THE
YOUNG MECHANIC
CONTAINING
_DIRECTIONS FOR THE USE OF ALL KINDS OF TOOLS_,
AND FOR THE
_CONSTRUCTION OF STEAM ENGINES AND
MECHANICAL MODELS_,
INCLUDING
_THE ART OF TURNING IN WOOD AND METAL_.
BY THE
AUTHOR OF “THE LATHE AND ITS USES”
“THE AMATEUR MECHANIC’S WORKSHOP,” &c.
_FROM THE ENGLISH EDITION, WITH CORRECTIONS, &c._
G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS
NEW YORK
27 WEST TWENTY-THIRD ST.
LONDON
24 BEDFORD ST., STRAND
The Knickerbocker Press
1896
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by
G. P. PUTNAM & SONS,
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.
INTRODUCTION TO THE AMERICAN EDITION.
In presenting the American edition of this little work to the public,
we believe we are supplying a want that has long been felt by the Young
Mechanics of this country, and many others who desire to become versed in
the practical use of tools. We know of no other book published in this
country or England, in which the method of using tools is so clearly
explained; and although written more especially for boys and beginners,
it contains much information that will be of great value to the practical
mechanic. The author is evidently thoroughly acquainted with his subject,
and understands how to communicate his ideas in a simple and concise
manner.
The first six chapters are devoted to the description of Tools for
working wood and the manner of using them, beginning with the simplest
operations, requiring but few tools, and gradually leading on to the more
difficult, giving examples of all the methods of joining and finishing
work that are in common use among good workmen, and in this connection
we would like to call attention to the small number of tools the author
requires for performing all these different operations, the idea among
amateurs and boys generally being, that if you only have tools enough you
can make anything. This is not so, and if the beginner will follow the
advice of the author, and buy a few good tools, and learn the use of them
thoroughly, and gradually add to his stock as his knowledge of their use
increases, he will find it greatly to his advantage.
The next five chapters relate to the lathe, and the art of turning.
The author follows the same plan as in the first part of the book, and
gives more practical information in these few pages than we have seen
in any other book on the subject, most of them being written apparently
for finished mechanics, and not for beginners. The Art of Turning as
an amusement, is beginning to attract considerable attention in this
country, but not so much as it deserves and would obtain, if it were
more generally known how many beautiful and useful articles can be
produced in the lathe. The expense of the necessary tools has deterred
many from attempting to learn this branch of mechanics; but we believe if
any one has the time and patience to devote to the work, they will never
have occasion to regret the money spent for this purpose.
The last four chapters contain practical instruction in model-making and
working in metal. This part of the book we would particularly recommend
to inventors who desire to make their own models, as it contains
information in regard to files, drills, and the various small tools used
on metal, and also directions for laying out work, which are invaluable
to a novice in such operations, and will save him much time and trouble.
As this book was originally published in London, where the facilities
for getting many kinds of small tools are better than in this country,
perhaps a little advice as to the best way of getting such tools as may
be required will not be out of place. In most of the large Hardware
Stores, carpenters’ tools will be found, put up in chests, at prices
varying from five to fifty dollars or more; but we should not advise the
amateur to buy any of these, as the quality of the tools is not always
reliable, and as they are usually fitted up to make as much show as
possible for the money, they contain many tools which are of very little
use. The best way is to make a list of the tools required, and select
them for yourself. The most important thing is to have the Cutting tools
of good quality. We give below the names of some of the best makers of
tools; if you purchase any of these, you may be sure of the quality.
On Saws,—HENRY DISSTON, GROVES & SON.
On Chisels and Gouges,—BUCK BROS., MOULSON BROS.
On Plane Irons,—MOULSON BROS., WM. BUTCHER.
On Files,—P. S. STUBS, GREAVES & SON, EARL & CO.
On Rules and Squares,—STANLEY RULE AND LEVEL CO.
If you live in the City, you will probably find no difficulty in
procuring some of the above makes; but if you cannot find them there are
some others that are good, and you must rely somewhat on the dealer. In
regard to the probable cost of the tools, a set such as is described on
pages 29 and 30, would cost from fifteen to twenty dollars.
Of Foot Lathes, the following are some of the makers:
N. H. BALDWIN, Laconia, N. H.
GOODNOW & WIGHTMAN, Boston, Mass.
AMERICAN TOOL CO. ” ”
G. L. CADY, Lowell, Mass.
EXETER MACHINE CO., Exeter, N. H.
JAS. STEWART’S SONS, New York.
From some of the above the amateur will probably be able to select
a Lathe to suit him in size and price. The lowest price at which a
serviceable lathe can be bought is about forty dollars this is without
tools or chucks. About fifteen dollars more would be required for
these. Lathes can be bought from this price up to hundreds of dollars,
according to the style of lathe and the number of chucks, but of course
the beginner would not need an expensive lathe, and seventy-five to one
hundred dollars would buy a lathe and tools suitable for all kinds of
small work in wood, ivory, or metal.
This volume being an exact reprint of the English edition,
it may be well to explain that the material called _Deal_ in
England is much the same as our _Pine_. The article called in
England a “Carrier,” is with us called a _dog_ (see pp. 112,
114, 115). Articles priced in English currency would cost here
now about 35 cents to the English shilling, or $7 per £ stg.
PREFACE.
Of all people in the world who must not be neglected are, first and
foremost, “Our Boys,” and, of all boys, _mechanical boys_ deserve a very
high place in our estimation. Whatever others may be, these, at any rate,
are possessed of sound heads, and willing hands. Therefore, to help these
to carry out their designs, appears to be a special duty of those who,
once mechanical boys themselves, have lived to become the progenitors of
others. In fulfilment of this very duty I have taken up the pen, and with
special reference to _young_ mechanics, but without entirely forgetting
those of maturer growth, I have thrown together a few hints upon that
absorbing question, “How to make and how to use?” In doing this, I have
endeavoured to carry out the plan of _small beginnings_, going from
the simplest and easiest to the more complicated and difficult work,
although here and there, of sheer necessity, a somewhat different order
has been observed. The workshops of King’s College School prove the
capabilities of boys to do high-class mechanical work when their efforts
are rightly directed by a master’s hand. Where the latter cannot be
obtained, guide-books must, however insufficiently, take his place; but
whether instruction in mechanical art be oral or otherwise, practice and
perseverance are the secrets of success.
“Qui studet optatam cursu contingere metam,
Multa tulit fecitque puer; sudavit et alsit.”
CONTENTS.
CHAP. PAGE
I. INTRODUCTORY, 1
II. HOW TO MAKE A CAGE, 15
III. MORTICE AND TENON JOINTING, 29
IV. HOW TO MAKE A TABLE, 49
V. DOVETAILING AND MITRING, 66
VI. REBATING, TONGUEING, AND GROOVING, 89
VII. THE YOUNG MECHANIC AT THE LATHE, 103
VIII. ON WOODS AND MATERIALS FOR TURNING, 122
IX. SHARPENING AND SETTING TOOLS, 144
X. HAND-TURNING IN WOOD, 163
XI. HARD-WOOD TURNING, 203
XII. HOW TO MAKE A STEAM-ENGINE, 226
XIII. WATT’S ENGINE, 264
XIV. HOW TO MAKE AN ENGINE, 281
XV. HARDENING AND TEMPERING TOOLS, 325
CHAPTER I.
There never was a time when a taste for practical mechanics was so
general among boys as it is now, in this year of grace 1870. There are
comparatively few homes in which evidences of this hobby are not apparent
in every odd nook and corner, in the shape of carpenter’s tools, not
always in first-rate condition, nor by any means generally in their
proper places. A saw here, a hammer there, a gimlet, bradawl, or chisel
elsewhere.
This probably results from the giant strides which have been made of
late years in mechanical enterprise, and the introduction of machinery
into every department, as a means of saving labour and facilitating the
production of the various necessaries of life.
Man is an imitative animal, and in this as in other things “the child
is father to the man;” and hence it comes to pass that the boy whose
eyes are continually resting upon machinery of one sort or another
(agricultural implements, if a villager; engines for planing, sawing,
turning, and so forth, if resident in a town) sooner or later feels an
innate desire to construct models of these gigantic mechanical labourers,
by whose incessant but unfelt toil our several daily needs are so cheaply
and plentifully supplied.
Even if the youthful mind does not always display highly-developed
inventive faculties, there is very generally manifested a desire of
personally constructing some one or more of those articles which conduce
to the gratification of a particular hobby. If the boy has a taste for
natural history, cases and cabinets will be made, for the reception
of eggs, butterflies, and insects, or to contain stuffed specimens of
animals and birds. If he has within him the elements of a sailor, his
ingenuity will be exercised upon model boats and ships. If fond of dumb
pets, rabbit hutches, dove-cots, or cages will afford him opportunities
for the exercise of his constructive powers, and thus the young mechanic
frequently lays the foundation of future eminence in that particular line
of life to which his tastes naturally lead him.
There are few boyish hobbies in which assistance has not of late
years been given by instruction books and guides of a high degree of
excellence—natural history, botany, gardening, rearing and breeding all
manner of pets—to each of these, well-written volumes have been devoted
by able and experienced writers, but mechanical and constructive art
has been somewhat neglected. Here and there, in periodical magazines,
a few pages are dedicated to the subject, but no book about practical
mechanics, written expressly for boys, has yet appeared.
The author of the present volume, himself father of four lads, _all_ of
whom in turn occasionally try their hands at this kind of work, and who
has himself for many years practised the mechanical arts of carpentry,
turning, and model-making, hopes that the hints contained herein may
prove valuable to those young friends whom he now addresses. Some of
the following chapters will be arranged for very little boys, some for
those who are older, while it is believed that other parts of the work
may not prove altogether useless to those who have dropped jacket and
knickerbockers and rejoice in the vigour of manhood. Thus the little boy,
who receives the book as a present, will find it a fast and faithful
friend as his years, and, we trust, knowledge and bodily powers increase.
“_Small boys need few tools, but much perseverance._” Let this be their
motto, as it will stand them in good stead. A pocket-knife, gimlet,
hammer, and a few nails will generally serve their purpose; but there is
one other tool, namely, a square, which is of great importance, and of
which it is well to learn the use as early as possible. A small saw and
a bradawl may also be added to the list, and likewise a chisel half an
inch wide. Thus equipped, a very youthful carpenter can do a good deal,
and, let me tell him, a good deal has been often done without even this
moderate supply of tools. It must be taken for granted that the knife and
chisel are sharp, because blunt tools make bad work, and by far the best
plan for small boys is to get some friend to sharpen them when blunt, as
the operation is not easy and requires practice. It is a very foolish
plan to try and work with a blunt knife, for the fingers are just as much
in danger; and a boy who intends to learn how to use tools must learn at
the commencement to use them with due care, so as not to damage himself.
There are small boxes of tools sold, containing generally a wooden
mallet, saw, plane, chisel, and gimlet, at about 3s. 6d. or even 5s. Such
a box is simply useless. The tools are of iron—will not take a good edge,
and are generally disposed to bend and twist. Avoid these, and buy, or
get a friend to buy, those I have named, of good quality, and be sure to
take care of them, for which purpose you may try your hand at making a
box. For this purpose, you will require some thin board (half-inch thick)
planed on both sides. (The carpenter will prepare this for you.) Let us
see how much you will need. Measure your longest tool, the chisel or
saw, if the latter is quite a small one fit to go into a little box; if
not, it can be hung on a nail, and you can make your box to contain your
knife and chisel and gimlets. I daresay if the box is 9 inches long, 4
inches wide, and 3 inches deep, it will be large enough to take these few
tools, for I have just now measured such a hammer and chisel as I have
recommended, and find them each about 9 inches in length. The top and
bottom of a box should project a little all round, so that you will want
them about an inch and a half wider and longer, which will also allow for
the thickness of the wood; for you must remember we have given the size
of the box _inside_. To make this clear, I shall here give a plan of the
bottom of the box (Fig. 1).
[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
[Illustration: Fig. 3.]
It is 10½ inches long, and 5½ inches wide. The broad black line shows
where the edges of the sides and ends will come, these being half an inch
thick, so that there is a quarter of an inch all round the outside as a
border. Reckon across and you will understand this better. A quarter of
an inch outside, half an inch for the black line (equals three-quarters
of an inch), 4 inches for the _inside_ width, half an inch again for the
black line, and a quarter of an inch outside as before,—altogether making
5½ inches. Now reckon the length. A quarter-inch border, half an inch for
the black line, 9 inches inside, half inch for the second black line,
and another quarter outside—making 10½ inches. You require, therefore,
two boards 10½ inches long and 4½ wide for the top and bottom. Now the
two long sides and the ends are to be 3 inches wide to form the depth of
the box, and here you want no extra _width_, but as the _inside_ of your
box is to be 9 inches long, and the sides are usually nailed over the
ends, like Fig. 2, where I have shown them put together, you see that you
must have the _sides_ as much longer than 9 inches as will allow them to
lap over the ends; that is, half an inch at each end where I have made
them black, or altogether, one inch; so that you will want two pieces 10
inches long and 3 wide. The ends will be also 3 inches wide and 4 inches
the other way, and here no additional size is needed. Now, the usual way
to cut the sides is to get a narrow strip of board of the required width
and thickness, and long enough to make both the sides and ends, just such
a piece as Fig. 3, on which are marked the lines where it will have to be
cut across, and you will easily perceive that you require 28 inches in
length and 3 in width.
But you must understand that when you cut with a saw you waste a little
of the wood, which falls in the shape of sawdust, and so if you did not
allow for this, your box would be too small. The waste depends on the
thickness of the edge of the saw, where you will, if you examine it, see
that the teeth spread out right and left to prevent it from sticking
fast as it is used. Probably, you would waste three-eighths of an inch,
which is nearly half an inch in cutting off the pieces, so that instead
of a piece exactly 28 inches long, you must have it 28½ inches, or even a
little more.
I want you to understand all this before you set to work, even though at
first you may get a carpenter to measure and cut it for you; because most
small boys take no trouble of this kind, and consequently they are sure
to make their boxes too large or too small, and they look very bad when
done. However, as I said before, I expect my young readers to understand
what they are about, and they must set out their work carefully, or they
will never get on so as to be able to make good use of the later chapters
of this book. A carpenter’s rule is made like this (Fig. 4).
[Illustration: Fig. 4.]
Sometimes there is a brass slide, to add to its length when necessary,
and sometimes it is hinged so as to fold up again. If you want one for
your box, you can get it so made, when it will go in nicely. It is 2
feet long—1 foot on each side of the central joint. A foot is 12 inches;
the whole rule, therefore, is 24 inches. Now, you will see that each of
these inches is divided by short lines into eight equal parts, called
eighths; at the second, the line is rather longer, this being a quarter
of an inch; at the fourth, there is a still longer line, this being the
half-inch; then comes another eighth, then the three-quarters, another
eighth, and the inch is made up,—eight-eighths being equal to one whole
inch. Very likely you will find one _edge_ of the rule, or sometimes
only one _inch_, divided into smaller parts, which are sixteenths,
or half-eighths; and sometimes, but not very often, divisions still
smaller are used, which are half-sixteenths, or thirty-seconds, because
thirty-two such divisions make the complete inch. Three feet make one
yard, but carpenters always reckon by the foot and inch, and by eighths
and sixteenths of an inch. In some trades the inch is divided into a
_hundred_ parts, and work is measured up and fitted so carefully, that it
would be considered faulty if a mistake of less than a _thousandth_ of an
inch were made; but you will not yet understand how it is possible even
to _measure_ so very small a quantity. You should certainly learn and
understand how to measure with a common two-foot rule, and when you can
add one to your box of tools, do so.
Now, let us examine the tool called a square, without which the marks
could not readily be drawn as a guide for the saw, where the strip of
board is to be cut to make the sides and ends of the proposed box. Here
is a drawing of one (Fig. 5).
[Illustration: Fig. 5.]
[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
It is a handle and a blade, like a knife half opened, the one being
fixed exactly square, or at right angles with the other. The blade is
thinner than the handle, and when the latter is placed as in Fig. 6,
a line marked across the board against the edge of the blade will be,
of course, square to the side, so that when cut off, the piece will be
like the end of Fig. 6. This is not the shape which the sides of boxes
generally have when made by small boys, because they have not a square,
and do not know how to work properly. Nevertheless, if _one_ end of a
board is cut square, you might get the piece right by measuring the same
distance on each side (say 10½ inches), and drawing a line across from
point to point, as a guide for the course of the saw. But, then, as it is
absolutely necessary that the end of the board should be square to the
side, to do this you had better get a proper square at once, and learn
how to use it. You will, indeed, find this tool most necessary for all
kinds of work, and you will be quite unable to do without it, even though
you only have, besides, a knife and gimlet.
Now, if you want to cut off a piece of board with the saw, you must
_never cut out the line you have marked as a guide by the help of your
square_, because if you do, you will get the piece too short, owing to
the width of the saw-cut which I explained before. Cut, therefore, _just_
beyond it, leaving it upon the piece you are going to use for the side
of your box, or other article. At first, you will find it difficult to
saw neatly and close to the line, but you will get used to it very soon;
and if the saw does not go quite straight, you can trim the piece with
a sharp knife neatly up to the line, which you see you could not do if
you cut out that line by sawing exactly upon it. All these directions
in little matters are very important, because you will find that, by
attending to them, you will work well, and the various things you make
will look neat and trim, and be fit to show to your friends.
Now, let us go on with the box, which was laid down just to allow a
little explanation about the carpenter’s rule and square. I shall suppose
you to have cut off all the pieces quite squarely and neat, and that the
_edges_ are also square to the sides, which you must take care to insure
by keeping the blade of the saw upright when you use it. It is a good
plan to measure and mark _both_ sides of your board for this purpose, and
to mark the edges from one of these lines to the other. You will then
have guide-marks all round, and, by keeping close to these, you will be
sure to cut your work truly. It would not so much signify if the long
sides were cut a trifle _too_ long, as I shall explain presently; but the
_ends_ must be square and true to measure, 4 inches by 3 inches. You must
now proceed to nail them together. This must be done with small _brads_,
which are fine nails, and which for the present purpose may be one inch
long. If your pieces are all exact to measure, draw a pencil line across
the two side pieces, a quarter of an inch from the ends, by the help of
the square, as if you wanted to cut off a quarter of an inch at each of
those parts, and with your bradawl make two or three holes (three will
be best) along those lines. Do not make the first and last too near the
edges, or you will split the wood, and spoil the box. Now set up one of
the short pieces, and place upon it the piece which you have bored holes
in. If you have a bench with a vice, you can screw up the short piece
into it; but it will stand up very well upon the bench if you have no
vice. It is now in the position of Fig. 7, C.
[Illustration: Fig. 7.]
Hold it thus, and run the bradawl a little way into the lower piece,
through the holes already made in the upper. Drive a brad through the
middle hole first, which will hold it together, and then through the
other two holes. If you have been careful, you will find this corner
square and neat, and the wood not split in the least. Do the same with
the other short piece, and then nail on the long side that is left. The
frame of the box will now be complete.
I told you a short time ago, that it would not much signify if the
_sides_ were cut too long. The reason is this: Suppose B to be the side
half an inch too long. You would mark off 9 inches of the middle by two
lines drawn with the square as before, which would be the length of the
_inside_ of the box; you would then place the inner edges of the end
pieces against these lines, and nail them on like A, and afterwards
neatly saw off the two pieces which lap over these at each end. If the
wood is likely to split when the holes are made for the nails, or if the
workman is pressed for time, he very frequently does his work in this
way, and then cuts it off and planes it neatly. It is, however, better to
work as directed, only be sure to bore holes carefully for the nails, so
as never to split the wood.
No very special directions are needed about putting on the bottom. Leave
all round an exactly even border of a quarter of an inch, and after it
is nailed, you may neatly round off all its edges, to give it a finished
appearance.
The cover is, of course, to be attached by a pair of small hinges. Brass
hinges are the neatest, and when you buy them, ask for screws to match.
The hinges may be three-quarters of an inch long, and they will be, when
shut, about half an inch wide, which is the size you need. Lay them
(shut up) upon the edge of the back, about two inches from the ends,
and with a hard pencil cut to a fine point, or with the point of your
bradawl, make a mark at each end, as if you were measuring the length of
the hinges on the edge of the box. Between these marks you have to cut
out pieces like Fig. 8, which will be just the length of the hinges, and
deep enough to allow them, when shut up, to fit and lie even with the
top edge of the box. Open them, make holes with the bradawl, and put in
the screws. If you have not a screwdriver, you can turn them with the
end of an old knife; but you may as well get a small screwdriver, for if
you intend to do good work, you will often use screws instead of nails.
Hinges are always screwed on. Now lay the cover in place carefully, mark
its position, so that you have some sort of guide-line to direct you,
and then by laying the cover flat on the bench, and standing the (open)
box on its side, you can screw on the hinges upon the cover. Round all
the edges of the cover as you did the bottom, but keep the edges of the
_box_ square and _sharp_; and so you have now a really well-made little
tool-chest. A little brass hook and eye will do to fasten it, for a lock
is rather difficult for a small boy to put on.
[Illustration: Fig. 8.]