As different materials require somewhat different management, and even in
the matter of wood alone this rule holds good, it may be as well to have
some idea of what is meant by _hard_ and _soft_ wood.
The young mechanic has most likely hitherto considered all wood under
one head; but there is a vast difference, nevertheless, in the internal
structure, even of such kinds as grow in England; and the woods of
foreign countries differ again from these, some being of such close
texture that it is almost impossible to work them with ordinary tools,
and some (such as the palm) being little else than gigantic ferns,
and in structure like that much-dreaded implement of flagellation—the
schoolmaster’s cane.
In England the hardest wood found is that of the box-tree, the chief
place of which is in Surrey, at Box Hill; it is, nevertheless, found
scattered here and there in all parts of the country, but not generally
of a size greater than 3 inches in diameter. It is of very slow growth,
and our own country would not nearly satisfy the demand made for it by
various trades. Hence a large quantity of box, of larger growth, and
generally of harder and better quality, is imported every year from
Turkey, to be used in the construction of blocks for engravers, who alone
require many tons weight annually, and for carpenters’ rules, mallets,
turned boxes, and tool-handles; to which I may add the important item
of peg-tops. I fear some of my readers may think I should have placed
these first on the list! Opinions, however, I imagine, differ in this
particular, as in most others, and upon all subjects.
The grain of boxwood is so close and even that it is one of the most
valuable turning materials we possess. It takes excellent screw-threads,
provided they are not too fine; is a very general material for boxes of
all kinds, and also for chucks, although there is really no reason why
it should be wasted in so applying it, when other woods of less value
make such efficient substitutes. Probably its use for this purpose arose
from the facility with which a screw can be cut in it to fit that on the
mandrel, and that it is so hard as not to allow the collar beyond the
screw to make much impression upon it. In consequence, when it is well
fitted, such a chuck can be screwed on many times exactly to the same
point, and will continue to run true. But I myself have found that if the
mandrel-screw is not very coarse, the threads cut in the inside of the
chuck are apt to break off.
Somewhat similar in texture, though by no means generally used, is the
wood of the ELDER, which is quite different, be it observed, from the
ALDER, although I often hear the names confounded together. The wood
I allude to is that of the tree which bears umbels of sweet, white
blossoms, which give place to those jet-black berries we find upon them
late in summer, and which are made into elder-wine, for home consumption
at Christmas, when, no doubt, most of my readers have drunk it, hot and
spicy and sugary, to keep out the wintry cold. From the same tree are
commonly made those harmless engines of mimic warfare—pop-guns!
If it were not for the presence of the pith, which is in fact the very
quality which makes it valuable to boys for the latter purpose, this wood
would certainly have been eagerly seized upon by turners. Even with this
defect, it is used instead of box for the inferior kinds of carpenter’s
rules and other purposes, and the larger pieces will make very good
chucks, if a little care is exercised to prevent splitting them. It is
indeed a wood that might be far more extensively used in this way than it
is.
The YEW, perhaps, should come next in order, for this too is very
close-grained and very beautiful, and when highly polished it will bear
comparison with many foreign woods which we import at a high price; it
is, however, brittle and apt to splinter.
WALNUT varies considerably in quality, some being harder and richer in
grain than others. This wood, however, is not to be classed among those
which are properly speaking _hard_, as it can be cut with ease, and can
only be planed and worked as deal would be, viz., _with the grain_;
whereas the hard woods work with _almost_ equal facility in either
direction. This indeed in a great measure constitutes the difference
between soft and hard woods, in the turner’s sense of the words. If you
were to hold a chisel flat on the rest, so as to let it scrape a cylinder
of wood as it revolved in the lathe, you would find in some cases that
it would tear out the fibres in shreds—_these are soft woods_. In other
cases it would leave the surface rough but otherwise tolerably even, and
with some it would leave the same fairly turned.
I cannot call to mind any English wood but box that can be turned by a
chisel held so as to scrape it, but the greater number of foreign woods
are always turned in this manner, being hard and close in the grain.
BIRCH.—Oh, once-dreaded tree! birch! with its long, swaying, switchy
boughs, drooping as in sorrow at the mean uses to which it was applied!
It is nevertheless a very useful tree, and the young mechanic can take
full revenge upon it by cutting, and chipping, and turning it into all
sorts of useful articles. It is, however, now more generally used in
cabinetmaking, for wardrobes, bedsteads, chests of drawers, and such
like, as it looks very neat when planed and varnished. Perhaps, as a wood
for the exercise of the turner’s art, it must give place to
BEECH, which is a common and excellent material for the essays of
beginners, who can turn tool handles especially from the small trimmed
billets of it which are kept by the chairmakers, and which can generally
be bought for a trifling sum in any town, and in many villages. If not,
the wheelwright may be applied to for a supply, as he uses it rather
extensively for the felloes of his wheels. It is peculiarly liable to the
attacks of the little worm, weevil or maggot, who drills such innumerable
and such beautifully round holes in furniture that stands long unused.
Beech is often used for the screws of carpenters’ benches, as it takes
very well a thread of such size as is required for that purpose. It will
also, for the same reason, answer very well for chucks, for which it has
the recommendation of cheapness and toughness.
ASH seems to come next upon the list. It is probably the most useful
of all English woods, and where toughness, pliability, with moderate
hardness, are valuable qualities, no English wood can exceed it. For
frames of carts and carriages, shafts, agricultural implements,
wheelbarrows, and smaller articles of husbandry, it is precisely what
is needed, and in the workshop of the turner it is equally valuable.
Tool-handles of ash are very durable, and hold the tool with great
firmness, owing to the natural elasticity of the material. It may be
stained and polished, and is then, for real _work_, preferable to the
more costly hard woods of which handles are very generally made for the
workshops of rich amateur mechanics.
OAK is little used for turning, the grain being too coarse. The young
mechanic need never make use of it for this purpose, and the same may be
said of the elm.
ELM is, nevertheless, used by turners for the wooden buckets of pumps,
and is a generally useful wood. Bulk for bulk, it is lighter than beech,
and it makes a good material, it is said, for lathe beds, though beech
is more frequently used. It will answer for chucks, as indeed most woods
will that can be cut into screws; it is very tough.
EVERGREEN OAK, or HOLM OAK, as it is called, is very different to the
forest tree, and might be classed among shrubs. When dry, it is by no
means a bad wood to turn, and will take a good screw thread, and make
excellent chucks.
ACACIA is an excellent wood. It is of a yellowish brown colour, tolerably
hard, and will take a good polish. It is most certainly to be set down
among the woods valuable to the turner.
SYCAMORE is white, very soft until old, when it becomes much harder. This
is also a turner’s wood, and used extensively for wooden bowls, backs of
brushes, turned boxes, and what is generally called “turnery.” A little
of this will be useful to the young mechanic. It will make excellent
bread platters, stands for hot water jugs, and such like.
HOLLY.—The Christmas garland, with its red berries decorating even the
poorest homes in midwinter, is a tree well worth the attention of the
young mechanic. It is his substitute for the more precious material
ivory, and from it he will turn the white draught or chess men, boxes,
and many small articles. But it is necessary that this material should be
perfectly dry, and to get it in perfection, carefully preserved to insure
its whiteness, it will be generally necessary to procure it ready for
the lathe at some lathemaker’s, or at first-class cabinetmakers’. If cut
green, it requires long seasoning, during which it shrinks considerably.
In fact, it takes some years entirely to rid it of the great quantity of
moisture which it contains. It is well worth procuring, nevertheless, for
it is nearly as white and free from grain as ivory.
Many of the fruit-trees of our orchards and gardens supply good material
to the turner. APPLE, PEAR, CHERRY, PLUM, and some others, are all more
or less useful. The grain of the first is rather dark, the fibres often
twisted. It looks well when polished.
PEAR has a very fine, even grain, and is largely used for making the
curved templates (or patterns of curves for architects and engineers); it
will make good boxes, and is fairly serviceable to the turner. Its colour
is light brown, but darkens by exposure.
The PLUM has a wood veined very like that of the elm, but is a finer and
better wood for the lathe. This is the _wild_ plum, and not the grafted
fruit-tree of our gardens, which is not nearly so good. The wild plum is
excellent for small boxes, and looks well when nicely turned and polished.
CHERRY is a very excellent wood, and naughty, fast boys, who take to
smoking, like young Americans, when they ought to be filling their young
brains with knowledge instead of narcotics, know very well that it is
made into pipes and stems of pipes. Happily this is not its only use,
for it is fit for many other purposes; and for light, elegant furniture,
it is scarcely to be equalled. Dipped in lime-water, it darkens, and by
doing this here and there, a beautiful mottled appearance is given to it.
It takes an excellent polish, and should be among the stores of the young
mechanic.
We now come to another soft, white wood. The LIME, which, as it is
more even in grain, more easily cut in any direction than most woods,
is greatly used by carvers and pattern-makers (_i.e._, those who make
wooden patterns of wheels, or lathes, or machinery, which are to be cast
in metal). [The pattern is pressed into damp sand, and then removed, and
the melted metal is then poured into the impression thus made. If the
sand is too wet, the process will not only fail, but the hot metal will
be scattered on all sides, inflicting dreadful burns and injuries; but
with care, the young amateur may make castings in tin or lead, as will be
explained by and by.] Even with a penknife alone, very pretty ornaments
may be carved from the wood of the lime, and also from that which follows.
WILLOW.—This is even softer than the last, and will plane into long,
thin shavings, which are made into hats. (Once on a time I should have
said “_and bonnets_,” but in these days no one would recognise such
articles. They are fast fading out of existence; but I think quite as
much sound sense used to be found under them as is now found under the
very inefficient substitutes worn by ladies of the present day.) This
wood will, of course, turn very easily, but requires very keen tools. In
fact, _sharp_ gouges and chisels are invariably necessary for soft wood
turning. Get some dry willow by all means, if you can.
The last wood of English growth which the young mechanic is likely to
meet with is the thorn. This grows to a tolerably large size, and
is hard, close-grained, white, and altogether a good and serviceable
wood. It will make capital chucks, taking a clean screw-thread, is
easily procured, and is therefore strongly recommended to the notice
of the young mechanic. The woods above named, except box, are all to
be considered _soft_ woods, and will work with gouge and chisel; but
box, thorn, elder, and one or two of the more close-grained, will turn
pretty well, and can be smoothly hollowed out, with hard wood tools held
horizontally upon the rest.
HARD WOODS.
All those woods, properly called _hard_, including the best box, are
of foreign growth, mostly coming from the Tropics. I do not know why
they should be so much harder than those of temperate climes, but so it
is. There are, however, woods in New Zealand, of which the temperature
is similar to that of our own country, which are also exceedingly hard
and difficult to work. A very large number of foreign woods are yearly
brought to England in logs or billets or planks, some of very large size,
and all of great weight. They are mostly liable to one defect, viz.,
rottenness of the core or heart, which limits the size of the pieces
which can be cut from them. They can all be procured from the London
lathe and tool shops, and there are also dealers in these woods (Jacques
of Covent Garden, Mundy & Berrie of Bunhill Row, and some others). It is
almost impossible to procure them in the country, but rosewood, ebony,
kingwood, &c., may be sometimes had in such small pieces as the young
mechanic may require, at the cabinetmakers’. Among the most useful are—
EBONY, of which there are two or three kinds, some harder and more
close-grained and blacker than others, and one which is called green
ebony, which is like lignum-vitæ (an English wood, but which grows to a
larger size abroad; indeed, many so called English woods are not really
so, but have been brought from other countries to be grown here). The
general colour is green, but the veins are rather darker. Bowls and
skittle-balls are made of it. It is not, however, of the same general use
as the black ebony, which is very largely used both for cabinet-work and
turning.
BLACK EBONY is very close and hard, and, of course, proportionately
heavy. It splits readily, but when chopped, the chips come off more like
charcoal, showing no consistency. This is the kind imported from the
Indies, and especially from Madagascar and Mauritius, and is the best
for all kinds of turned work. Portugal affords another kind, which bears
the same name, but is more brown than black, and softer, less compact in
grain, and generally of less value. Ebony will bear eccentric work, and
all kinds of beautiful carving and ornamentation in the lathe.
ROSE-WOOD is very commonly used for furniture and turned work. It is a
rich red wood, grained with black. It is not _very_ hard, less so than
ebony, and has more evident grain or fibre. It turns well, and some
pieces are very handsome.
AFRICAN BLACK-WOOD is in appearance similar to ebony, but it is even more
close and compact, and is the most valuable of all to the ornamental
turner. When this or ebony is set off by being inlaid with ivory, or
even holly, it is very lovely in its intense and brilliant blackness.
Either this or ebony is used for black pieces for the chessboard or
draughtboard, though stained boxwood, being less costly, is sometimes
made to take its place.
AFRICAN CAM-WOOD is a very beautiful material when first cut. Its
rich red tint is diversified with the most brilliant yellow streaks.
Unfortunately, however, these are not lasting. Exposed to the air, they
gradually become darker, until they become red like the rest of the wood.
This material, however, has a fine, close grain, is a genuine _hard_
wood, and of general use to the turner for ornamental articles of various
kinds.
TULIP-WOOD is not very hard. Cut across the log, the appearance is fine,
owing to the rings of growth being wavy and irregular, in dark and light
red alternations, that reminds one of the flower after which it is
called. This tree, indeed, which grows to a large size, bears flowers
similar to those of our gardens imported from Holland, which grow upon
short perpendicular stems. The centre or core of tulip-wood is generally
rotten. It sucks up a good deal of polish before the grain shows out
brightly and strongly, from being less hard and more fibrous than many
others named above.
PARTRIDGE-WOOD is a nice, hard, and very pretty wood, rather dark or
gray. The fibres seem to run both ways, giving a mottled appearance when
turned.
CORAL-WOOD is bright red, hard, and close in grain, well suited for red
chessmen, where that colour is preferred to black. It looks very handsome
in the midst of other coloured specimens; otherwise, like all material
of one tint and free from veined lines, there is too much uniformity
of appearance to make it pleasing to the eye of one who is gifted with
appreciation of colour.
It is not necessary for me to go in order through a long list of foreign
woods. The very young mechanic, unless living in London, will seldom meet
with many of them; and a very good selection for the advanced turner will
be composed of the following:—
BLACK EBONY.
COCOA or COCUS, which is not the cocoa-nut tree, this being a palm, the
wood of which is stringy like a fern or a cane; whereas, cocoa or cocus
is firm, hard, and excellent.
BLACK-WOOD, which cuts finely with tools for eccentric work.
KING-WOOD, a good and useful wood, something akin in appearance to
rosewood.
SATIN-WOOD, pale yellow grain, like watered silk, turns very well, but is
by no means hard; there is also a red satinwood.
ROSE-WOOD, already described; it loses colour after exposure, and is most
beautiful newly cut.
If the above are added to the most useful of the English woods described
above, it will scarcely be worth while to add to them except as
_specimens_. It is, however, very interesting to collect and arrange
these, and it is an employment well worthy of the attention of the
young mechanic. Thin slices cut across the grain, and sometimes, or in
addition, slices cut with the grain, should be arranged in order after
being trimmed to shape (round, square, or triangular, or even six-sided).
They should be very carefully polished to bring up the grain, and
labelled with the common and Latin (or botanical) name. The country from
which procured, with short notes relative to the size and general growth
of the tree, should be added. This will compel inquiry, and a great deal
of information will be thus gained and stored up. A similar collection of
English woods may be made, and, of course, with much greater ease.
It will be observed that I have said nothing of the pines, deal, and
larch. They are extensively turned in the lathe, the greater part
of the common painted furniture being made therefrom; but deal is,
nevertheless, not a turning wood. It splits easily, has an open grain,
with fibres loosely connected, and although it can be cut into mouldings
with sharp chisels and gouges, it generally needs a little rubbing with
Dutch rush, fish-skin, or glass-paper; after which, a handful of its own
shavings held against it as it revolves rapidly in the lathe, is the best
polisher. Of course, however, it may be varnished, and of late years it
has become fashionable, when thus finished, for bedroom furniture. It
is, however, in this case generally improved and embellished, by having
thin strips of coloured woods inlaid in its surface. It is useless for
_hollow_ work; and wood that cannot be hollowed out satisfactorily, is
not to be classed among those suitable for the turner.
Whenever you have time to spare, and are not inclined to turn, yet
feel disposed to wander into your workshop, it is a good plan to trim
and prepare pieces of wood for the lathe. You need a chopping-block,
which is the end of a stick of timber sawn evenly across, and stood
up in some out-of-the-way corner where chips will not be much in the
way, and a light axe or adze, which latter is said to be the best. It
is called the bassoohlah or Indian adze, but I never had one, nor ever
saw it mentioned, except in one very excellent book by the late Charles
Holtzappffel of London, who, indeed, keeps these tools. But a light axe
is easily obtained, and will do very well. Take care to saw the pieces
off truly square—I mean straight across the log, and not slanting either
way. Cut some from your evergreen oak, or beech, or elm, for chucks,
remembering to have length for the mandrel screw, beyond what you will
probably need for hollowing out, to take the pieces to be turned. Cut
some longer than others, and from larger or smaller pieces; from 2-inch
diameter to 4, which is a useful general size. But your lathe of 5-inch
centre will take chucks or work of nearly 10 inches, so you can cut some
few pieces rather larger. Probably, your only work of 6 to 9 inches
diameter will be an occasional bread-platter, or a stand of some sort;
your general work will be much less. Besides chucks, of which the number
is in time very great, you will be constantly wanting tool-handles. Cut
some for these, and placing one end on the chopping-block, trim them to
something like the required size, but a good deal larger round than you
think necessary, because you will find that the size will deceive you
frequently.
[Illustration: Fig. 43.]
For finally trimming up short pieces, a peculiar knife is used by the
lathe and tool makers; and when you can spare the money you should get
one, as you will find it easy to use, and it will save you many a cut
from the axe. In fact, I never advise _very_ young mechanics to make use
of the latter tool. It requires practice, strength, and a good deal of
skill to use it well; and nothing is more easy than to lop off the end
of a finger or thumb, and, unfortunately, nothing is more difficult than
to repair the damage. The paring-knife for short thick pieces mentioned
above, is made like D, Fig. 43. It consists of a long and curved handle,
turned up at one end to fit under a staple, E, with a cross piece of wood
for the hand at the other end, and a broad strong blade with one bevel
in the middle—(by one bevel I mean, that the edge is not like that of an
axe, but like that of a carpenter’s chisel, the bevel or sloping part
being outside). C is the piece of wood to be pared, A the bottom board or
platform, B a block fastened to it, and made on a slope to prevent the
tendency of the wood to slip away from the knife. The whole of this may
be screwed down to the bench, or to a heavy stool when in use. The hook
and ferule should not be made so large and loose as in the drawing, and
a better joint is that of an ordinary hinge. If made loosely, the blade
twists about too much from side to side, escaping from the wood. There is
no danger to the fingers from this useful tool, which the young mechanic
should add to his workshop as soon as he can.
Another useful and easily-constructed apparatus for the preparation of
long pieces is the shave-stool, used by coopers and chairmakers to hold
the pieces securely while they are being shaped by the double-handled
shave or drawknife, as it is often called, a tool omitted from our list,
but very useful all the same. This is sketched at B, Fig. 43. It is often
very roughly made, the chief necessity being that it shall be strong. It
answers also for a sawing-stool. Upon the stool or bench, A, is fixed
a sloping block, B. A swinging frame, C, is hinged or pivoted at D, so
that if the lower part is pushed back from left to right, the upper
cross-bar, E, will come forward and almost touch the highest part of the
sloping block, B, so that any piece of wood, such as F, will thereby
be pinched and held tightly between the rail, E, and the block. The
workman sits astride of the stool at A, facing the block, and his feet
are placed on the bar C. When he wishes to hold the wood which is to be
shaved by the drawknife C, he presses _from_ him with his feet the lower
part of the frame, and he can instantly loosen the wood by drawing his
feet towards him. The movement is made in a moment, and the wood shifted
round as required, and alternately turned about and held tight, while
the drawknife is used almost ceaselessly. A very few minutes generally
suffices thus to pare down a rough piece for the lathe. The cross-bar,
E, should be tolerably strong, and is better if not rounded very nicely,
as the edges help to hold the wood. The latter is sure not to slip away,
because the pull of the drawknife tends to draw it up higher on the slope
of the block, which pulls it into a still narrower opening. Nothing can
exceed the ease with which this appliance is used, and the rapidity with
which the required operation can be carried on. No wood-turner’s shop
should be without one.
ORDER AND ARRANGEMENT OF TOOLS.
[Illustration: Fig. 44.]
I must say a word or two as to neatness and order, especially in the
arrangement of tools and appliances for the lathe. Whether you have a
dozen tools or a hundred, always put them in the _same place_, so that
any particular article can be found instantly, no time being wasted
hunting up and down, or examining a long row of tools for the one
required at that particular time. Turning tools, moreover, should be
kept distinct from those used for carpentry, and in a special rack by
themselves. The best tool-rack, I think, which can be made, is one like
Fig. 44. This may be made of deal, but the pieces between the holes are
thus liable to get split off, and beech or ash is therefore preferable.
The whole frame is made to be screwed to the wall; or, if the latter is
damp, the frame should be first screwed to a board covered with baize,
and this, in turn, fixed to the wall. Thus arranged, it will have a very
neat appearance, and the tools being kept dry, will remain generally
free from rust. They should, nevertheless, be carefully looked over once
a week and wiped, when those requiring to be ground should be subjected
to that operation, and thus be ready for future use when required. They
are bad workmen who allow blunt or damaged tools to accumulate, instead
of at once setting them in order. The horizontal bars are bored with
holes by means of a centrebit. The holes must be arranged as to size by
the measurement of the _ferules_ of the tool handles, some being larger
and some smaller, so that when the tool is placed in any hole, the handle
will drop in to the depth of the ferule and fit. Thus the tools will
all stand upright, instead of leaning from one side or the other. After
the holes are made, a piece is cut out (see fig. B) at the front edge,
because the blades of some tools are wider than the ferules, and, in
addition, if this were not done, the different tool-rails must be as far
apart as the whole length of the tool (handle and all included), to allow
of the latter being lifted sufficiently high to drop into the holes.
The strips for the holes should be about 2 inches wide, the lower one,
for the larger chisels and gouges, rather wider than the upper ones.
Sometimes these tool-racks are fitted up inside a cabinet, whose doors
have similar racks; thus all can be shut in out of the reach of dust
and dirt. Holtzappffel, the great lathemaker of London, fits up such
cabinets complete in oak or mahogany, all the tools being handled in
hard wood and turned to one pattern. The cost, however, £5 and upwards,
renders such less desirable to the young mechanic, who can rig up a
common tool-rack, which will serve his purpose equally well. It is also
far more satisfactory, in looking round your workshop, to feel that you
have at all events been as little extravagant as possible, for amateurs
get no return for outlay as tradesmen do.