at
right angles to the surface of the board. Care should be taken not to
twist the blade.
[Illustration: Fig. 95. Using a Turning Saw.]
[Illustration: Fig. 96. Saw-Vise.]
_To file and set a saw_, the saw is first fastened in the saw-vise,
Fig. 96, with the teeth up. It is then top-jointed by running a flat
file or a saw-jointer, Fig. 97, back and forth lengthwise along the
tops of the teeth to bring them to a level. After jointing the saw
should be set. For this purpose a saw-set, Fig. 98, is necessary.
Every alternate tooth is bent in the direction of its set by the
plunger in the instrument pushing against the anvil, which is an
adjustable eccentric disc. After the saw is set, it is filed. This
is done with a triangular file, Fig. 144, p. 90, which is held in
the right hand and its point in the thumb and fingers of the left.
Pressure is applied only on the forward stroke, which should be long
and even, the file being raised above the tooth on the return stroke.
The file should cut in the direction of the set, that is, the teeth
having the set away from the worker are filed first. Every alternate
tooth, 1st. 3d, 5th, etc., is filed, and then the saw is reversed and
the other set, the 2nd, 4th, 6th, etc., is filed.
[Illustration: Fig. 97. A Saw-Jointer.]
[Illustration: Fig. 98. Saw-Set.]
In filing a rip-saw the file should move exactly perpendicularly to
the plane of the saw blade, that is, directly across the teeth. The
filing is done on the back of the teeth, the file just touching the
face of the next one. The filing is continued, with one, two, or three
strokes, for each tooth, as the case may require, or just until each
tooth is sharp.
In filing a crosscut-saw, the file is held pointing upward and toward
the point of the saw. The file should cut in the direction of the
set. The angle of the cutting edge is determined by the horizontal
inclination of the file to the blade; the angle of the point is
determined by the perpendicular inclination of the file to the blade.
Finally the sides of the teeth are rubbed lightly with a slipstone to
remove the wire edge. It should always be remembered that a saw is an
edge tool, and its edges are as liable to injury as any edges.
PLANES.
The _plane_ is a modified chisel. The chief difference in action
between a chisel and a plane in paring is this: the back of the chisel
lies close down on the surface of the wood that is cut, and acts as a
guide; whereas, in the plane, the cutter is elevated at an angle away
from the surface of the wood, and only its cutting edge touches the
wood, and it is held and guided mechanically by the plane mechanism.
In other words, a plane is a chisel firmly held in a device which
raises the cutter at an angle from the work, regulates the depth of
the cut, and favors the cutting rather than the splitting action.
An illustration of a chisel converted into a plane is the adjustable
_chisel-gage_, Fig. 99.
[Illustration: Fig. 99. Adjustable Chisel-Gage.]
[Illustration: Fig. 100. Wooden Bench-Plane.]
[Illustration: Fig. 101. Section of Jack Plane.]
The plane has developed as follows: it was first a chisel held in
a block of wood. This is all that oriental planes are now, simply a
sharpened wedge driven into a block of wood. When the hole works too
loose, the Japanese carpenter inserts a piece of paper to tighten it,
or he makes a new block. The first improvement was the addition of
a wooden wedge to hold in place the "plane-iron", as the cutter was
formerly called. In this form, the cutter or plane-iron, tho still
wedge-shaped, was reversed, being made heavier at the cutting edge in
order to facilitate fastening it in the wooden plane-stock by means of
the wooden wedge. Then a handle was added for convenience. Then came
the cap, the object of which is to break back the shaving and thus
weaken it as soon as possible after it is cut. Until a few years ago,
this was all that there was in a plane, and such planes are still
common, Fig. 100. Finally there appeared the iron plane, Fig. 101,
with it various mechanical adjustments. The following are the parts of
the Bailey iron plane:[4]
1. Cutter, or bit, or blade, or _plane-iron_.
2. Cap, or _plane-iron cap_, or curling iron.
3. Cutter screw, or _plane-iron Screw_.
4. Clamp, or _lever cap_, or wedge.
5. Clamp screw, or _cap screw_.
6. _Frog_.
7. _Y Adjustment_.
8. Brass set screw, or _brass adjusting nut_.
9. Lever (for _lateral adjustment_).
10. _Frog screw_.
11. _Handle_.
12. _Knob_.
13. _Handle bolt and nut_.
14. Knob screw, or _Knob bolt and nut_.
15. _Handle screw_.
16. _Bottom_, or sole.
17. Toe.
18. Heel.
19. Throat.
20. Thumb piece, or clamp lever, or cam.
[Footnote 4: The numbers and names in italics are those given in
Stanley's Catalog, No. 34. Some of these names, as "plane-iron,"
are survivals from the days of the wooden plane and are obviously
unsuitable now.]
There are various principles involved in the action of the plane. The
effect of the flat sole is to regulate the cut of the cutter. If the
surface be uneven, the cutter will not cut at all, or but little, in
passing over low places, since the toe and heel of the sole will then
be resting on higher places; but when the cutter reaches a high place
a shaving will be taken off. Hence it follows that the longer the
plane, the straighter will be the surface produced. The length of the
plane used is determined by the length of the wood to be planed, and
the degree of straightness desired.
The part of the sole directly in front of the cutter presses firmly
down on the wood and so prevents the shaving from splitting far in
advance of the edge. It follows that the narrowness of the mouth in
a plane is an important factor in the production of smooth surfaces.
This can be regulated by adjusting the toe in the block-plane, and by
moving the frog in the jack- and smooth-planes.
A recent improvement in jack-, smooth-, and fore-planes consists of
an adjustable frog, by means of which the throat can be narrowed
or widened at will by means of a set-screw in the rear of the frog
without removing the clamp and cutter. It is made by Sargent
and Company. The Stanley "Bed Rock" plane has a similar but less
convenient device.
[Illustration: Fig. 102. Sighting Along the Sole of Jack-Plane.]
The splitting of the wood in advance of the edge is also prevented by
the breaking of the shaving as it hits against the cutter or its cap.
Hence the advantage of bending up and breaking or partly breaking the
shaving as soon as possible after it is cut. This shows why the cap is
set close to the edge of the cutter. Another reason is that it thereby
stiffens the cutter and prevents "chattering." If a thick shaving be
desired the cap has to be set farther back. In a smooth-plane 1/32
inch is enough, in a jack-plane 1/8 inch is often desirable. The
following are the planes in common use:
The _jack-plane_, Fig. 102, 14" to 15" long, is the one used where a
considerable amount of material is to be taken off to bring a piece of
wood to size, and therefore the outline of the cutting edge instead of
being straight is slightly curved or "crowned" so that in planing the
surface of a board it makes a series of shallow grooves, the ridges
of which must afterward be smoothed off by another plane. Also for
beginners whose hands are not strong it is sometimes wise to grind the
cutter with some "crown", in order to take off narrow shavings, which
require less strength. For school use, where the jack-plane is used
for all purposes, the cutter is usually ground almost straight and
only the corners rounded as in the smooth-plane and the fore-plane.[5]
[Footnote 5: In whetting a plane-bit, a slight crown may be given
it by rubbing a bit harder at the ends of the edge than in the
middle. Strop in the same way as a chisel (p. 59).]
The _fore-plane_, 22" to 26" long, and the _jointer_, 28" to 30" long,
are large planes, similar to the jack-plane, except that the cutting
edge is straight. They are used for straightening and smoothing long
pieces.
The _smooth-plane_, 5-1/2" to 10" long, is a short plane, similar to
the jack-plane, except that the cutting edge is straight. It is used
for smoothing.
These four planes, the jack-plane, the fore-plane, the jointer, and
the smooth-plane, are essentially alike, and directions for the use of
one apply to all.
There are two chief adjustments in the Bailey iron plane: the brass
set-screw, see 8 in Fig. 101, which regulates the depth of the cut,
and the lever, 9, which moves the cutter sidewise so that it may be
made to cut evenly. The skilful worker keeps constant watch of these
adjustments. It is well to form the habit of always sighting along
the sole before beginning to plane, in order to see that the cutter
projects properly, Fig. 102. It is a common mistake among beginners to
let the cutter project too far.
It is important to know what is the best order of procedure in planing
up a board. There are often reasons for omitting the planing up of
one or more surfaces, but it is wise to form the habit of following a
regular order, and the following is suggested as a good one:
1. Working face. Plane one broad side flat and smooth. Finish with the
plane set to cut line shavings. Test with try-square. Mark this face
with a distinct pencil mark, A, Fig. 103.
2. Working edge. Plane one narrow side straight and square with
the working face. Test with try-square, pressing the block of the
try-square against the working face. Mark the working edge with two
distinct pencil marks, B, Fig. 103.
3. End. First mark the width on the working face with the
marking-gage, C, 1-2, Fig. 103. Chisel off the corner, _a_, of the
piece outside this gaged line. True and smooth this end with the
plane, making it square with both working face and working edge, D, 2,
3, 4, Fig. 103.
4. Length. Measure the length from the finished end, D, 2-3-4, score
across the working face, D, 5-6, and working edge, D, 6-7, using a
sharp knife point and the try-square. Saw just outside this line, D,
5-6-7, with the back-saw, cut off the narrow corner, D, _b_, beyond
the gaged line and plane true, E, Fig. 103.
5. Width. Plane to the center of the gaged line, E, 1-2. Test this
edge from the working face, F, Fig. 103.
6. Thickness. Mark the thickness with the marking-gage all around the
piece, F, 8-9-10. Plane to the center of the gaged line, G, Fig. 103.
Test this face for flatness.
[Illustration: Fig. 103. The Order of Planing a Board.]
In a word, the order to be followed is graphically represented in
H, Fig. 103. The surfaces are numbered consecutively in the order in
which they are to be planed.
The advantages of this order are these: by planing the working face
first, a broad surface is secured to which the others may be made
true. By planing the ends before the width is planed, the danger of
splitting off fragments can be avoided by chiseling the corner of the
unfinished edges, C, _a_, and D, _b_, Fig. 103, into a buttress.
By planing the ends and the width before the thickness is planed,
a dressed face is secured all around for gaging the thickness. In
following this order all measurements and markings are made on a
dressed face.
[Illustration: Fig. 104. Sighting for Wind.]
If there be any "wind" or twist in the board, this should be
discovered first of all. This may be done roughly by sighting across
the broad side of the board, Fig. 104, and more accurately by the
use of "winding sticks," see Fig. 205, p. 113. Or the surface may be
tested with the plane itself by tilting the plane on its long corner
edge, and resting it on the board, while the worker looks between the
board and the plane toward the light. It is evident that the plane
must be turned in various directions to test for wind, and that a
board only as long or as wide as the plane is long can be tested in
this way. The try-square or any straight edge may be used for the same
purpose, Fig. 105. If there be any wind in the board, this should at
once be taken out of one face by planing down the high corners.
[Illustration: Fig. 105. Testing from Edge to Edge.]
In starting to plane, the worker should bear down on the knob at the
front end of the plane. When the plane is well on the board, he should
bear down equally on both knob and handle, and as the plane begins to
pass off the board he should put all the pressure on the handle end,
Fig. 106. By taking pains thus, a convex surface will be avoided, the
making of which is a common error of beginners. On the return stroke,
the plane should be lifted or tilted so that the cutting edge will
not be dulled by rubbing on the wood. This is especially important
on rough and dirty boards, as it saves the cutting edge, and in fine
work, as it saves the work. If the plane tear the wood instead of
cutting it smooth, as it should, it is because the planing is "against
the grain". This can often be avoided by noticing the direction of
the grain before beginning to plane. But even if it be not noted
beforehand, a stroke or two will show the roughness. In such a case,
it is necessary simply to turn the wood around.
[Illustration: Fig. 106. Planing an Edge.]
The accuracy of the work as it progresses should frequently be tested,
and the eye should constantly be trained so that it can more and more
be depended upon to detect inaccuracy, Fig. 107. As each surface is
trued, it should be carefully smoothed with the cutter set to cut fine
shavings.
[Illustration: Fig. 107. Sighting an Edge.]
In planing a very cross-grained piece of wood, there are several
methods to use for securing a smooth surface. The frog of the plane
should be moved forward so that the throat in the front of the cutter
is a mere slit. In the ordinary plane it is necessary to remove the
cutter in order to reset the frog, but in the Sargent plane and the
Stanley "bed rock" plane, it can be set by a set-screw at the rear of
the frog. Next, the cap should be set so that the cutter projects but
very little beyond it, or, in technical language, the cutter should be
set "fine." A sliding cut, see p. 53, should be taken with the plane,
and sometimes it may be necessary to move the plane nearly at right
angles to the general direction of the grain. By these means even
refractory pieces of wood can be well smoothed. See also scrapers, p.
91.
The choking of a plane is the stoppage of the throat by shavings.
It may be due simply to the fact that the cutter is dull or that
it projects too far below the sole of the plane. In a wooden plane
choking is sometimes due to the crowding of shavings under some part
of the wedge. When the adjustable frog in a modern plane is improperly
placed choking may result. The frog should be far enough forward so
that the cutter rests squarely upon it.
Choking may, and most commonly does, take place because the cap does
not fit down tight on the cutter. This happens if the cap be nicked or
uneven. In consequence, minute shavings are driven between these two
irons and choking soon results. The remedy is to sharpen the cap, so
that its edge makes a close fit with the cutter. The fit may be made
still tighter by rubbing with a screwdriver the edge of the cap down
on the cutter after it is screwed in place.
In no tool is it more important to keep the cutter sharp than in the
plane. To remove the cutter, in order to sharpen it, first loosen the
clamp lever and remove the clamp. Carefully remove the cap and cutter
taking pains not to let the edge hit any part of the plane, then using
the clamp as a screwdriver, loosen the cap-screw and slide the cap
back along the slot in the cutter, where it can be held fast by a turn
of the cap-screw. The edge is now free and can readily be whetted.
When the cap needs to be entirely removed, for instance, for grinding,
after it has been slid along the cutter slot, as before, it is turned
at right angles to the cutter, and then slid down the slot until the
cap-screw unbuttons from the cutter. The object in sliding the cap up
the slot before turning it, is to prevent the danger of injuring the
edge. Some caps are now made with the buttonhole at the upper end of
the slot.
After sharpening, (see under sharpening, p. 117.) the order is
reversed for replacing the cutter. The cap is set at right angles to
the cutter, the cap-screw dropped into the slot, the cap is slid up
the slot, and turned into line with the cutter, and then slid down the
slot till the edge of the cap comes quite near the edge of the cutter.
Then the two are held firmly together with the left hand until the cap
screw is turned tight.
In replacing the cutter and cap in the plane, care should be taken not
to injure the edge and to see that the Y adjustment lever fits into
the little slot in the cap; then finally the lever is thrown down
tight. Then, by turning the plane sole upward and glancing down it,
the proper adjustments with the brass set-screw and lateral adjustment
lever are made. When the plane is not being used, it should rest
either on a pillow (a little strip of wood in the bench trough), or on
its side. In no case should it be dropped sole down flat on the bench.
The _block-plane_, Fig. 108, gets its name from the fact that it was
first made for planing off the ends of clap-boards, a process called
"blocking in".
[Illustration: Fig. 108. Section of Block-Plane.]
The names of the parts of the Bailey block-plane are[6]:
1. Cutter or bit or _plane-iron_.
2. Clamp or _lever cup_.
3. _Cap-screw_.
4. _Adjusting lever_.
5. _Adjusting nut_.
6. _Lateral adjustment_.
7. _Bottom_.
8. _Mouth piece_.
9. _Eccentric plate_.
10. _Knob_.
[Footnote 6: See footnote p. 70]
The block-plane was devised for use with one hand, as when it is used
by carpenters in planing pieces not readily taken to a vise or in
planing with a bench-hook. Hence it is made small, 3-1/2" to 8" long,
the clamp is rounded so as to act as a handle, and the cutter is
lowered to an angle of about 20° to make the plane easy to grasp. The
lower angle of the cutter makes it necessary that the bevel be on the
upper side. Otherwise, to give clearance, the bevel would have to be
made so long and so thin as to be weak. By putting the bevel up, the
angle between the wood and the cutter is maintained practically as in
the smooth-plane. Since the block-plane is intended chiefly for use
on end grain, no cap is needed to break the shavings. The adjustable
throat makes it possible to cut a very fine shaving. To facilitate the
cutting action, several forms of block-planes with a very low angle
are now made.
Where both hands are free to hold the plane, the block-plane has no
advantage over a smooth-plane, even on end grain. Moreover, the cutter
cannot be held so firmly in place as that of a smooth-plane, so that
it requires constant adjustment. Hence it is not an easy tool for
amateurs to handle. There is considerable lost motion in the adjusting
nut, and the set-screw, which acts as a knob, is likely to work loose
and be lost. It is hardly to be recommended as a part of the equipment
of the individual bench in school shops.
The piece to be planed with the block-plane may be held either in
the vise, end up, or on a bench-hook, Fig. 109. In end planing in the
vise, in order to avoid splintering the precaution should be taken to
trim off a corner on the undressed edge, as directed on page 73, or
else the planing must be done from both edges toward the center. The
sliding cut is much easier than the straight cut, and hence there is
a constant temptation to turn the plane at an angle perhaps at an
expense of the flat surface desired.
[Illustration: Fig. 109. Using the Block-Plane and Bench-Hook.]
In using the bench-hook the piece to be block-planed is placed with
the working edge against the block, with the end to be planed to the
right and flush with the edge of the bench-hook, in which position it
is held with the left hand. The block-plane, held in the right hand,
is placed on its side on the bench facing toward the work. In
planing, the left hand holds the work firmly against the block of the
bench-hook, pressing it somewhat to the right against the plane. The
right hand holds the side of the plane flat on the bench and presses
it to the left against the bench-hook and work. Held in this position
the plane is pushed forward and back until the end is smoothed.
Considerable practice is necessary to handle the block-plane well.
The _scrub-plane_ is a short plane in which the crown of the cutter,
Fig. 110, is quite curved. It is used to reduce surfaces rapidly.
The _scratch-plane_, Fig. 111, has a toothed cutter which scratches
fine lines along its course. It is used to roughen surfaces of hard
wood which are to be glued together, for otherwise the glue would not
adhere well. Some tropical woods are so hard that their surfaces can
be reduced only by a scratch-plane. It is also useful in preparing the
surface of a very cross-grained piece of wood which cannot be planed
without chipping. By first scratching it carefully in all directions,
it can then be scraped smooth. It is also called a _scraper-plane_,
because accompanying the plane is a scraper which can be inserted in
the same stock and inclined at any required angle. This plane-stock
prevents the scraper from unduly lowering some portions of the
surface. See also veneer-scraper, p. 91.
[Illustration: Fig. 110. Cutter of Scrub-Plane.]
[Illustration: Fig. 111. Scratch-Plane and Scraper-Plane.]
[Illustration: Fig. 112. Rabbet-Plane.]
[Illustration: Fig. 113. Molding-Plane.]
The _rabbeting-_ or _rebating-plane_, Fig. 112, is designed for use
in cutting out a rectangular recess, such as the rabbet on the back of
the picture-frames. In line with the right hand corner of the cutter
is a removable spur to score the wood so that the shaving which
follows may be cut out clean and not torn out. With the addition of a
guiding fence it is called a _filletster_. This may be used on either
the right or left side. In the form shown in Fig. 112, there is also a
depth gage.
In using this plane see that the corner of the cutter is in line with
the sole, and that both it and the spur are sharp. Set the fence and
the stop at the desired width and depth of the rabbet. At the first
stroke the spur will score the width. This and every stroke should
be taken as evenly and carefully as if it were the only one. In the
effort to keep the fence pressed close to the side of the wood, the
tendency is to tilt the plane over. This causes the very opposite
effect from that desired, for the spur runs off diagonally, as in Fig.
114.
[Illustration: Fig. 114. Result of Careless use of Rabbet-Plane.]
If this happens stop planing at once, clean out the recess properly
with a chisel and then proceed.
The _dado-plane_ is much like the rabbeting-plane, except that it
is provided with two spurs, one at each side of the cutting edge, to
score the wood before cutting.
The _molding-plane_, Fig. 113, as it name indicates, is for making
moldings of various forms; as, quarter-round, half-round, ogee, etc.
[Illustration: Fig. 115. Tonguing-and-Grooving Plane.]
The _tonguing-and-grooving-plane_, Fig. 115, is for matching boards,
i.e. making a tongue in one to fit into a groove in another. See Fig.
269, No. 72, p. 182.
The _circular-plane_, Fig. 116, has a flexible steel face which can
be adjusted to any required arc, convex or concave, so that curved
surfaces may be planed.
[Illustration: Fig. 116. Circular-Plane.]
The _universal plane_, Fig. 117, is a combination of various molding-,
rabbeting-, matching- and other planes. It is capable of many
adjustments and applications. The principal parts of this plane are:
a _main stock_, _A_, with two sets of transverse sliding arms, a
_depth-gage_, _F_, adjusted by a screw, and a _slitting cutter_ with
stop, a _sliding section_, _B_, with a vertically adjustable bottom,
the _auxiliary center bottom_, _C_, to be placed when needed in front
of the cutter as an extra support or stop. This bottom is adjustable
both vertically and laterally. _Fences_, _D and E_. For fine work,
fence _D_ has a lateral adjustment by means of a thumb-screw. The
fences can be used on either side of the plane, and the rosewood
guides can be tilted to any desired angle up to 45°, by loosening the
screws on the face. Fence _E_ can be reversed for center-beading wide
boards. For work thinner than the depth of the fence, the work
may overhang the edge of the bench and fence _E_ be removed. An
_adjustable stop_, to be used in beading the edges of matched boards,
is inserted on the left side of the sliding section _B_. A great
variety of cutters are supplied, such as: molding, matching,
sash, beading, reeding, fluting, hollow, round, plow, rabbet, and
filletster. Special shapes can be obtained by order.
[Illustration: Fig. 117. Universal Plane.]
_The Use of the Universal Plane._ Insert the proper cutter, adjusting
it so that the portion of it in line with the main stock, _A_, will
project below the sole the proper distance for cutting.
Adjust the bottom of the sliding section, _B_, so that the lowest
portion of the cutter will project the proper distance below it for
cutting. Tighten the check nuts on the transverse arms and _then_
tighten the thumb-screws which secure the sliding section to the arms.
The sliding section is not always necessary, as in a narrow rabbet or
bead.
When an additional support is needed for the cutter, the auxiliary
center bottom, _C_, may be adjusted in front of it. This may also be
used as a stop.
[Illustration: Fig. 118. Iron Spokeshave.]
[Illustration: Fig. 119. Pattern-maker's Spokeshave.]
Adjust one or both of the fences, _D_ and _E_, and fasten with the
thumb-screws. Adjust the depth-gage, _F_, at the proper depth.
For a _dado_ remove the fences and set the spurs parallel with the
edges of the cutter. Insert the long adjustable stop on the left hand
of the sliding section. For slitting, insert the cutter and stop on
the right side of the main stock and use either fence for a guide.
For a _chamfer_, insert the desired cutter, and tilt the rosewood
guides on the fences to the required angle. For _chamfer beading_ use
in the same manner, and gradually feed the cutter down by means of the
adjusting thumb-nut.
There are also a number of planelike tools such as the following:
The _spoke-shave_, Fig. 118, works on the same principle as a plane,
except that the guiding surface is very short. This adapts it to work
with curved outlines. It is a sort of regulated draw-shave. It is
sometimes made of iron with an adjustable mouth, which is a convenient
form for beginners to use, and is easy to sharpen. The _pattern-makers
spokeshave_, Fig. 119, which has a wooden frame, is better suited to
more careful work. The method of using the spokeshave is shown in Fig.
120. (See p. 100.)
[Illustration: Fig. 120. Using a Spokeshave.]
The _router-plane_, Figs. 121 and 122, is used to lower a certain part
of a surface and yet keep it parallel with the surrounding part, and
it is particularly useful in cutting panels, dadoes, and grooves. The
cutter has to be adjusted for each successive cut. Where there are a
number of dadoes to be cut of the same depth, it is wise not to finish
them one at a time, but to carry on the cutting of all together,
lowering the cutter after each round. In this way all the dadoes will
be finished at exactly the same depth.
[Illustration: Fig. 121. Router-Plane.]
The _dowel-pointer_, Fig. 123, is a convenient tool for removing the
sharp edges from the ends of dowel pins. It is held in a brace. The
cutter is adjustable and is removable for sharpening.
The _cornering tool_, Fig. 124, is a simple device for rounding sharp
corners. A cutter at each end cuts both ways so that it can be used
with the grain without changing the position of the work. The depth of
the cut is fixed.
[Illustration: Fig. 122. Using a Router-Plane.]
2. BORING TOOLS.
Some boring tools, like awls, force the material apart, and some, like
augers, remove material.
The _brad-awl_, Fig. 125, is wedge-shaped, and hence care needs to
be taken in using it to keep the edge across the grain so as to avoid
splitting the wood, especially thin wood. The size is indicated by the
length of the blade when new,--a stupid method. The awl is useful for
making small holes in soft wood, and it can readily be sharpened by
grinding.
[Illustration: Fig. 123. Dowel-Pointer.]
[Illustration: Fig. 124. Cornering Tool.]
[Illustration: Fig. 125. Brad-Awl.]
[Illustration: Fig. 126. Twist-Drill.]
[Illustration: Fig. 127. Twist-Bit.]
[Illustration: Fig. 128. German Gimlet-Bit.]
[Illustration: Fig. 129. Bit-Point Drill.]
[Illustration: Fig. 130. Auger-Bit.]
[Illustration: Fig. 131. Plug-Cutter.]
[Illustration: Fig. 132. Center-Bit.]
[Illustration: Fig. 133. Foerstner Auger-Bit.]
[Illustration: Fig. 134. Expansive-Bit.]
[Illustration: Fig. 135. Reamer.]
[Illustration: Fig. 136. Rose Countersink.]
_Gimlets_ and _drills_ are alike in that they cut away material, but
unlike in that the cutting edge of the gimlet is on the side, while
the cutting edge of the drill is on the end.
_Twist-drills_, Fig. 126, are very hard and may be used in drilling
metal. They are therefore useful where there is danger of meeting
nails, as in repair work. Their sizes are indicated by a special drill
gage, Fig. 220, p. 117.
_Twist-bits_, Fig. 127, are like twist-drills except that they are not
hard enough to use for metal. Their sizes are indicated on the tang
in 32nds of an inch. Both twist-bits and drill-bits have the advantage
over gimlet-bits in that they are less likely to split the wood.
Twist-bits and twist-drills are sharpened on a grindstone, care being
taken to preserve the original angle of the cutting edge so that the
edge will meet the wood and there will be clearance.
_German gimlet-bits_, Fig. 128, have the advantage of centering well.
The size is indicated on the tang in 32nds of an inch. They are useful
in boring holes for short blunt screws as well as deep holes. They
cannot be sharpened readily but are cheap and easily replaced.
_Bit-point drills_, Fig. 129, are useful for accurate work, but are
expensive.
_Auger-bits_, Fig. 130, have several important features. The spur
centers the bit in its motion, and since it is in the form of a
pointed screw draws the auger into the wood. Two sharp nibs on either
side score the circle, out of which the lips cut the shavings, which
are then carried out of the hole by the main screw of the tool. The
size of auger-bits is indicated by a figure on the tang in 16ths of an
inch. Thus 9 means a diameter of 9/16".
There are three chief precautions to be taken in using auger-bits. (1)
One is to bore perpendicularly to the surface. A good way to do this
is to lay the work flat, either on the bench or in the vise, and sight
first from the front and then from the side of the work, to see that
the bit is perpendicular both ways. The test may also be made with the
try-square, Fig. 137, or with a plumb-line, either by the worker,
or in difficult pieces, by a fellow worker. The sense of
perpendicularity, however, should constantly be cultivated. (2)
Another precaution is that, in thru boring, the holes should not be
bored quite thru from one side, lest the wood be splintered off on the
back. When the spur pricks thru, the bit should be removed, the piece
turned over, and the boring finished, putting the spur in the hole
which is pricked thru in boring from the first side. It is seldom
necessary to press against the knob of the brace in boring, as the
thread on the spur will pull the bit thru, especially in soft wood.
Indeed, as the bit reaches nearly thru the board, if the knob is
gently pulled back, then when the spur pricks thru the bit will
be pulled out of its hole. This avoids the necessity of constantly
watching the back of the board to see if the spur is thru. (3) In stop
boring, as in boring for dowels or in making a blind mortise, care
should be taken not to bore thru the piece. For this purpose an
auger-bit-gage, Fig. 219, p. 116, may be used, or a block of wood of
the proper length thru which a hole has been bored, may be slipped
over the bit, or the length of bit may be noted before boring, and
then the length of the projecting portion deducted, or the number of
turns needed to reach the required depth may be counted on a trial
piece. Tying a string around a bit, or making a chalk mark on it is
folly.
[Illustration: Fig. 137. Using a Try-Square as a Guide in Boring.]
Auger-bits are sharpened with an auger-bit file, Fig. 142, p. 90, a
small flat file with two narrow safe edges at one end and two wide
safe edges at the other. The "nibs" should be filed on the inside so
that the diameter of the cut may remain as large as that of the body
of the bit. The cutting lip should be sharpened from the side toward
the spur, care being taken to preserve the original angle so as to
give clearance. If sharpened from the upper side, that is, the side
toward the shank, the nibs will tend to become shorter.
The _plug-cutter_, Fig. 131, is useful for cutting plugs with which to
cover the heads of screws that are deeply countersunk.
_Center-bits_, Fig. 132, work on the same principle as auger-bits,
except that the spurs have no screw, and hence have to be pushed
forcibly into the wood. Sizes are given in 16ths of an inch. They are
useful for soft wood, and in boring large holes in thin material which
is likely to split. They are sharpened in the same way as auger-bits.
_Foerstner bits_, Fig. 133, are peculiar in having no spur, but
are centered by a sharp edge around the circumference. The size is
indicated on the tang, in 16ths of an inch. They are useful in boring
into end grain, and in boring part way into wood so thin that a spur
would pierce thru. They can be sharpened only with special appliances.
_Expansive-bits_, Fig. 134, are so made as to bore holes of different
sizes by adjusting the movable nib and cutter. There are two sizes,
the small one with two cutters, boring from 1/2" to 1-1/2" and the
large one with three cutters boring from 7/8" to 4". They are very
useful on particular occasions, but have to be used with care.
_Reamers_, Fig. 135, are used for enlarging holes already made. They
are made square, half-round and six cornered in shape.
_Countersinks_, Fig. 136, are reamers in the shape of a flat cone, and
are used to make holes for the heads of screws. The rose countersink
is the most satisfactory form.
[Illustration: Fig. 138. Washer-Cutter.]
The _washer-cutter_, Fig. 138, is useful not only for cutting
out washers but also for cutting holes in thin wood. The size is
adjustable.
3. CHOPPING TOOLS.
The primitive celt, which was hardly more than a wedge, has been
differentiated into three modern hand tools, the _chisel_, see above,
p. 53, the _ax_, Fig. 139, and the _adze_, Fig. 141.
The _ax_ has also been differentiated into the _hatchet_, with a short
handle, for use with one hand, while the ax-handle is long, for use
with two hands. Its shape is an adaption to its manner of use. It is
oval in order to be strongest in the direction of the blow and also
in order that the axman may feel and guide the direction of the blade.
The curve at the end is to avoid the awkward raising of the left
hand at the moment of striking the blow, and the knob keeps it from
slipping thru the hand. In both ax and hatchet there is a two-beveled
edge. This is for the sake of facility in cutting into the wood at any
angle.
There are two principal forms, the common ax and the two bitted ax,
the latter used chiefly in lumbering. There is also a wedge-shaped ax
for splitting wood. As among all tools, there is among axes a great
variety for special uses.
[Illustration: Fig. 139. Ax.]
[Illustration: Fig. 140. Shingling Hatchet.]
[Illustration: Fig. 141. Carpenter's Adze.]
The _hatchet_ has, beside the cutting edge, a head for driving nails,
and a notch for drawing them, thus combining three tools in one. The
shingling hatchet, Fig. 140, is a type of this.
The _adze_, the carpenter's house adze, Fig. 141, is flat on the lower
side, since its use is for straightening surfaces.
WOOD HAND TOOLS.
REFERENCES:[*]
(1) Cutting.
Goss, p. 22.
Smith, R. H., pp. 1-8.
Chisel.
Barnard, pp. 59-73.
Selden, pp. 44-50, 145-147.
Barter, pp. 93-96.
Griffith, pp. 53-64.
Goss, pp. 20-26.
Sickels, pp. 64-67.
Wheeler, 357, 421, 442.
Knife.
Barnard, pp. 48-58.
Selden, pp. 26-28, 158.
Saw.
Griffith, pp. 20-27.
Barnard, pp. 114-124.
Selden, pp. 41-43, 179-182.
Wheeler, pp. 466-473.
Hammacher, pp. 309-366.
Goss, pp. 26-41.
Sickels, pp. 76-79, 84.
Smith, R. H., 43-55.
Diston, pp. 129-138.
Plane.
Barnard, pp. 74-80.
Selden, pp. 11-26, 165-175.
Sickels pp. 72-75, 116.
Wheeler, pp. 445-458.
Hammacher, pp. 377-400.
Smith, R. H., 16-31.
Larsson, p. 19.
Goss, pp. 41-52.
Barter, pp. 96-109.
Griffith, pp. 28-45.
(2) Boring Tools.
Barnard, pp. 125-135.
Goss, pp. 53-59.
Griffith, pp. 47-52.
Seldon, pp. 38-40, 141-144.
Wheeler, pp. 353-356.
(3) Chopping Tools.
Barnard, pp. 80-88.
[Footnote *: For general bibliography see p. 4.]
CHAPTER IV, CONTINUED.
WOOD HAND TOOLS.
4. SCRAPING TOOLS.
Scraping tools are of such nature that they can only abrade or smooth
surfaces.
[Illustration: Fig. 142. Auger-Bit-File.]
[Illustration: Fig. 143. Single-Cut Blunt, Flat, Bastard File.]
[Illustration: Fig. 144. Three-Square Single-Cut File.]
[Illustration: Fig. 145. Open Cut, Taper, Half-Round File.]
[Illustration: Fig. 146. Double-Cut File.]
[Illustration: Fig. 147. Cabinet Wood-Rasp.]
[Illustration: Fig. 148. File-Card.]
_Files._ Figs. 142-146, are formed with a series of cutting edges or
teeth. These teeth are cut when the metal is soft and cold and
then the tool is hardened. There are in use at least three thousand
varieties of files, each of which is adapted to its particular
purpose. Lengths are measured from point to heel exclusive of the
tang. They are classified: (1) according to their outlines into
blunt, (i. e., having a uniform cross section thruout), and taper;
(2) according to the shape of their cross-section, into flat, square,
three-square or triangular, knife, round or rat-tail, half-round,
etc.; (3) according to the manner of their serrations, into single cut
or "float" (having single, unbroken, parallel, chisel cuts across the
surface), double-cut, (having two sets of chisel cuts crossing each
other obliquely,) open cut, (having series of parallel cuts, slightly
staggered,) and safe edge, (or side,) having one or more uncut
surfaces; and (4) according to the fineness of the cut, as rough,
bastard, second cut, smooth, and dead smooth. The "mill file," a very
common form, is a flat, tapered, single-cut file.
[Illustration: Fig. 149. a. Diagram of a Rasp Tooth. b. Cross-Section
of a Single-Cut File.]
_Rasps_, Fig. 147, differ from files in that instead of having
cutting teeth made by lines, coarse projections are made by making
indentations with a triangular point when the iron is soft. The
difference between files and rasps is clearly shown in Fig. 149.
It is a good rule that files and rasps are to be used on wood only
as a last resort, when no cutting tool will serve. Great care must be
taken to file flat, not letting the tool rock. It is better to file
only on the forward stroke, for that is the way the teeth are made to
cut, and a flatter surface is more likely to be obtained.
Both files and rasps can be cleaned with a _file-card_, Fig. 148. They
are sometimes sharpened with a sandblast, but ordinarily when dull are
discarded.
[Illustration: Fig. 150. Molding-Scrapers.]
_Scrapers_ are thin, flat pieces of steel. They may be rectangular, or
some of the edges may be curved. For scraping hollow surfaces curved
scrapers of various shapes are necessary. Convenient shapes are shown
in Fig. 150. The cutting power of scrapers depends upon the delicate
burr or feather along their edges. When properly sharpened they take
off not dust but fine shavings. Scrapers are particularly useful in
smoothing cross-grained pieces of wood, and in cleaning off glue, old
varnish, etc.
There are various devices for holding scrapers in frames or handles,
such as the scraper-plane, Fig. 111, p. 79, the veneer-scraper, and
box-scrapers. The _veneer-scraper_, Fig. 151, has the advantage that
the blade may be sprung to a slight curve by a thumb-screw in the
middle of the back, just as an ordinary scraper is when held in the
hands.
In use, Fig. 152, the scraper may be either pushed or pulled. When
pushed, the scraper is held firmly in both hands, the fingers on the
forward and the thumbs on the back side. It is tilted forward, away
from the operator, far enough so that it will not chatter and is bowed
back slightly, by pressure of the thumbs, so that there is no risk of
the corners digging in. When pulled the position is reversed.
[Illustration: Fig. 151. Using a Veneer-Scraper.]
One method of sharpening the scraper is as follows: the scraper is
first brought to the desired shape, straight or curved. This may be
done either by grinding on the grindstone or by filing with a smooth,
flat file, the scraper, while held in a vise. The edge is then
carefully draw-filed, i. e., the file, a smooth one, is held (one hand
at each end) directly at right angles to the edge of the scraper, Fig.
153, and moved sidewise from end to end of the scraper, until the edge
is quite square with the sides. Then the scraper is laid flat on the
oilstone and rubbed, first on one side and then on the other till the
sides are bright and smooth along the edge, Fig. 154. Then it is
set on edge on the stone and rubbed till there are two sharp square
corners all along the edge, Fig. 155. Then it is put in the vise again
and by means of a burnisher, or scraper steel, both of these corners
are carefully turned or bent over so as to form a fine burr. This is
done by tipping the scraper steel at a slight angle with the edge and
rubbing it firmly along the sharp corner, Fig. 156.
[Illustration: Fig. 152. Using a Cabinet-Scraper.]
To resharpen the scraper it is not necessary to file it afresh every
time, but only to flatten out the edges and turn them again with
slightly more bevel. Instead of using the oilstone an easier, tho
less perfect, way to flatten out the burr on the edges is to lay the
scraper flat on the bench near the edge. The scraper steel is then
passed rapidly to and fro on the flat side of the scraper, Fig. 157.
After that the edge should be turned as before.
[Illustration: Fig. 153. Sharpening a Cabinet-Scraper: 1st Step,
Drawfiling.]
_Sandpaper._ The "sand" is crushed quartz and is very hard and sharp.
Other materials on paper or cloth are also used, as carborundum,
emery, and so on. Sandpaper comes in various grades of coarseness from
No. 00 (the finest) to No. 3, indicated on the back of each sheet. For
ordinary purposes No. 00 and No. 1 are sufficient. Sandpaper sheets
may readily be torn by placing the sanded side down, one-half of
the sheet projecting over the square edge of the bench. With a quick
downward motion the projecting portion easily parts. Or it may be torn
straight by laying the sandpaper on a bench, sand side down, holding
the teeth of a back-saw along the line to be torn. In this case, the
smooth surface of the sandpaper would be against the saw.
[Illustration: Fig. 154. Sharpening a Cabinet-Scraper: 2nd Step,
Whetting.]
[Illustration: Fig. 155. Sharpening a Cabinet-Scraper: 3rd Step,
Removing the Wire-Edge.]
Sandpaper should never be used to scrape and scrub work into shape,
but only to obtain an extra smoothness. Nor ordinarily should it be
used on a piece of wood until all the work with cutting tools is done,
for the fine particles of sand remaining in the wood dull the edge of
the tool. Sometimes in a piece of cross-grained wood rough places will
be discovered by sandpapering. The surface should then be wiped free
of sand and scraped before using a cutting tool again. In order to
avoid cross scratches, work should be "sanded" with the grain, even if
this takes much trouble. For flat surfaces, and to touch off edges,
it is best to wrap the sandpaper over a rectangular block of wood,
of which the corners are slightly rounded, or it may be fitted over
special shapes of wood for specially shaped surfaces. The objection
to using the thumb or fingers instead of a block, is that the soft
portions of the wood are cut down faster than the hard portions,
whereas the use of a block tends to keep the surface even.
[Illustration: Fig. 156. Sharpening a Cabinet-Scraper: 4th Step,
Turning the Edge.]
_Steel wool_ is made by turning off fine shavings from the edges of
a number of thin discs of steel, held together in a lathe. There
are various grades of coarseness, from No. 00 to No. 3. Its uses
are manifold: as a substitute for sandpaper, especially on curved
surfaces, to clean up paint, and to rub down shellac to an "egg-shell"
finish. Like sandpaper it should not be used till all the work with
cutting tools is done. It can be manipulated until utterly worn out.
5. POUNDING TOOLS.
The _hammer_ consists of two distinct parts, the head and the handle.
The head is made of steel, so hard that it will not be indented by
hitting against nails or the butt of nailsets, punches, etc., which
are comparatively soft. It can easily be injured tho, by being driven
against steel harder than itself. The handle is of hickory and of an
oval shape to prevent its twisting in the hand.
[Illustration: Fig. 157. Resharpening a Cabinet-Scraper: Flattening
the Edge.]
Hammers may be classified as follows: (1) hammers for striking blows
only; as, the blacksmith's hammer and the stone-mason's hammer, and
(2) compound hammers, which consist of two tools combined, the face
for striking, and the "peen" which may be a claw, pick, wedge, shovel,
chisel, awl or round head for other uses. There are altogether about
fifty styles of hammers varying in size from a jeweler's hammer to
a blacksmith's great straight-handled sledge-hammer, weighing twenty
pounds or more. They are named mostly according to their uses; as,
the riveting-hammer, Fig. 159, the upholsterer's hammer, Fig. 160,
the veneering-hammer, Fig. 162, etc. Magnetized hammers, Fig. 161, are
used in many trades for driving brads and tacks, where it is hard to
hold them in place with the fingers.
[Illustration: Fig. 158. Claw-Hammer.]
[Illustration: Fig. 159. Riveting-Hammer.]
[Illustration: Fig. 160. Upholster's Hammer.]
[Illustration: Fig. 161. Magnetized Hammer.]
[Illustration: Fig. 162. Veneering-Hammer.]
In the "bell-faced" hammer, the face is slightly convex, in order
that the last blow in driving nails may set the nail-head below
the surface. It is more difficult to strike a square blow with it than
with a plain-faced hammer. For ordinary woodwork the plain-faced, that
is, flat-faced claw-hammer, Fig. 158, is best. It is commonly used in
carpenter work.
It is essential that the face of the hammer be kept free from glue in
order to avoid its sticking on the nail-head and so bending the nail.
Hammers should be used to hit iron only; for hitting wood, mallets
are used. In striking with the hammer, the wrist, the elbow and the
shoulder are one or all brought into play, according to the hardness
of the blow. The essential precautions are that the handle be grasped
at the end, that the blow be square and quick, and that the wood be
not injured. At the last blow the hammer should not follow the nail,
but should be brought back with a quick rebound. To send the nail
below the surface, a nailset is used. (See below.)
[Illustration: Fig. 163. Drawing a Nail with Claw-Hammer.]
The claw is used for extracting nails. To protect the wood in
withdrawing a nail a block may be put under the hammer-head. When
a nail is partly drawn, the leverage can be greatly increased by
continuing to block up in this way, Fig. 163.
[Illustration: Fig. 164. Mallets.]
The _mallet_, Fig. 164, differs from the hammer in having a wooden
instead of a steel head. A maul or beetle is a heavy wooden mallet.
The effect of the blow of a mallet is quite different from that of
a hammer, in that the force is exerted more gradually; whereas the
effect of the hammer blow is direct, immediate, and local, and is
taken up at once. But a mallet continues to act after the first
impulse, pushing, as it were. This is because of the elasticity of the
head. A chisel, therefore, should always be driven with a mallet, for
the chisel handle would soon go to pieces under the blows of a hammer,
because of their suddenness; whereas the mallet blow which is slower
will not only drive the blade deeper with the same force, but will
not injure the handle so rapidly. Mallet-heads are made square,
cylindrical, and barrel-shaped. Carver's mallets are often turned from
one piece, hammer and head on one axis.
_Nailsets_, Fig. 165, are made with hardened points, but softer butts,
so that the hammer will not be injured. They were formerly made square
when nail heads were square, but now round ones are common. To obviate
slipping, some have "cup points," that is, with a concave tip, and
some spur points.
[Illustration: Fig. 165. Using a Nailset.]
To keep the nailset in its place on the nail-head it may be held
closely against the third finger of the left hand, which rests on the
wood close to the nail. When a nailset is lacking, the head of a brad,
held nearly flat, may be used. But care is necessary to avoid bruising
the wood.
6. HOLDING TOOLS.
A. _Tools for Holding Work._
The advance in ease of handworking may largely be measured by the
facilities for holding materials or other tools. The primitive man
used no devices for holding except his hands and feet. The Japanese,
who perhaps are the most skilful of joiners, still largely use their
fingers and toes. On the other hand, Anglo-Saxons have developed an
enormous variety of methods for holding work and tools.
[Illustration: Fig. 166. Bench made with Pinned Mortise-and-Tenon
Joints, Low Back.]
[Illustration: Fig. 167. Woodworking Bench used at Pratt Institute,
Showing Self-Adjusting Upright Vise.]
_Benches._ The essential features of a work-bench are a firm, steady
table with a vise and places for tools. The joints are either pinned
or wedged mortise-and-tenon, or draw-bolt joints. The best benches
are made of maple, the tops being strips joined or tongued-and-grooved
together. It is common also to have a trough at the back of the top
of the bench, i. e., a space 6" or 8" wide, set lower than the upper
surface, in which tools may be placed so as not to roll off. A low
pillow, fastened at the left hand end of the trough, on which to set
planes in order that the edge of the cutter may not be injured, is an
advantage. The tool-rack is of capital importance. It has been common
in school benches to affix it to a board, which rises considerably
above the top of the bench, Fig. 169, but a better plan is to have the
top of it no higher than the bench-top, Fig. 166. Then the light on
the bench is not obscured, and when a flat top is needed for large
work it can readily be had by removing the tools. Elaborate benches
with lock drawers are also much used in the shops of large city
schools.
[Illustration: Fig. 168. A Rapid-Acting Vise.]
_Vises_ for holding wood are of three general styles, (1) those with
an upright wooden jaw, Fig. 167, which holds wide pieces of work well.
They are now made with an automatic adjusting device by which the jaw
and the face of the bench are kept parallel; (2) wooden vises with a
horizontal jaw, guided by parallel runners, Fig. 166, and, (3) metal
rapid-acting vises, Fig. 168. The latter are the most durable and
in most respects more convenient. Special vises are also made for
wood-carvers, for saw-filing, etc.
[Illustration: Fig. 169. Holding a Large Board in Vise for Planing.]
The best woodworking benches are equipped with both side- and
tail-vises. The tail-vise is supplemented by movable bench-stops for
holding pieces of different lengths. In planing the side of a board it
is held in place between the tail-vise and one of the bench-stops. A
board should not be squeezed sidewise between the jaws of a vise when
it is to be planed, lest it be bent out of shape. In planing the edge
of a board it is ordinarily held in the side-vise. A long board, one
end of which is in the vise, may also need to be supported at the
other end. This may be done by clamping to it a handscrew, the jaw of
which rests on the top of the bench, Fig. 169. When the vise is likely
to be twisted out of square by the insertion of a piece of wood at one
end of it, it is well to insert another piece of equal thickness at
the other end of the vise to keep it square, as in Fig. 120, p. 82. In
this case, (Fig. 120,) the extra piece also supports the piece being
worked upon.
[Illustration: Fig. 170. Saw-Horse.]
The vise is also of great use in carrying on many other processes, but
a good workman does not use it to the exclusion of the saw-horse and
bench-hook.
Horses are of great use both for the rough sawing of material and in
supporting large pieces during the process of construction. The common
form is shown in Fig. 170, but a more convenient form for sawing has
an open top, as in Fig. 171.
[Illustration: Fig. 171. Saw-Horse.]
The _picture-frame-vise_, Fig. 172, is a very convenient tool for
making mitered joints, as in picture-frames. The vise holds two sides
firmly so that after gluing they may be either nailed together or a
spline inserted in a saw cut previously made. See Fig. 268, No. 55, p.
181. If the last joint in a picture-frame does not quite match, a kerf
may be sawn at the junction of the two pieces, which can then be drawn
close together.
[Illustration: Fig. 172. Picture-Frame-Vise.]
_Handscrews_, Fig. 173, consist of four parts, the shoulder jaw and
the screw jaw, made of maple, and the end spindle and the middle
spindle, made of hickory. The parts when broken can be bought
separately. Handscrews vary in size from those with jaws four inches
long to those with jaws twenty-two inches long. The best kind are
oiled so that glue will not adhere to them. In adjusting the jaws, if
the handle of the middle spindle is held in one hand, and the handle
of the end spindle in the other hand, and both are revolved together,
the jaws may be closed or opened evenly, Fig. 174. In use care must
be taken to keep the jaws parallel, in order to obtain the greatest
pressure and to prevent the spindles from being broken. It is always
important to have the jaws press on the work evenly. To secure
this, the middle spindle should be tightened first, and then the end
spindle. Handscrews are convenient for a great variety of uses, as
clamping up glued pieces, holding pieces together temporarily for
boring, Fig. 247, p. 153, holding work at any desired angle in the
vise, as for chamfering or beveling, Fig. 175, etc.
[Illustration: Fig. 173. Handscrew.]
_Clamps_ are made of both wood and iron, the most satisfactory for
speed, strength, and durability are steel-bar carpenter clamps, Fig.
176. They vary in length from 1-1/2 ft. to 8 ft. The separate parts
are the steel bar A, the cast-iron frame B, the tip C into which fits
the screw D, on the other end of which is the crank E, and the slide F
with its dog G, which engages in the notches on the bar. Any part, if
broken, can be replaced separately.
[Illustration: Fig. 174. Adjusting Handscrew.]
_Iron Handscrews_, also called C clamps and carriage-makers' clamps.
Fig. 177, are useful in certain kinds of work, as in gluing in special
places and in wood-carving. All iron clamps need blocks of soft wood
to be placed between them and the finished work.
_Pinch-dogs_, Fig. 178, are a convenient device for drawing together
two pieces of wood, when injury to the surfaces in which they are
driven does not matter. They vary in size from 3/4" to 2-3/4". For
ordinary purposes the smallest size is sufficient. For especially fine
work, double-pointed tacks, properly filed, are convenient.
The _bench-hook_, Fig. 179, is a simple device for holding firmly
small pieces of work when they are being sawn, chisled, etc. It also
saves the bench from being marred. The angles should be kept exactly
square.
[Illustration: Fig. 175. Using a Handscrew to hold a Board at an
Angle.]
The _miter-box_, Fig. 180, is a similar device with the addition of
a guide for the saw. The _iron miter-box_, Fig. 181, with the saw
adjustable to various angles, insures accurate work.
Such tools as _pliers_, Fig. 182, _pincers_, Fig. 183, and _nippers_,
Fig. 184, made for gripping iron, are often useful in the woodworking
shop. So are various sorts of _wrenches_; as fixed, socketed,
adjustable, monkey- and pipe-wrenches.
[Illustration: Fig. 176. Steel-Bar Carpenter's Clamp. a. Steel Bar. b.
Frame. c. Tip. d. Screw. e. Crank. f. Slide. g. Dog.]
[Illustration: Fig. 177. Iron Handscrew, (Carriage-Maker's Clamp).]
[Illustration: Fig. 178. Pinch-Dog.]
B. _Tools for holding other tools._
The _brace_ or _bit-stock_, Fig. 185, holds all sorts of boring tools
as well as screwdrivers, dowel-pointers, etc. The simple brace or
bit-stock consists of a chuck, a handle, and a knob, and is sufficient
for ordinary use; but the ratchet-brace enables the user to bore near
to surfaces or corners where a complete sweep cannot be made. It is
also useful where sufficient power can be applied only at one part of
the sweep. By means of pawls which engage in the ratchet-wheel, the
bit can be turned in either direction at the will of the user. The
size of the brace is indicated by the "sweep," that is, the diameter
of the circle thru which the swinging handle turns. To insert a bit
or other tool, Fig. 186, grasp firmly with one hand the sleeve of the
chuck pointing it upward, and revolve the handle with the other hand,
unscrewing the sleeve until the jaws open enough to admit the whole
tang of the bit. Then reverse the motion and the bit will be held
tightly in place. Various hand-, breast-, bench-, bow-drills and
automatic drills are of use in doing quick work and for boring small
holes, Fig. 187.
[Illustration: Fig. 179. Bench-Hook.]
[Illustration: Fig. 180. Miter-Box.]
[Illustration: Fig. 181. Iron Miter-Box.]
The _screwdriver_, Fig. 188, is a sort of holding tool for turning,
and so driving screws. Various devices have been tried to prevent the
twisting in the handle. This is now practically assured in various
makes. The other important matter in a screwdriver is that the point
be of the right temper, so as neither to bend nor to break. If the
corners break they can be reground, but care should be taken not to
make the angle too obtuse or the driver will slip out of the slot in
the screw-head. The bevel should have a long taper. A shop should be
equipped with different sizes of screwdrivers to fit the different
sizes of screws. Screwdrivers vary in size, the shank ranging in
length from 2-1/2" to 18". A long screwdriver is more powerful than a
short one, for the screwdriver is rarely exactly in line with the
axis of the screw, but the handle revolves in a circle. This means an
increased leverage, so that the longer the screwdriver, the greater
the leverage.
[Illustration: Fig. 182. Pliers.]
[Illustration: Fig. 183. Pincers.]
[Illustration: Fig. 184. Nippers.]
[Illustration: Fig. 185. Ratchet-Brace.]
For heavy work, screwdriver-bits, Fig. 189, in a bit-stock are useful,
and for quick work, the spiral screwdriver, Fig. 190, and for small
work, the ratchet-screwdriver.
7. MEASURING AND MARKING TOOLS.
It is a long step from the time when one inch meant the width of the
thumb, and one foot meant the length of the foot, to the measuring
of distances and of angles which vary almost infinitesimally. No such
accuracy is necessary in measuring wood as in measuring metal, but
still there is a considerable variety of tools for this purpose.
[Illustration: Fig. 186. Inserting a Bit in Stock.]
[Illustration: Fig. 187. Hand-Drill.]
[Illustration: Fig. 188. Screwdriver.]
[Illustration: Fig. 189. Screwdriver-Bit.]
[Illustration: Fig. 190. Spiral Screwdriver.]
For measuring distances, the _rule_, Fig. 191, is the one in most
common use. It is usually made of boxwood. For convenience it is
hinged so as to fold. A rule is called "two-fold" when it is made of
two pieces, "four-fold" when made of four pieces, etc. When measuring
or marking from it, it can be used more accurately by turning it on
edge, so that the lines of the graduations may come directly against
the work. The one in most common use in school shops, is a two-foot,
two-fold rule. Some instructors prefer to have pupils use a four-fold
rule, because that is the form commonly used in the woodworking
trades. Steel bench-rules, Fig. 192, are satisfactory in school work
because unbreakable and because they do not disappear so rapidly as
pocket rules. They need to be burnished occasionally.
[Illustration: Fig. 191. Two-Foot Rule. Two Fold.]
[Illustration: Fig. 192. Steel Bench-Rule.]
[Illustration: Fig. 193. Back of Steel Square, Brace Measure.]
The _steel square_, Figs. 193, 194, 196, 197, is useful, not only as a
straight-edge and try-square, but also for a number of graduations and
tables which are stamped on it. There are various forms, but the
one in most common use consists of a blade or "body" 24"×2" and a
"tongue," 16"×1-1/2", at right angles to each other. Sargent's trade
number for this form is 100. It includes graduations in hundredths,
thirty-seconds, sixteenths, twelfths, tenths, and eighths of an
inch, also a brace-measure, an eight-square measure, and the Essex
board-measure. Another style, instead of an Essex board-measure, and
the hundredths graduation has a rafter-table. The side upon which the
name of the maker is stamped, is called the "face," and the reverse
side the "back."
The brace-measure is to be found along the center of the back of the
tongue, Fig. 193. It is used thus: the two equal numbers set one above
the other represent the sides of a square, and the single number to
their right, represents in inches and decimals, the diagonal of that
square. E. g., 54/54 76.37 means that a square the sides of which are
54" would have a diagonal of 76.37".
For determining the length of the long side (hypothenuse) of a right
angle triangle, when the other two given sides are not equal, the foot
rule, or another steel square may be laid diagonally across the blade
and arm, and applied directly to the proper graduations thereon, and
the distance between them measured on the rule. If the distance to
be measured is in feet, use the 1/12" graduations on the back of the
square.
[Illustration: Fig. 194. Face of Steel Square, Octagon,
"Eight-Square," Scale.]
To use the octagonal (or 8-square) scale, Fig. 194, which is along the
center of the face of the tongue, with the dividers, take the number
of spaces in the scale to correspond with the number of inches the
piece of wood is square, and lay this distance off from the center
point, on each edge of the board. Connect the points thus obtained,
diagonally across the corners, and a nearly exact octagon will be had.
E.g., on a board 12" square, Fig. 195, find A.B.C.D., the centers
of each edge. Now with the dividers take 12 spaces from the 8-square
scale. Lay off this distance on each side as A' A" from A, B' B" from
B, etc. Now connect A" with B', B" with C', C" with D', D" with A',
and the octagon is obtained.
[Illustration: Fig. 195. Method of Using the Eight-Square Scale on the
Steel-Square.]
In making a square piece of timber octagonal, the same method is used
on the butt, sawed true. When the distance from one center is laid
off, the marking-gage may be set to the distance from the point thus
obtained to the corner of the timber, and the piece gaged from all
four corners both ways. Cutting off the outside arrises to the gaged
lines leaves an octagonal stick.
[Illustration: Fig. 196. Back of Steel Square, Essex Board Measure.]
The board-measure is stamped on the back of the blade of the square,
Fig. 196. The figure 12 on the outer edge of the blade is the starting
point for all calculations. It represents a 1" board, 12" wide, and
the smaller figures under it indicate the length of boards in feet.
Thus a board 12" wide, and 8' long measures 8 square feet and so on
down the column. To use it, for boards other than 12" wide:--find the
length of the board in feet, under the 12" marked on the outer edge of
the blade, then run right or left along that line to the width of
the board in inches. The number under the width in inches on the line
showing the length in feet, gives the board feet for lumber 1" thick.
For example, to measure a board 14' long, and 11" wide,--under the
figure 12, find 14 (length of the board); to the left of this, under
11 is the number 12.10; 12' 10" is the board-measure of the board in
question. Since a board 12' long would have as many board feet in it
as it is inches wide, the B. M. is omitted for 12' boards. Likewise
a board 6' long would have 1/2 the number of board feet that it is
inches wide. If the board is shorter than the lowest figure given
(8) it can be found by dividing its double by 2.; e. g., to measure
a board 5' long and 9" wide, take 10 under the 12, run to the left of
the number under 9, which is 7' 6": 1/2 of this would be 3' 9", the
number of board feet in the board.
If the board to be measured is longer than any figure given, divide
the length into two parts and add the result of the two parts obtained
separately. For example, for a board 23' long and 13" wide,--take
12'×13" = 13'; add to it, 11'×13" = 11' 11"; total, 24'11".
[Illustration: Fig. 197. Steel Square with Rafter Table.]
A good general rule is to think first whether or not the problem can
be done in one's head without the assistance of the square.
The table is made, as its name, Board-Measure (B. M.) implies, for
measuring boards, which are commonly 1" thick. For materials more than
1" thick, multiply the B. M. of one surface by the number of inches
thick the piece measures.
The rafter-table is found on the back of the body of the square, Fig.
197. Auxiliary to it are the twelfth inch graduations, on the outside
edges, which may represent either feet or inches.
[Illustration: Fig. 198. The "Run" and "Rise" of a Rafter.]
By the "run" of the rafter is meant the horizontal distance when it is
set in place from the end of its foot to a plumb line from the ridge
end, i. e., one half the length of the building, Fig. 198. By the
"rise" of the rafter is meant the perpendicular distance from the
ridge end to the level of the foot of the rafter. By the pitch is
meant the ratio of the rise to twice the run, i. e., to the total
width of the building. In a 1/2 pitch, the rise equals the run, or 1/2
the width of the building; in a 1/3 pitch the rise is 1/3 the width
of the building; in a 3/4 pitch the rise is 3/4 the width of the
building.
[Illustration: Fig. 199. Lumberman's Board Rule.]
To find the length of a rafter by the use of the table, first find the
required pitch, at the left end of the table. Opposite this and under
the graduation on the edge representing the run in feet, will be found
the length of the rafter; e.g., a rafter having a run of 12' with a
1/4 pitch, is 13' 5" long, one with a run of 11' and a 1/3 pitch,
is 13' 2-8/12", one with a run of 7' and a 5/8 pitch, is 11' 2-6/12"
long, etc.
When the run is in inches, the readings are for 1/12 of the run in
feet: e.g., a rafter with a run of 12" and a 1/4 pitch is 13-5/12",
one with a run of 11" and a 1/3 pitch, is 13-3/12". Where the run is
in both feet and inches, find the feet and the inches separately; and
add together; e.g., a rafter with a run of 11' 6", and a 1/2 pitch, is
15' 6-8/12" + 8-6/12" = 16' 3-2/12".
[Illustration: Fig. 200. Try-Square. Fig. 201. Miter-Square. Fig. 202.
Sliding-T Bevel.]
The _lumberman's board-rule_, Fig. 199. To measure wood by it, note
the length of the board in feet at the end of the measure. The dot
nearest the width (measured in inches) gives the B. M. for lumber 1"
thick.
The _try-square_, Fig. 200, which is most commonly used for measuring
the accuracy of right angles, is also convenient for testing the
width of a board at various places along its length, for making short
measurements, and as a guide in laying out lines with a pencil or
knife at right angles to a surface or edge. The sizes are various and
are indicated by the length of the blade. A convenient size for the
individual bench and for ordinary use has a blade 6" long. It is also
well to have in the shop one large one with a 12" blade.
[Illustration: Fig. 203. Using the Try-Square.]
[Illustration: Fig. 204. Scribing with Knife by Try-Square.]
In testing the squareness of work with the try-square, care must be
taken to see that the head rests firmly against the surface from which
the test is made, and then slipped down till the blade touches the
edge being tested, Fig. 203. The edge should be tested at a number
of places in the same way: that is, it should not be slid along the
piece. The try-square is also of great use in scribing lines across
boards, Fig. 204. A good method is to put the point of the knife at
the beginning of the desired line, slide the square, along until it
touches the knife-edge; then, resting the head of the square firmly
against the edge, draw the knife along, pressing it lightly against
the blade, holding it perpendicularly. To prevent the knife from
running away from the blade of the try-square, turn its edge slightly
towards the blade.
The _miter-square_, Fig. 201, is a try-square fixed at an angle of
45°.
The _sliding T bevel_, Fig. 202, has a blade adjustable to any angle.
It may be set either from a sample line, drawn on the wood, from
a given line on a protractor, from drawing triangles, from the
graduations on a framing square, or in other ways. It is used
similarly to the T-square.
[Illustration: Fig. 205. Winding-Sticks, 12 inches Long.]
_Winding-sticks_, Fig. 205, consist of a pair of straight strips of
exactly the same width thruout. They are used to find out whether
there is any twist or "wind" in a board. This is done by placing them
parallel to each other, one at one end of the board, and the other at
the other end. By sighting across them, one can readily see
whether the board be twisted or not, Fig. 206. The blades of two
framing-squares may be used in the same manner.
[Illustration: Fig. 206. Method of Using the Winding-Sticks.]
_Compasses_ or _dividers_, Fig. 207, consist of two legs turning on
a joint, and having sharpened points. A convenient form is the wing
divider which can be accurately adjusted by set-screws. A pencil can
be substituted for the removable point. They are used for describing
circles and arcs, for spacing, for measuring, for subdividing
distances, and for scribing. In scribing a line parallel with a given
outline, one leg follows the given edge, or outline, and the point
of the other, marks the desired line. Used in this way they are very
convenient for marking out chamfers, especially on curved edges, a
sharp pencil being substituted for the steel point.
The _beam-compass_, Fig. 208, consists of two _trammel-points_ running
on a beam which may be made of any convenient length. It is used for
describing large circles. A pencil may be attached to one point.
_Calipers_, outside and inside, Figs. 209, 210, are necessary for the
accurate gaging of diameters, as in wood-turning.
[Illustration: Fig. 207. Winged Dividers.]
[Illustration: Fig. 208. Beam-Compass or Trammel Points.]
[Illustration: Fig. 209. Outside Calipers.]
[Illustration: Fig. 210. Inside Calipers.]
The _marking-gage_, Fig. 211, consists of a head or block sliding on a
beam or bar, to which it is fixed by means of a set-screw. On the face
of the head is a brass shoe to keep the face from wearing. Projecting
thru the beam is a steel spur or point, which should be filed to a
flat, sharp edge, a little rounded and sharpened on the edge toward
which the gage is to be moved, Fig. 212. It should project about 1/8"
from the beam. If the spur be at all out of place, as it is likely to
be, the graduations on a beam will be unreliable. Hence it is best to
neglect them entirely when setting the gage and always to measure with
the rule from the head to the spur, Fig. 213.
[Illustration: Fig. 211. Marking-Gage.]
[Illustration: Fig. 212. Spur of Marking-Gage.]
In use the beam should be tilted forward, so as to slide on its
corner, Fig. 214. In this way the depth of the gage line can be
regulated. Ordinarily, the finer the line the better. The head must
always be kept firmly pressed against the edge of the wood so that the
spur will not run or jump away from its desired course. Care should
also be taken, except in rough pieces, to run gage lines no farther
than is necessary for the sake of the appearance of the finished work.
To secure accuracy, all gaging on the surface of wood, should be done
from the "working face" or "working edge."
[Illustration: Fig. 213. Setting a Marking-Gage.]
[Illustration: Fig. 214. Using the Marking-Gage.]
It is sometimes advisable, as in laying out chamfers, not to mark
their edges with a marking-gage, because the marks will show after the
chamfer is planed off. A pencil mark should be made instead. For
this purpose a pencil-gage may be made by removing the spur of a
marking-gage, and boring in its place a hole to receive a pencil stub
with a blunt point, or a small notch may be cut in the back end of
the beam, in which a pencil point is held while the gage is worked as
usual except that its position is reversed. For work requiring less
care, the pencil may be held in the manner usual in writing, the
middle finger serving as a guide, or a pair of pencil compasses may
be used, one leg serving as a guide. A special gage is made for gaging
curved lines, Fig. 215.
[Illustration: Fig. 215. Marking-Gage for Curves.]
The _cutting-gage_, Fig. 216, is similar to a marking-gage, except
that it has a knife-point inserted instead of a spur. It is very
useful in cutting up soft, thin wood even as thick as 1/4".
[Illustration: Fig. 216. Cutting-Gage.]
The _slitting-gage_ is used in a similar way, but is larger and has a
handle.
The _mortise-gage_, Fig. 217, is a marking-gage with two spurs,
with which two parallel lines can be drawn at once, as in laying out
mortises. One form is made entirely of steel having, instead of spurs,
discs with sharpened edges.
The _scratch-awl_, Fig. 218, has a long, slender point which is useful
not only for marking lines, but for centering.
[Illustration: Fig. 217. Roller Mortise-Gage.]
The _auger-bit-gage_, Fig. 219, is a convenient tool for measuring the
depth of holes bored, but for ordinary purposes a block of wood sawn
to the proper length thru which a hole is bored, is a satisfactory
substitute.
_Screw- and wire-gages_, Fig. 220, are useful in measuring the lengths
and sizes of screws and wire when fitting or ordering.
The _spirit-level_, and the _plumb-line_ which it has largely
replaced, are in constant use in carpentering, but are rarely needed
in shopwork.
[Illustration: Fig. 218. Scratch-Awl.]
[Illustration: Fig. 219. Auger-Bit-Gage.] _Blackboard compasses_,
_triangles_, etc., are convenient accessories in a woodworking
classroom.
[Illustration: Fig. 220. Screw- and Wire-Gages. a. Screw-Gage. b.
Wire-Gage. c. Twist-Drill-Gage.]
8. SHARPENING TOOLS.
The _grindstone_ for woodworking tools is best when rather fine and
soft. The grinding surface should be straight and never concave. The
stone should run as true as possible. It can be made true by using a
piece of 1" gas pipe as a truing tool held against the stone when run
dry. Power grindstones usually have truing devices attached to them,
Fig. 221. A common form is a hardened steel screw, the thread of
which, in working across the face of the grindstone, as they both
revolve, shears off the face of the stone. The surface should always
be wet when in use both to carry off the particles of stone and steel,
and thus preserve the cutting quality of the stone, and to keep the
tool cool, as otherwise, its temper would be drawn, which would show
by its turning blue. But a grindstone should never stand in water or
it would rot.
It is well to have the waste from the grindstone empty into a
cisternlike box under it, Fig. 221. In this box the sediment will
settle while the water overflows from it into the drain. Without such
a box, the sediment will be carried into and may clog the drain. The
box is to be emptied occasionally, before the sediment overflows.
[Illustration: Fig. 221. Power Grindstone.]
In order that the tool may be ground accurately, there are various
devices for holding it firmly and steadily against the stone. A good
one is shown in Figs. 221 and 222. This device is constructed as
follows: A board A is made 2" thick, 6" wide, and long enough when in
position to reach from the floor to a point above the level of the
top of the stone. It is beveled at the lower end so as to rest snugly
against a cleat nailed down at the proper place on the floor. The
board is held in place by a loop of iron, B, which hooks into the
holes in the trough of the grindstone. In the board a series of holes
(say 1" in diameter) are bored. These run parallel to the floor when
the board is in place, and receive the end of the tool-holder. The
tool-holder consists of four parts: (1) a strip C, 1-1/2" thick,
and as wide as the widest plane-bit to be ground. The forward end is
beveled on one side; the back end is rounded to fit the holes in the
main board A. Its length is determined by the distance from the edge
of the tool being ground to the most convenient hole in A, into which
the rear end is to be inserted. It is better to use as high a hole as
convenient, so that as the grindstone wears down, the stick will still
be serviceable; (2) a strip, D, of the same width as A and 7/8" thick,
and 15" to 18" long; (3) a cleat, E, 5/8"×3/4", nailed across D; (4) a
rectangular loop of wrought iron or brass, F, which passes around the
farther end of the two strips, C and D, and is fastened loosely to D
by staples or screws.
[Illustration: Fig. 222. Grinding Device.]
[Illustration: Fig. 223. Holder for Grinding Chisels or Plane-Bits.]
The tool to be ground slips between this loop and the strip C, and
is held firmly in place by the pressure applied to the back end of D,
which thus acts as a lever on the fulcrum E.
Any desired bevel may be obtained on the tool to be sharpened, by
choosing the proper hole in A for the back end of C or by adjusting
the tool forward or backward in the clamp. As much pressure may be put
on the tool as the driving belt will stand without slipping off.
A still simpler holder for the plane-bit only, is a strip of wood
1-1/2" thick and 2" wide, cut in the shape G shown in Fig. 223. The
plane-bit fits into the saw-kerf K, and in grinding is easily held
firmly in place by the hand. By inserting the rear end of the stick G
into a higher or lower hole in the board A, any desired angle may be
obtained. G is shown in position in Fig. 221.
[Illustration: Fig. 224. Agacite Grinder.]
All such devices necessitate a perfectly true stone. The essential
features are, to have a rigid support against which the tool may be
pushed by the revolving stone, to hold the tool at a fixed angle
which may be adjusted, and to press the tool against the stone with
considerable pressure. The wheel should revolve toward the edge
which is being ground, for two reasons. It is easier to hold the tool
steadily thus, and the danger of producing a wire edge is lessened.
The edge as it becomes thin, tends to spring away from the stone and
this tendency is aggravated if the stone revolves away from the edge.
If the stone does not run true and there is a consequent danger of
digging into the stone with the tool which is being sharpened, the
stone would better revolve away from the edge. The grinding should
continue until the ground surface reaches the cutting edge and there
is no bright line left along the edge. If the grinding is continued
beyond this point, nothing is gained, and a heavy wire edge will be
formed.
A very convenient and inexpensive grinding tool, Fig. 224, sold as
the "_Agacite grinder_,"[7] has a number of different shaped grinding
stones made chiefly of carborundum.
The _oilstone_. After grinding, edge tools need whetting. This is done
on the whetstone, or oilstone. The best natural stones are found near
Hot Springs, Arkansas. The fine white ones are called Arkansas
stones, and the coarser ones Washita stones. The latter are better for
ordinary woodworking tools. The _India oilstone_, an artificial stone,
Fig. 77, p. 58, cuts even more quickly than the natural stones. It is
made in several grades of coarseness. The medium grade is recommended
for ordinary shop use. Oil is used on oilstones for the same purpose
as water on a grindstone. When an oilstone becomes hollow or uneven by
use, it may be trued by rubbing it on a flat board covered with sharp
sand, or on sandpaper tacked over a block of wood.
[Illustration: Fig. 225. Slipstone.]
_Slipstones_, Fig. 225, are small oilstones, made into various
shapes in order to fit different tools, as gouges, the bits of
molding-planes, etc.
_Files_ are used for sharpening saws, augers, scrapers, etc. See
above, p. 90.
9. CLEANING TOOLS.
The _bench duster_. One may be noted hanging on the bench shown
in Fig. 166, p. 98. Bristle brushes for cleaning the benches are
essential if the shop is to be kept tidy.
_Buffer._ Wherever a lathe or other convenient revolving shaft is
available, a buffer made of many thicknesses of cotton cloth is very
valuable for polishing tools. The addition of a little tripoli greatly
facilitates the cleaning.
[Footnote 7: Made by the Empire Implement Co., Albany, N. Y.]
WOOD HAND TOOLS.--_Continued._
REFERENCES:[*]
(4) Scraping Tools.
Barnard, pp. 136-142.
Wheeler, pp. 465, 473.
Griffith, pp. 71-75.
Selden, pp. 149, 177, 182.
Hodgson, I, pp. 61-74.
(5) Pounding Tools.
Barnard, pp. 24-47.
Sickels, p. 70.
Wheeler, pp. 414, 428-432.
Selden, pp. 31, 111, 156.
Goss, p. 60.
Barter, p. 128.
(6) Punching Tools.
Barnard, p. 29.
Wheeler, p. 433.
Selden, p. 161.
(7) Gripping Tools.
For holding work:
Goss, p. 63.
Wheeler, pp. 65-75, 475.
Selden, pp. 140, 147, 186, 194.
Hammacher, pp. 286-291.
For holding other tools:
Goss, pp. 56-59.
Selden, p. 143.
(8) Measuring and Marking Tools.
Goss, pp. 9-20.
Griffith, pp. 9-19.
Hodgson, _The Steel Square_.
Wheeler, p. 465.
Tate, pp. 21-25.
_Building Trades Pocketbook_, pp. 234-237.
Selden, pp. 149, 150-152, 175.
Sargent's _Steel Squares_.
(9) Sharpening Tools.
Barnard, pp. 136-142.
Sickels, pp. 80-85.
Wheeler, pp. 480-488.
Selden, pp. 153, 162, 172, 180.
Goss, pp. 39, 64-69.
[Footnote *: For general bibliography see p. 4.]