HARDENING AND TEMPERING TOOLS.
I promised in a previous page to describe a little stove for heating
soldering-irons, and doing other light work. It is made as follows, and
will be found very useful.
Fig. 71, A, is a tube of sheet-iron, which forms the body of the little
stove. Four light iron rods stand out from it, which form handles, but
these are forked at the ends, and thus become rests for the handles of
soldering-irons, or any light bars that are to be heated at the ends.
Below is a tray, also of sheet-iron, upon short legs to keep it off the
table—for this is a little table-stove. C is the cast-iron grate. You can
buy this for a few pence first of all, and then you fit your sheet-metal
to it. It will rest on three or four little studs or projections riveted
to the stove inside; or you can cut three or four little places like D,
not cutting them at the bottom line, _a b_, but only on three sides, and
then bend in the little piece so as to make a shelf. If the stove is
about 4 inches high above the grate, and 2 or 3 inches below it, and 6
inches diameter, it will be sufficiently large for many small operations;
but that the fuel may keep falling downwards as it burns, the lower part
should be larger than the upper, and, to admit plenty of air, should
be cut into legs as shown. Round the top are cut semicircular hollows,
in which the irons rest. To increase the heat, a chimney or blower, B,
is fitted, which has also openings cut out to match those of the lower
part, so that the soldering-irons can be inserted when this chimney is
put on. If, however, this is not required, but only a strong draught, by
turning the chimney a little, all the openings will be closed. A still
longer chimney can be added at pleasure. A hole should be made at the
level of the grate to admit the nozzle of an ordinary pair of bellows.
This stove you would find of great service, and it may be fed with coke
and charcoal in small lumps. Now you _may_ make the above far more
useful. It will make a regular little furnace, and not burn through, if
you can line it with fireclay. In London and large towns you can obtain
this; and it only needs to be mixed up with water, like mortar, when
you can plaster your stove inside an inch thick or more, making it so
much larger on purpose. There is no need to do this below the level of
the grate; but if you cannot get fireclay, you may do almost as well by
getting a blacklead-meltingpot from any ironfoundry, and boring a few
holes round the bottom for air, and fitting it inside your little iron
stove. In this you can obtain heat enough to melt brass, and it will last
a great deal longer than the iron alone, which will burn through if you
blow the fire much; but for general soldering, tempering small tools,
and so forth, you need not blow the fire, as the hood and chimney will
sufficiently increase the heat. There is no danger in the use of this
little fireplace, but of course you would not stand it near a heap of
shavings, unless you are yourself a very careless young “shaver.”
[Illustration: Fig. 71.]
HOW TO TEMPER TOOLS.
There is no reason why the young mechanic should not be told how to make
his own tools, and how to harden and temper them, because he ought to be
a sort of jack-of-all-trades; and perhaps he may break a drill or other
small tool just in the middle of some special bit of work, or his drill
may be just a little too small or too large, and there he will be stuck
fast as a pig in a gate, and unable to set himself right again any more
than the noisy squeaker aforesaid. But to a workman a broken drill means
just five minutes’ delay, and all goes on again as merrily as before; and
as we wish to make our young readers workmen and not bunglers, we will
teach them this useful art at once.
Drills are made of steel wire or rods of various sizes. In old times they
were made square at one end, to fit lathe-chucks or braces, but now, for
lathe-work, they are generally made of round steel, and fastened into the
chuck with a set screw on one side. In this way they can be more easily
made to run true. But there are so many kinds of drills that I suppose I
had better go into the matter a little—only I have not room to say much
more.
[Illustration: Fig. 72.]
Look at Fig. 72, and you will see some of the more usual forms of drills
used, but these are by no means all. You will not indeed require such a
collection; and yet, if you should grow from a young mechanic into an
old one, I daresay you will find yourself in possession of several of
them. The first, labelled 1, is the little watchmaker’s drill, of which,
nevertheless, this would be considered a very large size. It is merely
a bit of steel wire, with a brass pulley upon it, formed into a point
at the largest end, and into a drill at the other. The way it is worked
is this: At the side of the table-vice—that is, at the end of its jaws
or chops or chaps—are drilled a few little shallow holes, in which the
watchmaker places the point at the thickest end; the drill-point rests
against the work, which he holds in his left hand. A bow of whalebone,
_a_, has a string of fine gut such as is used for fishing, or, if the
drill is very small, a horse-hair; and this is given one turn round the
brass pulley before the drill is placed in position. The bow is then
moved to and fro, causing the drill to revolve first in one direction and
then in the other. The general work is in thin brass, and therefore these
little tools are sufficiently strong for the purpose. Some of the drills
and broaches (four or five, or even six sided wires of steel) are so fine
that they will bend about like a hair, and yet are so beautifully made
and tempered as to cut steel.
No. 2 is a larger drill, even now much used. In principle it is exactly
similar to the last, but the pulley is replaced by a bobbin or reel of
wood, made to revolve by a steel bow with a gut string, or a strong
wooden bow. The drills, too, are separate, and fit into a socket at the
bottom of the drill-stock. The large end is pointed, as in the last,
and is made to rest in one of the holes in a steel breast-plate, _b_,
which is tied to the chest of the operator, who, by leaning against
it, keeps the drill to its work, while both hands are free to hold the
latter steady. There is a modification of this tool, invented by a Mr
Freeman, intended to do away with the bow. The bobbin or reel is turned
without raised ends, and is worked by a flat strip of wood covered with
india-rubber, and turned at one end to form a convenient handle. The
having to twist the bow-string round the drill, which is always a bother,
is thus done away with.
No. 4 is a drill-stock similar to the last, but in place of the
breast-plate a revolving head or handle is put to the top, in which the
point works. This is held in one hand, while the drill-bow is worked by
the other. This is also generally held against the chest, as the hand
alone does not give sufficient pressure. Heavy work, however, cannot well
be done by these breast-drills, and they are liable to cause spitting of
blood from the constant pressure in the region of the heart and lungs.
No. 3 is the Archimedean drill-stock, now very common, but originally
invented by a workman of Messrs Holtzappffel’s, the eminent lathemakers
of London. It now comes to us as an American drill-stock. It is a long
screw of two or more threads, with a ferule or nut working upon it. The
upper end revolves within the head, which is of wood; the lower end is
formed into a socket to receive the drills, which revolve by sliding the
ferule up and down. Some are 14 inches long, and others not more than 5.
The first are used with the pressure of the chest, the latter with that
of the left hand. For light work these are very useful, and you will
seldom need any other in the models of small engines, &c.
No. 5 is another watchmaker’s drill, but serves also as a pin-vice to
hold small pieces of wire while being turned or filed in the little
lathes which are used in that trade, and which are worked by a bow with
one hand, while the tool is held in the other. This is by no means a
useless tool, even without the pulley. It is made by taking a round
(or better, an octagon, or five or six sided) piece of steel, drilling
the end a little distance, and then sawing the whole up the middle. The
slit thus made is then filed away to widen it, and leave two jaws at the
end, which grasp the pin or drill; a ring slips over, and keeps the jaws
together.
We now come to fig. 6, which represents the best of all drills for metal.
It is _really_ American this time, and does our Transatlantic cousins
great credit, as does the machinery generally invented or made by them
(the Wheeler and Wilson sewing-machines for instance). The steel of which
this drill is made is accurately turned in a lathe, and the spiral groove
is cut by machinery. This groove acts in two ways—first, as allowing the
_shavings_ (_not powdery chips_) to escape as the tool penetrates, but
as forming the cutting edges where they (for there are two) meet at the
point. These, however, require a lathe with a self-centring chuck made on
purpose. They are sold in sets upon a stand, chuck and all complete, and
each is one-thirty-second of an inch larger than the other. Some are as
small as a darning-needle, or less, and they run up to an inch or so in
diameter. There are large and small sets.
We now pass to the old-fashioned smith’s brace, fig. 7, shown in
position, drilling the piece _e_. Pressure is kept up either by a
weighted lever, or by a screw, as shown here. The brace is moved round
by the hand of the workman. Very often this tool is arranged on the
vice-bench, so that the work can be retained in the jaws of the vice
while being drilled. Sometimes it is mounted on a separate stand, having
a stool below, and a special kind of vice or clamp is added. Well made,
this is not so bad a tool as it looks, but those used ordinarily in
smiths’ shops are very clumsy, and do not even run true, and the drills
are badly made, although by sheer force they are driven through the work.
Whatever form of drill-stock is used, the main thing is to have the
drills properly formed. You will recognise _k_ and _n_ as common forms,
than which _m_ is considerably better. For cast-iron _n_ would not be a
bad point, because the angle is great, much greater, you see, than _k_;
and the bevels which form the cutting edges of a drill should also not be
too sharp, as they are generally made, for, as they only scrape away the
metal, their edges go directly.
The common way to make a drill is this: A piece of steel wire of the
required size is heated until red hot (never to a _white_ heat, or it
would be spoiled). The end is then flattened out with a hammer, and the
point trimmed with a file. It is then again heated red hot, and dipped
into cold water for a second. Then held where the changes of colour,
which ensue as it cools, can be seen plainly; and as soon as a deep
yellow or first tinge of purple becomes visible, it is entirely cooled
in water. It is then finished, except as regards fitting it to the
drill-stock, which may be done before or after it is hardened, because
care is taken only to dip the extreme point. To get proper cutting
edges the drill is taken to the grindstone, and each side of the point
is slightly bevelled, but in opposite directions, so as to make it cut
both ways. It is not, however, left of equal width, like _o_, but the
flattened sides are ground away, so as to make more of a point, like _p_
and _n_.
Now, this is all right enough as regards forging and hardening, and
tempering, and for the _smallest_ drills this is the only way to make
them. (Only watchmakers heat them in the candle till red, and then cool
and temper by running them into the tallow.) But if you want a good
drill that will cut well and truly, you should file away the sides of a
round bar like _m_, only spreading the point very slightly indeed, just
to prevent the drill sticking fast in the work. Another drill, indeed,
is spoken of very highly, which is also carefully made like _m_, but
the places which are here flat are hollowed out or grooved lengthwise,
the section of the point—_i.e._, the appearance of the _end_ of the
drill—becomes rather curious, like _r_. I am assured by those who have
used them, that these cut quite as well as the twist drills which I have
described already. These which I am now speaking of are also American;
and I don’t know how it is, that somehow America is a far better place
for improvements in tools and machines than our own Old England. And if
I had a wonderful invention—a new birch-rod-making and flogging-machine
for very troublesome boys, for instance—I am afraid I should go to
America to patent it; but I daresay English boys would not object to that.
To teach an idle boy to read,
His mind be sure to jog;
But if he’s very bad indeed,
You’ll be obliged to flog.
Yet if you flog him day by day,
He’ll _never_ learn to read;
For boys require a lot of play
To make them work with speed.
But young mechanics, if they err
Or join the lazy team,
Would all, as I suppose, prefer
To be well flogged by steam.
If not, they had better not let me patent my flogging-machine. Luckily it
is not invented yet.
The _cutting edges_ of drills come under the same rules as other cutting
edges. You might, for instance, hold a large drill flat on the rest,
and use either edge as a turning-tool. You will see at once that these
edges will not cut if made in the usual way, but only scrape. The bevel
wants to be ground only to 3°, as before explained, to give the proper
clearance, and the cutting edge requires to be then made by grinding back
the _upper_ surface, which is just the same in effect as is produced
by twisting the metal or cutting a spiral groove, which hollows out
this upper surface and gives it cutting power. It is no use grinding a
sharper-looking bevel, or making more of a point—you only weaken the
edge; _m_ or _n_ is quite pointed enough, though the first is a right
angle and the second greater; and, for cast-iron, a rounded point,
showing no angle at all, will do just as well, or better, when once it
has begun to penetrate. Do not be deceived, therefore, by making drills
look pointed and keen, for, I repeat, they are scraping tools only,
unless you file an edge by bevelling back the upper face of each side
of the point. If you were to make a very thick, strong drill, you might
begin by grinding back the two sides to 3°, to form the accidental front
line of the point or section angle, and then grind back, _at 45° from
this line_, the upper face, by which you would do just what you did to
give the graver cutting edges of 60°—only a drill thus formed must have a
point of 90°. It would cut in two directions, like one for a drill stock
and bow.
I hope my bigger boys will not pass over the remarks on cutting edges
interspersed in this book, for, once understood, they will be found to
be most valuable. Indeed, they cannot work intelligently until they
understand exactly the nature and principles of the tools which they
have to use. In drilling iron, use water or oil, or soap and water,
or soda-water—either will do; but the holes are drilled in the ships’
armour-plating with soap and water to cool the drill; and very well it
answers, for these plates are several inches thick, but the holes are
soon made. When working in brass and gun-metal, use no water, but work
the drill quite dry. The same rules, in short, apply to drilling as to
turning or planing metal; and if you could see the action of a well-made
American twist-drill, you would recognise this similarity, for you would
see the metal come forth in long, bright curls, as pretty and shining as
those of your favourite young lady or loving sister—_one_ of which you
have, I daresay.
To give you some idea of what a straight course a drill will take, if
rightly made and skilfully used, I may tell you that a twist-drill has
been run through a lucifer-match from end to end without splitting it;
and as to the _fineness_ possible, I have seen a human hair with an eye
drilled through it, by which, needle-like, it was threaded with the other
end of itself.
I told you how to bore a cylinder, which is but drilling on a larger
scale, and in Fig. 65 I sketched the method of doing this in the lathe
with a rosebit. But I did not explain another tool used just in the same
way, but which will bore holes in solid iron wonderfully. Fig. 65, L,
H, K, is one of these. This is an engineer’s boring-bit, and is made of
all sizes, from that required to bore the stem of a tobacco-pipe—(don’t
smoke, boys, it will dry up your brains)—to that which would bore a
cannon. A rod of steel is forged with a boss or larger part at one end.
This is centred in the lathe, and the centre-marks are well drilled, and
not merely punched, especially that at the small end. The boss is then
turned quite cylindrical, after which it is filed[4] away exactly to the
diametrical line, as you will see by inspection of L. The end is then
ground off a little slanting, to give, as before, about 3° of clearance.
The cutting edge thus obtained, and the end in which the centre hole
still remains, are carefully hardened. You thus have a tool which will
bore splendidly, but you must give it entrance by turning a recess
first of all in the work, or drilling, with a drill of equal size, a
little way into the material. Used like the rosebit, this tool will run
beautifully straight, so that you can bore very deep, long holes with it,
and cylinders can be most beautifully bored with it. I think you would be
able to make these tools with a little care; but, when you harden them,
only heat and dip the extremities, or it is ten to one your steel rod
will bend and warp in cooling, and you will not be able to rectify it. If
the ends are quite hard, it is as well that the rest should be soft, as
the tool will not then be so liable to get broken.
There are many other tools used for boring iron and steel, but you need
not trouble yourself at present to learn anything of them—they are no use
to you now.
I have headed this chapter “Hardening and Tempering” tools, but as yet I
have only partially explained the process, which is a very curious one;
and though the _result_ is highly necessary in many cases, it is by no
means well understood what really takes place in the process, or why this
effect should occur in steel, but not in iron, or brass, or other metals.
If you heat a piece of bright steel over a clear gas jet or fire which
will not smoke it, you will see several colours arise as the metal
gets hotter and hotter, until finally it becomes red. These are due to
oxidation, which is so long a word that I am not sure I can stop to
explain it thoroughly. Let us see, however, what we can make of it. The
air we breathe contains two gases, oxygen and nitrogen, with a small
proportion of a third called carbonic acid. Neither of these _alone_ will
support life, or keep the fire burning, or enable vegetables to live and
grow, but it is the first which is in this the chief support. The second
is only used by Nature as we use water to brandy, viz., to dilute it and
render it less strong. If we breathed oxygen alone, we should live too
fast, and wear out our bodies in a few hours. If we breathed nitrogen
only, we should die, and so of carbonic acid. Now this oxygen seizes upon
everything in a wonderful and sometimes provoking manner. If you leave a
bright tool out of doors to get damp, down comes our friend oxygen and
rusts it. It combines with the iron and makes oxide of iron, which is
what we call rust. I suppose, however, this oxygen comes more from the
water than the air, because water is made also of two gases, hydrogen and
this same oxygen. It is certain that oxygen in this case always finds any
bright tools that we leave about in the wet, and coats them with a red
jacket very speedily. Then if you look at a blacksmith at work, you will
see scales fall from the hot iron as he hammers it. These are black, but
our old friend has been at work, and united with the red-hot metal and
formed another oxide of iron, called black oxide. We can understand this.
If a man eats a good deal, or drinks a good deal, he gets red in the
face; if he eats till he chokes himself, he gets black in the face, and
I suppose it is much the same when oxygen eats too much iron. Well, when
we begin to heat the steel, down comes oxygen and begins his work; and
first he looks very pale; then he gets more bilious and yellower; then he
gets hotter and shows a tinge of red with the yellow forming orange; then
he begins to get purple, then blue, then deeper blue; and finally black
before he gets absolutely red and white hot.
Now to temper steel, we first heat it red-hot, not minding these colours,
and then we cool it suddenly in cold water. This renders it very hard
indeed. No file will cut it, or drill penetrate it; but if we strike
it, behold it breaks like glass! This is too hard for general work,
for the edge will break and chip if it meets with any hard spot in the
metal, or chances to bite in too deep. Its teeth are too brittle, and
so get broken off. For this reason we have to “let down,” or temper,
the tool, and we proceed as follows: The part to be tempered is ground
quite bright. It is then laid upon a bar of iron heated red-hot, or
if small, it is held over a gas jet or in a candle; heated, in short,
in any way most suitable and convenient. And now, first, our friend
oxygen puts on a pale yellow face as before. This will do for turning
steel and iron, but is still too hard for general work. Then comes the
orange, and this presently tends slightly to blue; at which point, if
the tool is instantly cooled in water, it will be found to bear a good
edge, hard, but sufficiently tough for work. Most tools for metal and
drills are let down to something between the yellow and blue, and we
know that the more they approach blue, the softer they will be. Thus we
can easily manage our tools;—some to bear hard blows, like axes, which
are tempered to a blue colour; some like files, which a blow will break,
but which are famous for their own special work—these are let down only
to a pale yellow; others, like springs and saws, are let down to a more
thorough blue, because they are required to be elastic and tough, but are
not needed to be so particularly hard. Then tools like turnscrews, and
bradawls, and gimblets are left even softer, sometimes not tempered or
hardened at all, but just forged and ground to the required shape.
Now, I fancy some of my sharp boys will say that the first description
I gave of the mode of hardening and tempering was not exactly like this;
nor was it, yet in principle it is the same. For instance, if you give
a drill to a smith to make, he will do as I then said. He will heat the
extreme point red-hot, then dip the point in water, give a rub on the
stone or bricks of the forge, and watch the colours. This can be done
when the tool is of sufficient substance to retain heat enough after the
edge has been dipped to _re-heat_ that edge sufficiently. In this case
there is no need to chill the whole tool and then heat it again. But in
the case of small drills and tools, pen-knife-blades, and other articles
of this nature, there will not be sufficient heat retained, after
dipping, to bring up to the surface the desired colours; for oxygen likes
a _hot_ dinner as well as you do, and if the iron is not hot enough he
will have nothing to do with it.
One great difficulty you would find if you had much tempering to do,
viz., that the articles bend under the operation, some more than others.
Try this: Take a thin knitting-needle when the owner is not looking, and
run off with it;—it is all in the cause of science! Heat it red-hot,
and with a pair of pliers take it up and drop it _sidewise_ in a basin
of water. It will bend like a bow. Heat again, straighten it, re-heat,
and this time pop it in lengthwise—endwise, point first—I mean (don’t
you see that a round needle has _no sides_, and puts me into a perfect
quagmire of difficulty). However, you will understand this, and will
find the needle not bent nearly so much as before, but still it is not
straight. As I explain most things as I go on, I may as well explain
why this bending occurs before I tell you how to straighten your work
again. All metals expand with heat, and contract with cold. I am sure _I_
contract terribly in the winter until I have had plenty of hot soup, and
hot roast-beef, and plum-pudding; and I know my _temper_ improves, too,
when I get expanded and warm. Well now, when you dropped your sister’s
knitting-needle all hot on its side into the water, that side contracted
before the other, and consequently the needle bent; but when you put
it in the water, _end on_, it was cooled all round at once, and if you
could but cool a piece of metal equally all over, inside and out, _at
once_, all parts would shrink equally fast, and the article would remain
straight.
But there is, unfortunately, another cause of this bending, which is,
that all articles are not of such form that the same quantity of metal
is on all sides of the axial line. Take a half-round file, for instance;
one side is flat, the other curved, so that taking these two surfaces
into consideration, one contains a great deal more metal than the other,
and will not cool at the same rate. These articles are far more liable to
bend than those whose sides are parallel. Another result of the hot mass
being cooled most quickly on the outside is, that cracks are produced
in the latter, because, so to speak, the skin is contracted, and can no
longer contain all the expanded metal within it. Hence, to make a mandrel
for a lathe, it is common to bore it out first, before hardening, to
remove this mass of metal, and to allow the water to touch it inside as
well as out. Such mandrels seldom crack or bend.
The only way to straighten articles which have warped by hardening, is
by what is called hacking or hack-hammering, which is nothing more than
hammering the concave or hollow side with the edge of the steel pane of a
hammer. This spreads the metal upon the hammered side, and, by expanding
it, straightens the tool, for the hollow side, remember, is that which
was too much shrunk or contracted. This is not an operation you will have
to do, especially if you only harden the extreme points of the drills and
little tools you make.
There is another way of hardening, not steel, but iron, called “case
hardening,” because it puts a case of steel over the surface of the
metal. Obtain a salt called prussiate of potash. It is yellow, like
barley-sugar, but is poison. Heat the iron red-hot, and well rub it upon
this salt, and then cool it in water. You will find that now a file will
not touch it, its surface being as hard as glass. It is carbonised on its
exterior, and made into hard steel. This can be done in another way, as
gun-locks, snuffers, and many other things are case hardened. They are
enclosed in an iron box, with cuttings of leather and bone-dust, and
the box is luted about with clay and put in the fire. All the pieces get
red-hot, and the leather chars and blackens, and some of it combines as
before with the hot iron, and makes it into steel. And our friend oxygen
is considerably at a loss in this case to find his way in, or he would
make black scales again and spoil the work; or combine with the carbon
(or charcoal) and make it into gas. Probably, however, as we shut up a
little oxygen with the contents of the box, this change DOES take place,
but _just as the gas rises the iron seizes it_, and holds it fast.
And now, boys, I find it necessary to lay down the pen, which I see has
almost run away with me, and written a good many more pages than I at
first intended. Since I began to write I have visited the workshops at
King’s College, and seen a sight to gladden my eyes. Boys carpentering,
boys turning, boys filing; engines of real use, with single and double
cylinders, finished, and in course of construction, and all these the
work of schoolboys, whose hands and brains are alike engaged in this
delightful branch of industry. Let no one, therefore, pretend that
boys are not capable of executing good work of this kind in a masterly
manner, or that what they do is always child’s-play, or I shall take
up the cudgels in their behalf. I have also seen, in the Working-Men’s
Exhibition, a very neat little engine, made by a boy only twelve years of
age, which makes me hope and believe that the few hints upon wood and
metal work which I have here thrown together will neither be unacceptable
nor useless to those whom I address in these pages. In this hope I take
my leave, and sign myself, with gratification and pride—
The boy mechanic’s faithful friend,
THE AUTHOR.
FOOTNOTES
[1] In the drawing, they are all accidentally drawn of the same pitch.
[2] The parts so jointed are highly exaggerated; when hammered down, the
joint only forms a light beading.
[3] The bottom joint must therefore be hammered close; the upper one will
become a ledge for the boiler to rest on.
[4] In large tools this is not done by the file.
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EDITED BY
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Cloth extra $1 50
Half morocco, uncut edges, gilt top 1 75
Large paper, limited to 250 numbered copies for
subscribers to the series. These may be obtained
in sheets folded, or in cloth, uncut edges 3 50
The first group of the Series will comprise twelve volumes, as follows:
=Nelson, and the Naval Supremacy of England.= By W. CLARK
RUSSELL, author of “The Wreck of the Grosvenor,” etc.
=Gustavus Adolphus, and the Struggle of Protestantism for
Existence.= By C. R. L. FLETCHER, M.A., late Fellow of All
Souls College, Oxford.
=Pericles, and the Golden Age of Athens.= By EVELYN ABBOTT,
M.A., Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford.
=Theodoric the Goth, the Barbarian Champion of Civilization.=
By THOMAS HODGKIN, author of “Italy and Her Invaders,” etc.
=Sir Philip Sidney, and the Chivalry of England.= By H. R.
FOX-BOURNE, author of “The Life of John Locke,” etc.
=Julius Cæsar, and the Organization of the Roman Empire.= By W.
WARDE FOWLER, M.A., Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford.
=John Wyclif, Last of the Schoolmen and First of the English
Reformers.= By LEWIS SARGEANT, author of “New Greece,” etc.
=Napoleon, Warrior and Ruler, and the Military Supremacy of
Revolutionary France.= By W. O’CONNOR MORRIS, sometime Scholar
of Oriel College, Oxford.
=Henry of Navarre, and the Huguenots in France.= By P. F.
WILLERT, M.A., Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford.
=Alexander the Great, and the Extension of Greek Rule and of
Greek Ideas.= By Prof. BENJAMIN I. WHEELER, Cornell University.
=Charlemagne, the Reorganizer of Europe.= By Prof. GEORGE L.
BURR, Cornell University.
=Louis XIV., and the Zenith of the French Monarchy.= By ARTHUR
HASSALL, M.A., Senior Student of Christ Church College, Oxford.
To be followed by:
=Cicero, and the Fall of the Roman Republic.= By J. L. STRACHAN
DAVIDSON, M.A., Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford.
=Sir Walter Raleigh, and the Adventurers of England.= By A. L.
SMITH, M.A., Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford.
=Bismarck. The New German Empire: How It Arose; What It
Replaced; and What It Stands For.= By JAMES SIME, author of “A
Life of Lessing,” etc.
=William of Orange, the Founder of the Dutch Republic.= By RUTH
PUTNAM.
=Hannibal, and the Struggle between Carthage and Rome.= By
E. A. FREEMAN, D.C.L., LL.D., Regius Prof. of History in the
University of Oxford.
=Alfred the Great, and the First Kingdom in England.= By F.
YORK POWELL, M.A., Senior Student of Christ Church College,
Oxford.
=Charles the Bold, and the Attempt to Found a Middle Kingdom.=
By R. LODGE, M.A., Fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford.
=John Calvin, the Hero of the French Protestants.= By OWEN H.
EDWARDS, Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford.
=Oliver Cromwell, and the Rule of the Puritans in England.= By
CHARLES FIRTH, Balliol College, Oxford.
=Marlborough, and England as a Military Power.= By C. W. V.
OMAN, A.M., Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford.
G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS
NEW YORK
27 WEST TWENTY-THIRD ST.
LONDON
24 BEDFORD ST., STRAND