The text proper of the present volume is entirely commercial. In
the conclusion of the Extracto historial, is seen the continuance,
between the merchants of Spain and the colonies, of the struggle for
commercial supremacy. Demands and counter-demands emanate from the
merchants of Cadiz and Manila respectively; and economic questions
of great moment are treated bunglingly. The jealousy, envy, and
distrust of the Cadiz merchants sees in the increasing prosperity of
the Manila trade, especially that in Chinese silks, only their own
ruin. The Manila merchants, on the other hand, who have the best
of the controversy, quite properly object to an exchange of the
silk trade for the exclusive right in the spice trade. The laws of
supply and demand seem to be quite left out of consideration. The
appendix is an attempt to show the influences and factors making
for education in the Philippines during the Spanish régime, and the
various educational institutions in the archipelago. In it one will
see that, while apparently there has been great activity, results
have been meager and superficial.
At the close of the preceding volume, we saw in the Extracto historial
the "Manila plan" for regulating the commerce between the Philippines
and Nueva España, and its adoption (1726) by the Spanish government
for a limited period. Three years later (July, 1729) Cadiz protests
against this concession, complaining of the abuses practiced in the
Manila-Acapulco trade, and of the injury done to Spanish commerce by
the importation of Chinese silks into Nueva España. In consequence
of this, an investigation is ordered in Acapulco and Mexico, from
which it appears that the amount of Manila's commerce is rapidly
increasing; the viceroy therefore advises the home government to
restrict it, as being injurious to the commercial interests not only
of the mother-country but of Nueva España, especially in the matter
of Chinese silks. Meanwhile, he notifies Manila that the galleon of
1734 must be laden in accordance with the old scheme, the five years'
term having expired. At this, Manila enters a vigorous protest, and
demands that the permission of 1726 be continued to the islands. After
much discussion pro and con, a royal decree is issued (April 8,
1734) to regulate that commerce; the viceroy's order is revoked,
the amount of trade permitted to Manila is increased, but otherwise
the decrees of 1702, 1712, and 1724 shall be in force (with some
minor changes). In the following year, Cadiz again complains of the
Manila-Acapulco trade, and proposes that Chinese silks be excluded
from it--offering, by way of compensation, to surrender to Manila the
exclusive right to the spice trade in the American colonies. The royal
fiscal disapproves this, for various practical reasons, and recommends
that the whole matter be discussed at a conference in Mexico, attended
by delegates from Manila and Cadiz. The Manila deputies place before
the Council another long memorial (dated March 30, 1735), refuting
the arguments and denying the charges made by Cadiz; the latter's
offer of the spice trade in Nueva España is regarded as useless and
in every way unsatisfactory. Cadiz answers these objections (June 1,
1735), and urges the court to cut off the trade of Manila in Chinese
silks, adducing many arguments therefor. Again the fiscal refuses to
endorse the policy of Cadiz; and the Council call (November 16, 1735)
for a summary report of the entire controversy, with the documents
concerned therein, preparatory to their final review and decision.
The educational appendix, which occupies most of this volume, opens
with a petition from the Manila ecclesiastical cabildo, to the effect
that no religious order be allowed to establish a university in Manila
(as has been petitioned), as such a procedure would be prejudicial
to the secular clergy, by reason of the fact that the religious would
hold all the chairs in such institution. The petition also recommends
that all ecclesiastical posts be given indiscriminately to members of
all the orders until there are sufficient secular priests to hold them.
The second document, consisting of two parts, relates to the college
of San José. The first part is the account by Colin in his Labor
evangelica, and is a brief history of the institution from its
foundation until 1663; the second is a compilation from various
sources. The efforts of the Jesuits for a college are first realized
through the Jesuit visitor, Diego Garcia, who is well assisted by Pedro
Chirino. Luis Gomez, the first rector, secures the necessary civil and
ecclesiastical permissions, in 1601. The college opens with thirteen
fellowships, which are given to the sons of influential citizens,
a number soon increased to twenty. Rules and regulations are made
for teachers and scholarships. As early as 1596, Esteban Rodriguez de
Figueroa has left directions in his will, in case either of his minor
daughters dies, for the endowment of a college under the care of the
Jesuits. One of his daughters dying, the will becomes operative, and
in consequence, the second establishment of the college takes place
February 28, 1610, the act of foundation being given. The Jesuits have
some trouble in getting the funds decreed by the will, but are finally
successful. In 1647, the college obtains the favorable decision as
to right of seniority in its contest with the Dominican institution
of Santo Tomás. The second part of this document traces (mainly by
reference to and citation from original documents), the history of
the college of San José from its foundation to the present time,
necessarily mentioning much touched upon by Colin. The royal decree
of May 3, 1722, granting the title of "Royal" to the college is given
entire. The various fellowships in the college are enumerated. The
expulsion of the Jesuits in 1768 has a direct bearing on the college,
which is at first confiscated by the government, but later restored
to the archbishop who lays claim to it. The latter converts it into
an ecclesiastical seminary, thus depriving its students of their
rights; but the king disapproves of such action, and the college
is restored to its former status and given into the charge of the
cathedral officials. Its later management does not prove efficient,
and the college finally falls under the supervision of the Dominican
university. In the decade between 1860 and 1870, the plans of making
a professional school of it are discussed, and in 1875 faculties of
medicine and pharmacy are established there. The Moret decrees of 1870
secularize the institution, but the attempt is successfully blocked
by the religious orders. Since American occupation of the islands,
the question of the status of the college has been discussed before
the government, and the case is still unsettled.
The next document, consisting of three parts, treats of the Dominican
college and university of Santo Tomás. The first part is the account
as given by Santa Cruz, and treats especially of the erection of
the college into a university. After unsuccessful efforts made by
the Dominicans with Pope Urban VII in 1643 and 1644 to obtain the
pontifical permission for this step, it is at length obtained from
Pope Innocent X in 1645. In 1648, the Audiencia and the archbishop
give their consent to the erection. Rules and regulations are made
by the rector of the new university, Fray Martin Real de la Cruz,
in imitation of those of the university of Mexico. The second part
of this document is the royal decree of March 7, 1785, granting
the title of "Royal" to the institution, on condition that it
never petition aid from the royal treasury. The third part is an
account of the university by Fray Evarista Fernandez Arias, O.P.,
which was read at the opening of the university in 1885. He traces
briefly the history of the foundation and growth of the college and
university. Pope Paul V grants authority to it to confer degrees to
its graduates for ten years, a permission that is later prolonged. The
brief of Innocent X erecting the college into a university in 1645
is later extended by Clement XII in 1734. The first regulations of
the university are revised in 1785, when the faculties of law and
theology are extended (the departments of jurisprudence and canon
law having been established early in the eighteenth century). These
laws are the ones still in force in 1885 except in so far as they
have been modified by later laws. It becomes necessary to abolish
the school of medicine and the chairs of mathematics and drawing. In
1836, the chair of Spanish law is created. Between the years 1837
and 1867 the question of reorganization is discussed. In 1870, the
university is secularized as the university of the Philippines by
the Moret decree, but the decree is soon repealed. The college of
San José is placed definitely under the control of the university,
and becomes its medical and pharmaceutical department. In 1876, a
notarial course is opened, and in 1880, courses in medicine, pharmacy,
and midwifery are opened. Since this date the college has had complete
courses in superior and secondary education.
The next document is one of unusual interest because it is the earliest
attempt to form an exclusively royal and governmental educational
institution in the Philippines--the royal college of San Felipe de
Austria, founded by Governor Sebastián Hurtado de Corcuera. The first
part of this document, which consists of two parts, is an extract from
Diaz's Historia. Corcuera assigns the sum of 4,000 pesos annually
from the royal treasury for the support of the twenty fellowships
created, those preferences being designed for the best Spanish
youth of Manila. The new institution is given into the charge of the
Jesuits. The college is, however, suppressed at the close of Corcuera's
government, as it is disapproved by the king, the decree of suppression
being inexorably executed by Fajardo. The Jesuits are compelled to
repay the 12,000 pesos that have been paid them for the support of the
college for the three years of its existence. A later royal college,
called also San Felipe, is created by order of Felipe V. The second
part of the present document is condensed from notes in Pastells's
edition of Labor evangélica, and is a brief sketch of the founding,
duration, and suppression of the institution founded by Corcuera. The
latter founds it at the instance of the secular cabildo of Manila,
and the charge of it is given to the Jesuits, although the Dominicans
offer to dispense with the 4,000 pesos granted it from the royal
treasury. Twenty fellowships and six places for Pampango servants are
created by the act of foundation, December 23, 1640. The 4,000 pesos
are met from Sangley licenses. An abstract of the rules of the new
institution, thirty-three in all, is given. They cover the scholastic,
moral, and religious life of the pupils. Corcuera's letter of August 8,
1641, reporting the foundation and asking certain favors, is answered
by the royal decree of suppression, which is entrusted to the new
governor, Fajardo. The 12,000 pesos, which the Jesuits are ordered
to pay, is repaid them (if they have paid it) by a royal decree of
March 17, 1647, and the incident of the short-lived college is closed.
The following document--the summary of a letter from the famous
Archbishop Pardo--is the answer to a royal decree ordering the
education of natives for the priesthood. He states the inefficiency of
the natives for that pursuit, and the necessity of sending religious
from Spain. It is followed by a royal decree of June 20, 1686,
directing the strict observance of the laws for native schools and
the study of Spanish in the Spanish colonies.
The college-seminary of San Clemente, or San Felipe, as it was called
later, forms the subject of the next document, which consists of
two parts. The first is a royal decree of March 3, 1710, in which
the king disapproves of the methods employed in the founding of
the seminary which he had ordered Governor Zabalburu to found with
8 seminarists. Instead of following orders, the governor allows the
archbishop and the "patriarch" Tournon to establish the institution,
which is thrown open to foreigners, and has over eighty instead
of eight seminarists. This disobedience occasions the removal and
transfer of Archbishop Camacho, and the foreigners are ordered to
be expelled, and only sixteen Spanish subjects are to be allowed in
the seminary as boarders, in addition to the eight seminarists. The
second part of the document is from the Recollect historian, Juan
de la Concepción. Governor Cruzat y Gongora, in answer to a royal
decree recommending the establishment of a seminary, declares such to
be unnecessary. Its foundation is, however, ordered, and is finally
consummated, but the conditions of the actual founding, which was
entrusted to the governor, are altered by the neglect of the latter and
the intrusion of Tournon and the archbishop who work in concert. The
king, hearing of the turn affairs have taken, not through direct
communication, but through the papal nuncio, orders the refounding
of the institution along the lines indicated by him, and the name is
changed to San Felipe. The formal founding of the latter is left by
the governor to Archbishop Francisco de la Cuesta, who draws up new
rules, but at the same time deprives the king of the private patronage,
usurping it for himself, although it is a lay creation.
In the following document, the college of San Juan de Letran is
discussed. It is founded in 1640 by Juan Geronimo Guerrero, for
the purpose of aiding and teaching poor orphan boys. Many alms
are given for the work by charitable persons, and Corcuera grants
some in the king's name, and an encomienda in the Parián is given
it. At the same time, a Dominican lay-brother undertakes the care
of poor orphan boys in the porter's lodge of the Manila convent. As
Guerrero ages, finding it impossible to look after his orphan boys,
he entrusts them to the care of the Dominican lay-brother, who has
by this time formed a congregation under the name of San Pedro y San
Pablo. The consolidation is known for some time by the latter name,
although the transfer is made under the name of the College of San
Juan de Letran, which is later definitely adopted. Rules for the
college are made by Sebastian de Oquendo, prior of the Manila convent,
which are revised later by the provincial chapter. After being housed
for some years in the lower part of the convent, the college is moved
into a house opposite the same; but that house being destroyed by the
earthquake of 1645, a wooden building is erected outside the walls
near the Parián. In 1669, finding their quarters uncomfortable, as
the students are compelled to go to the university for their studies,
the college is again moved inside the walled city. Priestly, military,
and other professions are recruited from this institution.
A royal decree of June 11, 1792 requires the permission of the
royal representative, and of those in authority at the institutions
of learning, for all students, men and women, attending any such
institution subject to the royal patronage and protection, before
the contraction of marriage. Another decree of December 22, 1792,
directs the governor to observe the previous decrees concerning the
teaching of Spanish in schools for the natives. Nothing but Spanish
is to be spoken in the convents.
Conciliar seminaries are treated in a document of two parts. The
first part is a decree of March 26, 1803, in regard to the three
per cent discount which is ordered to be made from the salary of all
parish priests for the maintenance of conciliar seminaries. A decree
of July 30, 1802 is enclosed therein, which orders such collection,
notwithstanding the objections raised by the parish priests; and
the payment must be made in money. Special provisions are made in
regard to the seminary of Nueva Segovia. The second part consists of
extracts from various sources. The first two of the extracts relate
to the five Roman Catholic conciliar seminaries, and give their status
since 1862. The third extract is the provision made by the Aglipay or
independent church of the Philippines for seminaries for the education
of priests, and the plan for the studies to be carried on therein.
The Nautical school of Manila is also treated in two parts, the
first being a decree of May 9, 1839, approving the new regulations
for the pilots' school of July 20, 1837; and the second extracts from
various sources giving a brief history of this institution which is
established first in 1820 by the Consulate of Commerce, and later
taken under control of the government. This school is now maintained
by the Americans.
The boys' soprano school is an interesting institution founded
by Archbishop Rodriguez in 1742 for the purpose of furnishing boy
singers to the cathedral. The education, which is chiefly musical,
embraces training in both vocal and instrumental music, although on
account of their tender age the boys are, as a general rule, debarred
from using wind instruments. High merit is obtained by these boys.
Public instruction in the Philippines is discussed by Mas in the
following document. He declares that the education of the Philippines
is in a better state proportionally than it is in Spain. There are
schools in each village, attendance at which is compulsory, except
at seeding and harvest times. Expenses are met from the communal
funds. Women also share in the education. The books commonly used
are those of devotion. Besides communal and private schools there are
also public institutions in Manila. Brief histories and descriptions
are given of the following institutions: university of Santo Tomás;
college of San José; college of San Juan de Letran; the charity school
founded in 1817 by distinguished citizens; the nautical academy;
the commercial school founded in 1840; seminary of Santa Potenciana,
which was founded by a royal decree of 1589; Santa Isabel, founded by
the confraternity of Misericordia, in 1632; beaterio of Santa Catalina
de Sena, founded in 1696; beaterio de San Sebastian de Calumpang,
founded in 1719; beaterio de San Ignacio, founded in 1699; beaterio
de Santa Rosa, founded in 1750; and the beaterio de Pásig, or Santa
Rita, founded in 1740.
This is followed by Mallat's account, which uses Mas largely as
authority. Mallat praises the advanced state of education in the
Philippines, and dwells at considerable length on their culture
in poesy and music, and their allied branches of art; and gives in
general a recast of the conditions of the educational influences in
the archipelago.
A superior order of December 2, 1847, legalizes in Spain degrees
taken in the educational institutions of the colonies, and vice
versa; and professions authorized in one country may be practiced in
the other, on sufficient proof. A short document on the academy of
painting, sculpture, and engraving, compiled from various sources,
follows. This academy was founded in 1849 by the Sociedad Económica
de Amigos del País, and reorganized in 1892. Another document,
also compiled from various sources, treats of the Ateneo municipal,
which is an outgrowth of the old Escuela pía, which was given into
the control of the Jesuits upon their return to the Philippines
in 1859. The latter school receives its present name in 1865. Its
expenses are defrayed by the community of Manila.
A document taken from Apuntes interesantes asserts that the university
has many enemies, not because the Dominicans are in control of it,
but because they believe the study of law unadvisable therein. Such
a view is anti-liberal. The writer believes that the Filipinos would
give better results in medicine and surgery, and the advisability
of a medical school could be sustained, but that medicine and
even pharmacy which are both sorely needed in the islands could be
established in the university. Foreign professors should be allowed
to enter. Superstitions, abuses, and ignorance abound in regard to
medicine and pharmacy among the natives. Drugs are allowed to be sold
by peddlers, and adulterations are frequent. Parish priests are called
in to act as physicians but often only after the native doctor, who
works mainly with charms, has been unable to combat the ailment of
his patient. But for all his inefficiency, the natives prefer their
mediquillo to the priest. Many reforms are needed. The naval school,
the author declares, is poorly organized and directed. The graduates
aspire only to fine berths and are not content to accept what is really
within their powers. The school could profitably be reorganized into a
school for training pilots exclusively for the coasting trade. Primary
instruction, so far as the government is concerned, is in an incipient
state. Spanish is taught only in Manila and some of the suburbs; but
there are schools for boys in the native dialects, and some as well
for girls. The government salaries are not sufficient and priests and
officials find it necessary to determine means for buildings, etc.,
and salaries are even paid from the church funds. There is no suitable
director for primary education, but in reading, writing, and religion,
the children are more advanced than those of Spain. The government
has tried to improve the instruction in the Spanish language, and has
succeeded somewhat. The writer advises the government to introduce
all the improvements possible, and to extend the normal school,
which has but slight results at present. Teachers are needed, also.
Montero y Vidal in Archipiélago filipino, gives a recast of educational
conditions in 1886. He shows that public instruction is somewhat
widespread, but that it is lacking in efficiency. He gives some
statistics, but they are inadequate, owing to the inefficiency of the
public officials. The native lawyers are poor and they sow discord
against Spain. He strongly recommends industrial education.
The following document on girls' schools in Manila and the provinces
contains much of interest. This account, taken from the Dominican
report of 1887, describes and gives a list of the schools of Santa
Isabel, Santa Rosa, Santa Catalina, and La Concordia, or school of
the Immaculate Conception. In these schools primary and secondary
education are given. An account is also given of the school of San
José of Jaro which was opened first in Iloílo in 1872, but closed in
1877 for lack of funds, and was soon thereafter reëstablished in Jaro
through the intermediation of the bishop. The convent of San Ignacio,
founded in 1669, is directed by the Jesuits, but after their expulsion
is taken charge of by the provisor of the archbishop. It has had a
school since 1883. Various other institutions where instruction is
given to girls are mentioned.
The school of agriculture, both under Spanish and American dominion,
is discussed in the next document. First established in 1889 by the
Spanish government for theoretical and practical instruction, the
school has not had great success. Various agricultural stations are
established in various provinces by the government to supplement the
work of the school. Since American occupation the work has been taken
up, and appropriations made for the building of a school in the rich
agricultural island of Negros.
The last document of this volume, a state discussion (1890) as to the
reorganization of education in the university of Santo Tomás (signed
among others by the famous Maura) suggests the arguments advanced by
both the civil and ecclesiastical governments in the Philippines. The
questions under discussion are: 1. Whether the ministry has a right
to reorganize education in the university without considering the
religious order of the Dominicans. 2. Whether the university may
offer legal opposition, and by what means. The conclusions reached
are: 1. The ministry cannot apply the funds and properties of the
university of private origin to any institution that it organizes;
and hence cannot reorganize education in the university. 2. Should
the ministry do so, then the university may take legal means to oppose
such determination, the best method being through the ordinary court
of common law. This is a highly interesting document, in view of the
vital legal educational questions touched upon, some of which may
have application in the present San José college case. The educational
appendix will be concluded in VOL. XLVI.