"STUDIES IN LOGICAL THEORY"
In 1903 a volume entitled _Studies in Logical Theory_, consisting of
essays on logical topics by Dewey and his colleagues and pupils, was
published under the auspices of the University of Chicago. In a review
of this volume, Professor Pringle-Pattison remarks: "It is, indeed, most
unusual to find a series of philosophical papers by different writers in
which (without repetition or duplication) there is so much unity in the
point of view and harmony in results. That this is so is a striking
evidence of the moulding influence of Professor Dewey upon his pupils
and coadjutors in the Chicago School of Philosophy."[173] It would be a
needless task to review the whole volume, and attention will be confined
to the essays which constitute Dewey's special contribution to the
undertaking. These constitute the first four chapters of the volume, and
are devoted to a critical examination of Lotze's logic.[174] Here, for
the first time, Dewey presents in complete form the logical theory which
stands as the goal of his previous endeavors, and marks the beginning of
his career as a pragmatist.[175]
The first chapter of the "Studies" is devoted to a general consideration
of the nature of logical theory. Dewey begins his discussion with an
account of the naive view of thought, the view of the man of affairs or
of the scientist, who employs ideas and reflection but has never become
critical of his mental processes; who has never reflected upon
reflection. "If we were to ask," he says, "the thinking of naive life to
present, with a minimum of theoretical elaboration, its conception of
its own practice, we should get an answer running not unlike this:
Thinking is a kind of activity which we perform at specific need, just
as at other need we engage in other sorts of activity."[176] While the
standpoint of the naive man is usually hard to determine, there appears
to be considerable justification for Dewey's statement. The common man
does tend to view thinking as a special kind of activity, performed by
an organ which can be 'trained,' and he is inclined to speak of
education as a process of 'training the mind.'[177]
Dewey finds a large measure of truth in this naive view of thought.
Thought appears to be derivative and secondary. "It comes after
something and out of something, and for the sake of something."[178] It
is employed at need, and ceases to operate when not needed. "Taking some
part of the universe of action, of affection, of social construction,
under its special charge, and having busied itself therewith
sufficiently to meet the special difficulty presented, thought releases
that topic and enters upon further more direct experience."[179] There
is a rhythm of practice and thought; man acts, thinks, and acts again.
The business of thought is to solve practical difficulties, such as
arise in connection with the conduct of life. The purpose for which
thought intervenes is to enable action to get ahead by discovering a way
out of the given difficulty. Ordinarily, the transition from thought to
action and the reverse is accomplished without break or difficulty.
Occasions arise, however, when thought is balked by a situation with
which it is unable to deal, after repeated attempts. Critical reflection
is then directed upon thought itself, and logical theory is the result.
"The general theory of reflection, as over against its concrete
exercise, appears when occasions for reflection are so overwhelming and
so mutually conflicting that specific adequate response in thought is
blocked."[180] The purpose of logical theory is therefore a practical
one, and logical theory, like ordinary reflection, is directed toward
the removal of difficulties which stand in the way of the achievement of
practical ends.
This description of thought and of the nature of logical theory invites
suspicion by its very simplicity. Nobody would deny that thought is
linked up with practice, that the processes of life link up into one
whole organic process, and that it would be a mistake to treat the
cognitive processes as if they were separate from the whole. But Dewey's
account of thought seems to fall into the very abstractness which he is
so anxious to avoid. Experience is represented as a series of acts,
attitudes, or functions, which follow one another in succession.
"Thinking follows, we will say, striving, and doing follows thinking.
Each in the fulfilment of its own function inevitably calls out its
successor."[181] The functions are distinct, but are united to each
other, end to end, like links in a chain. They pass into and out of one
another, but are not simultaneous. This description gives rise, as
Bosanquet observes,[182] to a kind of dualism between thinking and the
other processes of life, which is made deeper because thinking is
regarded as a very special activity, which "passes judgment upon both
the processes and contents of other functions," and whose aim and work
is "distinctively reconstructive or transformatory."[183]
Dewey's description of the processes of experience is undoubtedly
plausible, but should not be accepted without close scrutiny of the
facts. It has been held, in opposition to such a view, that the
cognitive processes are so bound up with perception, feeling, willing,
and doing, that they cannot be separated from the complex.[184] Or it
might be held that thinking and doing are simultaneous and
complementary processes, rather than successive and supplementary. Dewey
does not concern himself with these possibilities, seeming to take it
for granted that his interpretation is the 'natural' one. It must be
said, however, that Dewey's description of thought as a process is by no
means obvious and simple; thought is not easy to describe.
When we turn to logical theory, Dewey says, there are two directions
which may be taken. The general features of logical theory are indicated
by its origin. When ordinary thinking is impeded, an examination of the
thinking function is undertaken, with the purpose of discovering its
business and its mode of operation. The object of the examination is
practical; to enable thinking to be carried on more effectively. If
these conditions are kept in mind, logical theory will be guided into
its proper channels: it will be assumed that every process of reflection
arises with reference to some specific situation, and has to subserve a
specific purpose dependent upon the occasion which calls it forth.
Logical theory will determine the conditions which arouse thought, the
mode of its operation, and the testing of its results. Such a logic,
being true to the problems set for it by practical needs, is in no
danger of being lost in generalities.
But there is another direction which logical theory sometimes takes,
unmindful of the conditions imposed by its origin. This is the
epistemological direction. Epistemological logic concerns itself with
the relation of thought at large to reality at large. It assumes that
thought is a self-contained activity, having no vital connection with
the world which is to be known. Such a logic can never be fruitful, for
it has lost sight of its purpose in the formulation of its problem.
Dewey is quite right in opposing a conception of thought which makes it
a self-contained activity, having no vital connection with other life
processes. Few recent thinkers have been guilty of that error. Lotze, to
be sure, made the mistake of separating thought from the reality to be
known, and therefore serves as a ready foil for Dewey's criticism. But
Lotze's age is past and gone.
When the abstract conception of thought is set aside, and it is agreed
that thought must be treated as a process among the processes of
experience, there is still room for divergence of opinion as to the
exact manner in which thought is related to other functions. Dewey's
logical theory, as outlined above, depends upon a very special
interpretation of the place which thought occupies in experience. For
this reason he considers logic to be inseparable from psychology.
"Psychology ... is indispensable to logical evaluation, the moment we
treat logical theory as an account of thinking as a mode of adaptation
to its own generating conditions, and judge its validity by reference to
its efficiency in meeting its problems."[185] Psychology, in other
words, must substantiate Dewey's account of thought, else his 'logic'
has no foundation. But if it were held that the cognitive processes
cannot be separated (except by abstraction for psychological purposes)
from other processes, there could manifestly be no such logical problem
as Dewey has posited. Logic would be freed from reliance upon
psychology. In this case, logical inquiry would be directed to the study
of concepts, forms of judgment, and methods of knowledge, with the
purpose of determining their relations, proper applications, and spheres
of relevance. Logic would be a 'criticism of categories' rather than a
criticism of the function of thinking. Dewey recognizes that such a
study of method might be useful, but holds that it would be subsidiary
to the larger problems of logic. "The distinctions and classifications
that have been accumulated in 'formal' logic are relevant data; but they
demand interpretation from the standpoint of use as organs of adjustment
to material antecedents and stimuli."[186] It will be seen that the
treatment of the forms of thought as "organs of adjustment" makes logic
subsidiary to psychology, necessarily and completely. All follows,
however, from the original assumption that thought is a special
activity, clearly distinguishable from other experienced processes, and
possessing a special function of its own.
In his further analysis of logical theory, Dewey states that it has two
phases, one general and one specific. The general problem concerns the
relations of the various functions of experience to one another; how
they give rise to each other, and what is their order of succession.
This wider logic is identified with philosophy in general.[187] The
specific phase of logic, logic proper, concerns itself with the function
of knowing as such, inquiring into its typical behavior, occasion of
operation, divisions of labor, content, and successful employment. Dewey
indicates the danger of identifying logic with either of these to the
exclusion of the other, or of supposing that they can be finally
isolated from one another. "It is necessary to work back and forth
between the larger and the narrower fields."[188]
Why is it necessary to make such a distinction at all? And why necessary
to move back and forth between the two provisional standpoints? Dewey
might answer by the following analogy: The thought function may be
studied, first of all, as a special organ, as an anatomist might study
the structure of any special organ of the body; but in order to
understand the part played by this member in the organism as a whole, it
would be necessary to adopt a wider view, so that its place in the
system could be determined. This is probably what Dewey means by his two
standpoints. He says: "We keep our paths straight because we do not
confuse the sequential, efficient, and functional relationship of types
of experience with the contemporaneous, correlative, and structural
distinctions of elements within a given function."[189] The first
objection to be made to this treatment of thought is that it makes
knowing the activity of a special organ, like liver or lungs. If this
objection is surmounted, there remains another from the side of general
method. The biologist not only studies the particular organs as to their
structure and their relationships within the body, but he has a view of
the body as a whole, of its general end and purpose. His study of the
particular organ is in part determined by his knowledge of the relations
between body and environment. But experience as a whole cannot be
treated like a body, because it has no environment. The analogy between
body and its processes and experience and its processes breaks down,
therefore, at a vital point. Dewey's genetic interpretation gains in
plausibility when the human body, and not the whole of experience, is
taken as the ground upon which the 'functions' are to be explained, for
the body has an environment and purposes in relation to that
environment. Experience as a whole possesses no such external reference.
It will be seen that Dewey's interpretation of the function of knowing
is not as empirical as it proposes to be. Its underlying conceptions are
biological in character, and these conceptions are brought ready-made to
the study of thought. Logical theory does not arise naturally and
spontaneously from a study of the facts of mind, but the facts are
aligned and interpreted in terms of categories selected in advance.
Empiricism develops its theories in connection with facts, but
rationalism (in the bad sense of the word) fits the facts into prepared
theories. Dewey's treatment of thought is, after all, more rationalistic
than empirical.
To sum up Dewey's conclusions so far: Logic is the study of the function
of knowing in relation to the other functions of experience. The wider
logic distinguishes the function of knowing from other activities, and
discovers its general purpose; the narrower logic examines the function
of knowing in itself, with the object of determining its structure and
operation. The aim of logic as a whole is to understand the operations
of the concrete activity called knowing, with the purpose of rendering
it more efficient. This concrete treatment of thought contrasts sharply
with the 'epistemological' method, which sets thought over against the
concrete processes of experience, and thus generates the false problem
of the relation of thought in general to reality in general.
Having stated his position, we might expect Dewey, in the course of the
next three chapters, to enter upon a consideration of one phase or other
of his logic. On the contrary, he proposes to take up "some of the
considerations that lie on the borderland between the larger and the
narrower conceptions of logical theory."[190] First, he will consider
the antecedent conditions and cues of the thought-process; the
conditions which lead up to and into the function of knowing. These
conditions lie between the thought-process and the preceding function
(in order of time), and are therefore on the borderland between the
wider and narrower spheres of logic.
In defining the conditions which precede and evoke thought, Dewey says:
"There is always as antecedent to thought an experience of some
subject-matter of the physical or social world, or organized
intellectual world, whose parts are actively at war with each other--so
much so that they threaten to disrupt the entire experience, which
accordingly for its own maintenance requires deliberate re-definition
and re-relation of its tensional parts."[191] Thought is always called
into action by the whole concrete situation in which it occurs, not by
any particular sensation, idea, or feeling.
The opposite interpretation of the nature of the antecedents of thought
is furnished by Lotze, who makes them consist in bare impressions,
'moods of ourselves,' mere states of consciousness. Dewey is quite right
in calling these bare impressions purely fictitious, though the
observation is by no means original. From the manner in which he
approaches the study of the "antecedents of thought" it appears,
however, that Dewey has something in common with Lotze. The functional
theory, that is, allows a certain initial detachment of thought from
reality, which must be bridged over by an empirical demonstration of its
natural connection with preceding processes.
Dewey is wholly justified, again, in maintaining that thought is not a
faculty set apart from reality, and that what is 'given' to thought is a
coherent world, not a mass of unmeaning sensations. He recognizes his
substantial agreement with the modern idealists in these matters.[192]
But the idealists, he believes, hold a constitutive conception of
thought which is in conflict with the empirical description of thinking
as a concrete activity in time. Reality, according to this conception,
is a vast system of sensations brought into a rational order by logical
forms, and finite thought, in its operations, simply apprehends or
discovers the infinite order of the cosmos. "How does it happen," Dewey
asks, "that the absolute constitutive and intuitive Thought does such a
poor and bungling job that it requires a finite discursive activity to
patch up its products?"[193]
Against Lotze, such an indictment has considerable force, but its
applicability to modern idealism is not so obvious. Modern idealism has
insisted upon an empirical treatment of thought, and has definitely
surrendered the abstract sensations of the older psychologies. Nor does
idealism tend to treat finite thought as a process which merely 'copies'
an eternally present nature. The issue between Dewey and the idealists
is this: Does functionalism render an accurate empirical account of the
nature of thought as a concrete process?
In his third chapter Dewey discusses "Thought and its Subject-matter:
The Datum of Thinking." The tensional situation passes into a thought
situation, and reflection enters upon its work of restoring the
equilibrium of experience. Certain characteristic processes attend the
operation of thought. "The conflicting situation inevitably polarizes or
dichotomizes itself. There is somewhat which is untouched in the
contention of incompatibles. There is something which remains secure,
unquestioned. On the other hand, there are elements which are rendered
doubtful and precarious."[194] The unquestioned element is the _datum_;
the uncertain element, the _ideatum_. Ideas are "impressions,
suggestions, guesses, theories, estimates, etc., the facts are crude,
raw, unorganized, brute."[195] There is an approximation to bare meaning
on the one hand, and bare existence on the other.
The first dichotomy passes into a second. "Once more, and briefly, both
datum and ideatum may ... break up, each for itself, into physical and
psychical."[196] The datum, or sense material, is all, somehow, matter
and real, but one part of it turns out to have a psychical, another a
physical form. Similarly, the ideatum divides into what is mere fancy,
the psychical, and what is objectively valid, the physical.
These distinctions are divisions of labor within the thought-process.
"All the distinctions of the thought-function, of conception as over
against sense-perception, of judgment in its various modes and forms, of
inference in its vast diversity of operation--all these distinctions
come within the thought situation as growing out of a characteristic
antecedent typical formation of experience...."[197] Great confusion
results in logical theory, Dewey believes, when it is forgotten that
these distinctions are valid only within the thought process. Their
order of occurrence within the thought process must also be observed, if
confusion is to be prevented. Datum and ideatum come first, psychical
and physical next in order. "Thus the distinction between subjectivity
and objectivity is not one between meaning as such and datum as such. It
is a specification that emerges, correspondently, in _both_ datum and
ideatum, as affairs of the direction of logical movement. That which is
left behind in the evolution of accepted meaning is characterized as
real, but only in a psychical sense; that which is moved toward is
regarded as real in an objective, cosmic sense."[198]
Dewey does well to call attention to the limitations of these
categories, which cannot, indeed, be treated as absolute without serious
error. It may be questioned, however, whether their limitations are of
the precise nature which he describes. All depends upon the initial
conception of the nature of thought. From Dewey's standpoint, these
categories are 'tools of analysis' which function only within the
thinking process; but his description of the function of knowing may be
questioned, in which case his instrumental view of the concepts is
rendered meaningless. A logical, as distinct from a psychological,
treatment of the concepts mentioned, would show that their validity is
limited to a certain 'sphere of relevance;' that they are applicable
within a certain context and to a particular subject-matter. The danger
of indiscriminate use of the categories would be avoided by the logical
criticism even better, perhaps, than by Dewey's method.
The discussion in Dewey's fourth and last chapter, concerning "The
Content and Object of Thought," hinges upon a detailed criticism of
Lotze's position, which cannot be presented here. The general bearing of
the discussion, however, may be indicated. "To regard," says Dewey, "the
thought-forms of conception, judgment, and inference as qualifications
of 'pure thought, apart from any difference in objects,' instead of as
successive dispositions in the progressive organization of the material
(or objects) is the fallacy of rationalism."[199]
Pure thought, of course, cannot be defended. At the same time, Dewey,
like Lotze, tends to regard thought as a special function with a
'content' of its own. If thought is regarded as a special kind of
process, having its own content in the way of instrumental concepts, the
question inevitably arises: How shall these forms be employed to reach
truth? How apply them correctly to the matter in hand?
Dewey answers that the forms and hypotheses of thought, like the tools
and scaffoldings for its operations, are especially designed for the
labor which they have to perform. "There is no miracle in the fact that
tool and material are adapted to each other in the process of reaching a
valid conclusion.... Each has been slowly evolved with reference to its
fit employ in the entire function; and this evolution has been checked
at every point by reference to its own correspondent."[200]
It is no doubt true that established conceptions, no less than temporary
hypotheses, have been evolved in connection with, as a feature or part
of, the subject-matter to which they pertain. But it is quite another
thing to say that these evolved forms belong to thought, if by thought
be meant the functional activity of Dewey's description. Dewey stresses
the relevance of these forms to the thought-process, rather than their
relevance to a particular sphere of discourse. His purpose is to show
that distinctions which are valid within the process of knowing are not
valid elsewhere, and the net result is to limit the faculty of thought
as a whole, as well as the forms of thought.
This result reveals itself most clearly in his discussion of the test of
truth. "In that sense the test of reality is beyond thought, as thought,
just as at the other limit thought originates out of a situation which
is not reflectional in character. Interpret this before and beyond in a
historic sense, as an affair of the place occupied and role played by
thinking as a function in experience in relation to other functions, and
the intermediate and instrumental character of thought, its dependence
upon unreflective antecedents for its existence, and upon a consequent
experience for its test of final validity, becomes significant and
necessary."[201] This notion that the test of thought must be external
to thought depends directly upon the doctrine that thought is a special
activity of the kind heretofore described. It results from the
occasionalism attributed by Dewey to the thinking process.
If the truth or falsity of an idea is not discovered by thought, then by
what faculty might it be discovered? Perhaps by experience as a whole or
in general. Dewey, on occasion, speaks as follows: "Experience is
continually integrating itself into a wholeness of coherent meaning
deepened in significance by passing through an inner distraction in
which by means of conflict certain contents are rendered partial and
hence objectively conscious."[202] Perhaps Dewey means to say that truth
is determined by this cosmic automatism. It is confusing, however, to be
told in one moment that thought transforms experience, and in another
that experience transforms itself.
Experience, not reflection, is, then, the test of truth and thought.
Such a statement would not be possible, except in connection with a
psychology which deliberately sets experience over against reflection,
making the latter a peculiar, although dependent, process. Lotze,
indeed, makes the separation of thought from experience quite complete.
Dewey attempts to bring them together by his psychological method, but
does not completely succeed. In the meantime modern idealism has
suggested that thought and experience are merely parts of one general
process, constantly operating in conjunction. To one who believes that
the various processes or 'functions' of experience constitute a single
organ of life, the proposition that experience, rather than reflection,
is the judge of truth, becomes meaningless.
In an essay on "The Logical Conditions of a Scientific Treatment of
Morality" in another volume of the Chicago Publications of 1903,[203]
Dewey presents a positive statement of his logical theory which is an
excellent supplement to the critical study of Lotze.
Science, Dewey remarks in introducing this essay, is a systematized body
of knowledge. Knowledge may be taken either as a body of facts or as a
process of arranging a body of facts; as results or the acquiring of
results. The latter phase of science is the more important. "As used in
this article, 'scientific' means regular methods of controlling the
formation of judgments regarding some subject-matter."[204] In the
scientific attitude, beliefs are looked upon as _conclusions_, and as
conclusions they look in two directions. They look backward towards the
ground from which they are empirically derived, and which renders them
valid, and they look forward, as meaning, to being the ground from which
further conclusions can be deduced. "So far as we engage in this
procedure, we look at our respective acts of judging not as independent
and detached, but as an interrelated system, within which every
assertion entitles us to other assertions (which must be carefully
deduced since they constitute its meaning) and to which we are entitled
only through other assertions (so that they must be carefully searched
for). 'Scientific' as used in this article thus means the possibility of
establishing an order of judgments such that each one when made is of
use in determining other judgments, thereby securing control of their
formation."[205]
This view of science as an order of judgments requires a special
treatment of the generic ideas, the 'conclusions,' or universals of
science. The individual judgment, 'This, _A_, is _B_,' expresses an
identity. But it is much better expressed in hypothetical form.
"Identification, in other words, is secure only when it can be made
through (1) breaking up the analyzed. This of naive judgment into
determinate traits, (2) breaking up the predicate into a similar
combination of elements, and (3) establishing uniform connection between
some of the elements in the subject and some in the predicate."[206]
Identity exists amid relevant differences, and the more intimately the
system of differents is understood, the more positive is the
determination of identity. This will be recognized as the 'concrete
universal' of the Hegelian logicians.
But, Dewey says, modern logicians tend to disregard judgment as act, and
pay attention to it only as content. The generic ideas are studied in
independence of their applications, as if this were a matter of no
concern in logic. "In truth, there is no such thing as control of one
content by mere reference to another content as such. To recognize this
impossibility is to recognize that the control of the formation of the
judgment is always through the medium of an act by which the respective
contents of both the individual judgment and of the universal
proposition are selected and brought into relationship to each
other."[207] The individual act of judgment is necessary to logical
theory, because the act of the individual forms the connecting link
between the generic idea and the specific details of the situation.
There must be some means whereby the instrumental concept is brought to
bear upon its appropriate material. "The logical process includes, as an
organic part of itself, the selection and reference of that particular
one of the system which is relevant to the particular case. This
individualized selection and adaptation is an integral portion of the
logic of the situation. And such selection and adjustment is clearly in
the nature of an act."[208]
This problem of the relation of the categories to their subject-matter
is an acute one for Dewey, because of limitations placed upon thought.
He decides that the idea must be, in some fashion, self-selective, must
signify its own fitness to a given subject-matter. But it can only be
self-selective by being itself in the nature of an act. It turns out
that the generic idea has been evolved in connection with acts of
judgment, and its own applicability is born in it. "The activity which
selects and employs is logical, not extra-logical, just because the tool
selected and employed has been invented and developed precisely for the
sake of just such future selection and use."[209]
The logic and system of science must be embodied in the individual. He
must be a good logical medium, his acts must be orderly and consecutive,
and generic ideas must have a good motor basis in his organism, if he is
to think successfully. This is the essence of Dewey's argument in the
essay under discussion. The inference seems to be that logic cannot be
separated from biology and psychology, since the act of knowing and the
ideas which it employs have a physiological basis.
It is difficult to see, however, how such a standpoint could prove
useful in the practical study of logic. Certainly little headway could
be made toward a study of the proper use and limitations of the
categories by an investigation of the human nervous system. And to what
extent would physiology illuminate the problem of the relation of the
generic ideas to their appropriate objects? Although Dewey decides that
the relationship must have its ground in the motor activities of the
organism, his conclusion has little empirical evidence to support it.
A practical, workable conception of the relations between generic ideas
and their objects must be based on considerations less obscure. Why not
be content to verify, by criticism, the truth that experience and
thoughts about experience develop together, with the result that each
theory, hypothesis, or method is applicable within the sphere where it
was born? Why wait upon psychology for confirmation of a truth so
obvious and important?
Bosanquet remarks: "Either one may speak as if reality were relative to
the individual mind, a ridiculous idea ..., or one may become interested
in tracing the germination and growth of ideas in the individual mind as
typical facts indeed, but only as one animal's habits are typical of
those of others, and we may slur over the primary basis of logic, which
is its relation to reality. For mental facts unrelated to reality are no
knowledge, and therefore have no place in logic."[210] Bosanquet
emphasizes an important truth neglected by Dewey. Logic is not concerned
with ideas as things existing in individuals, nor with conceptions as
individual modes of response. Truth has little to do with the individual
as such, though the individual might well concern himself about truth.
Truth is objective, super-individual, and logic is the study of the
objective verity of thought. The proposition, 'All life is from the
living,' finds no premises in the nerve tissues of the scientist who
accepts it. How does the proposition square up with reality or
experience? That is the question, and it can only be answered by turning
away from psychology to empirical verification, involving a critical
test of the applicability of the thought to reality.
In the strictly ethical part of the essay, Dewey tries to show that
moral judgments, at least, involve the character of the agent and his
specific acts as data. Intellectual judgments, on the other hand, may
disregard the acts of the individual; they are left out of account,
"when they are so uniform in their exercise that they make no difference
with respect to the _particular_ object or content judged."[211] It will
be seen that the distinction between moral and intellectual judgments is
made on the basis of their content. But Dewey is committed to the
doctrine that judgments are to be differentiated as acts, on a
psychological basis. In any case, if the character and acts of a man are
to be judged, they must be treated objectively, and the relevance of the
judge's ideas to the man's actual character cannot be decided by a
psychological analysis of the judge's mind. Right and wrong, whether
moral or intellectual, are not attributes of the individual nervous
system.
FOOTNOTES:
[173] _The Philosophical Radicals_, "Dewey's Studies in Logical Theory,"
p. 179. The essay was originally printed as a critical notice in the
_Philosophical Review_, November, 1904.
[174] Since this was written (1915-16), Dewey's chapters have been
reprinted in a volume entitled _Essays in Experimental Logic_, published
by the University of Chicago Press (June, 1916). They are preceded, in
this new setting, by a special introductory chapter, and numerous
alterations have been made which do not, however, affect the fundamental
standpoint.
[175] See James's review, "The Chicago School," _Psychological
Bulletin_, Vol. I, 1904, pp. 1-5.
[176] _Studies in Logical Theory_, p. 2.
[177] Compare Dewey, _How We Think_ (1910), Chapter II, "The Need for
Training Thought."
[178] _Studies in Logical Theory_, p. 1.
[179] _Ibid._, p. 2.
[180] _Op. cit._, p. 3 f.
[181] _Ibid._, p. 16.
[182] _Logic_, second ed., Vol. II, p. 270.
[183] _Studies in Logical Theory_, p. x.
[184] "Thinking or rationality is not limited to the process of abstract
cognition, but it includes feeling and will, and in the course of its
development carries these along with it. There is, of course, such a
thing as what we have called abstract cognition; but the different
moments are all united in the concrete experience which we may name the
life of thought." Creighton, "Experience and Thought," _Philosophical
Review_, Vol. XV, 1906, p. 487 f.
[185] _Op. cit._, p. 15.
[186] _Ibid._, p. 8.
[187] _Op. cit._, pp. 18-19.
[188] _Ibid._, p. 23.
[189] _Ibid._, p. 17.
[190] _Op. cit._, p. 23.
[191] _Op. cit._, p. 39 f. Bradley suggests a similar idea of the
'tensional situation.' See, for instance, _Ethical Studies_, p. 65,
where he remarks: "We have conflicting desires, say A and B; we feel two
tensions, two drawings (so to speak) but we can not actually affirm
ourselves in both." A more complete statement of the 'tensional
situation' will be found on page 239 of the same work and in various
other passages.
[192] _Ibid._, pp. 43-44.
[193] _Op. cit._, p. 45.
[194] _Ibid._, p. 50.
[195] _Ibid._, p. 52.
[196] _Op. cit._
[197] _Ibid._, p. 47.
[198] _Ibid._, p. 53.
[199] _Op. cit._, p. 61 f.
[200] _Ibid._, p. 80.
[201] _Op. cit._, p. 85.
[202] _Ibid._
[203] _Decennial Publications of the University of Chicago_, First
Series, Vol. III, pp. 115-139.
[204] _Ibid._, p. 115.
[205] _Ibid._, p. 116.
[206] _Op. cit._, p. 120.
[207] _Ibid._, p. 121.
[208] _Ibid._, p. 122.
[209] _Op. cit._
[210] _Logic_, second ed., Vol. I, p. 232.
[211] _Decennial Publication of the University of Chicago_, First
Series, Vol. III, p. 127.