THE STURLUNGS IN ICELAND.
During the reign of Haakon Haakonsson lived the renowned Icelandic
historian, Snorre Sturlasson. It is due to him that the ancient history
of Norway has been saved from oblivion. His great work, called
_Heimskringla_ (the Circle of the Earth), after the words with which it
begins, is a coherent and in the main reliable record of the events
which took place in Norway from the time of Harold the Fairhaired down
to the Battle of Ree in 1177. The more or less mythical history which
precedes the reign of Harold is also included, though it can scarcely,
in many features, lay claim to credibility. The style is clear and
vigorous, and the characterizations are extremely vivid. Scaldic lays
are introduced into the text as evidences of the veracity of the
narrative, and anecdotes are preserved which throw a strong light upon
the characters of the heroes. The Heimskringla is, accordingly, not a
loose conglomeration of fact and fiction, such as monkish chroniclers in
the Middle Ages were in the habit of composing, but a historic work of
high rank, betraying a mature critical spirit and artistic taste, in
style and arrangement. Several scaldic lays are also attributed to
Snorre, besides portions of the Younger Edda--a collection of myths and
legends, dealing with the traditions of the ancient Asa faith. It is as
editor and collector, however, not as author, that he is here entitled
to credit.
Snorre Sturlasson was born in Iceland in 1178, and was, at the age of
three, adopted by the great chieftain, Jon Loftsson, a grandson of
Saemund the Learned. His father was Sturla Thordsson, a high-born but
turbulent man, and his mother, Gudny Boedvar's daughter. Jon Loftsson had
inherited a very considerable collection of historical MSS. from his
grandfather, Saemund, and his house was the home of the best culture
which the island at that time possessed. Snorre, though any thing but a
book-worm, became interested in the myths and tales of paganism, and by
intercourse with his foster-father imbibed a taste for historical
research. After the death of the latter in 1198, he found himself
penniless, his mother having wasted his paternal inheritance. In order
to maintain his dignity, he was therefore obliged to look about for a
rich marriage, and by the aid of his brothers succeeded in gaining the
hand of the wealthiest heiress in Iceland. He now devoted himself to the
task of increasing his power. By shrewd bargaining, by intimidation, and
by open violence he gained possession of six large estates and amassed
an enormous fortune. Iceland, at that time, was torn with factional
feuds, and Snorre understood to perfection the art of fishing in
troubled waters. He was a man of energetic and determined character--a
man of large plans and few scruples. There is a vigorous worldliness
visible in all his acts, and a prudent adaptation of means to ends. At
his residence, Reykjaholt, which he fortified, improved, and beautified
in a manner, the like of which had never been seen in Iceland, he lived
like a prince, maintaining an armed force which seemed to threaten the
republic. Ruins of his bath-house are yet to be seen, and yet bear his
name (Snorrelaug). The bath was built of hewn stones, and the hot water
was conducted by a stone aqueduct from the neighboring geysers.
[Illustration: HOeRGADAL IN THE NORTH OF ICELAND.]
Snorre had two brothers, Thord and Sighvat. The former was of a quiet
disposition, and not over-ambitious, while the latter was Snorre's
counterpart, and like him engaged in increasing his fortune by trickery
and violence.
Two men, thus constituted, would scarcely be restrained by their
fraternal relation, when their interests clashed; and before long, we
find Sighvat and Snorre at swords' points.
By the weight of his influence, Snorre gradually absorbed the more
important offices in the gift of his countrymen. Thus he was, in 1215,
elected speaker of the law, and in this capacity came in conflict with
his foster-brother, Saemund Jonsson, who took exception to one of his
rulings. The Icelandic Althing was both a legislative assembly and a
supreme court, and it was the duty of the speaker in legal cases to
decide what was law. If any of the contending parties rejected the
decision of the Althing, an appeal to the sword was always open to him.
The law was a consultative, not an absolute power, and depended upon
its fairness for its authority. Snorre, whose duty it was to give weight
to the law, had so small respect for his office, that he appeared with
eight hundred and forty armed men, determined to overawe his opponents.
A compromise was with difficulty arranged, but the seed of mischief had
been sown, and was not slow to sprout and bear fruit.
Snorre's fame had, in the meanwhile, reached Norway, and many honorable
invitations were extended to him from the foremost chieftains of the
land. Accordingly he set sail in 1218, with a large train of followers,
visited King Haakon and Earl Skule, and gained the latter's friendship.
The king made him his liegeman, and it is said that Snorre promised
Skule to bring Iceland under the dominion of the mother country. The
plan was a tempting one. If by the surrender of the liberties of the
island, he could attain the dignity of Earl of Iceland, he could, at one
blow, by Skule's aid, crush all his enemies, and reign undisputed as the
first man in the land. On his return home, however, he discovered that
the obstacles in his way were greater than he had anticipated. It
appears, even, that he repented of his rash promise, and was anxious to
postpone the day of its fulfilment. Whether, in his subsequent
machinations, he meant to secure his own predominance, as a means to
carrying out his bargain with the earl, is difficult to determine.
In 1222 Snorre's rival and bitterest enemy, Saemund Jonsson, died, and
his children, who were at variance about an inheritance from their
uncle, Orm Jonsson, called upon Snorre to arbitrate between them. They
did this, not because they loved him and had confidence in his fairness,
but because they feared him and were anxious to have the old feud
terminated. Snorre understood this perfectly, and had no hesitation in
taking advantage of his position. Having recently been separated from
his wife, he saw a chance of further enriching himself by marrying the
beautiful Solveig, the sister of the contending brothers. He accordingly
divided the inheritance so as to give her the lion's share; but just as
he seemed to have made sure of his game, his nephew, Sturla Sighvatsson,
stepped up and snatched the girl from his expectant arms. By his unfair
arbitration, he thus benefited the man who was henceforth to become his
most dangerous enemy. Nothing daunted, however, Snorre turned his
attention to another and far wealthier heiress, whom he succeeded in
marrying. By a series of bargains, in which he made an unscrupulous use
of the fear which his name inspired, he continued to increase his
wealth, until his power overshadowed that of all other chieftains in the
island. Sturla, who in shrewdness and daring was more than a match for
his uncle, pursued a similar course, and with the perpetual clashing of
interests their hostility grew more pronounced. Snorre had, in the
meanwhile, by his friendship for Earl Skule, incurred the enmity of King
Haakon. Sturla on his return from a pilgrimage to Rome, succeeded in
gaining the king's confidence, and in deepening his distrust of Snorre.
He made now the same bargain with the king that his uncle had previously
made with Skule, promising, in return for the dignity of Earl of
Iceland, to bring the country under the Norwegian crown. On his return
home, he did not, however, at once venture to attack his rival, but
contented himself with picking quarrels with his son, Uroekja, and his
son-in-law, Gissur Thorvaldsson. The former he captured and maimed, but
in his conflict with the latter he succumbed. In a regular battle, which
was fought in 1238, both Sturla and his father, Sighvat, were killed.
Snorre was at that time in Norway, where he had the imprudence to commit
himself as a partisan of Skule, and thereby still further incensed the
king. Contrary to the command of the latter, he returned to Iceland,
where his predominance seemed now secured. But King Haakon, who
henceforth regarded him as an open enemy, became the means of his
destruction. Snorre had already, by his rapacity and greed, incurred the
hostility of his son-in law, Gissur Thorvaldsson, and with him the king
opened negotiations, demanding of him that he should either kill his
father-in-law or send him as a prisoner to Norway. Gissur accordingly
attacked Snorre at Reykjaholt with seventy armed men, and slew him
(1241).
[Illustration: ALMANNAGJAA WITH THE HILL OF LAWS.]
Snorre's nephew, Sturla Thordsson, who at one time was a great chieftain
and a defender of Icelandic independence, continued the Heimskringla in
his uncle's spirit, writing the Saga of Haakon Haakonsson. This is a
model biography, clearly and vigorously written, and abounding in
interesting details. Another remarkable book, which was written in
Norway during Haakon's reign, is the so-called King's Mirror
(Konungsskuggsja). It contains, in the shape of a dialogue between
father and son, moral teachings and rules of life and conduct. Its
maxims of worldly wisdom and rules of etiquette give a vivid insight
into the modes of life and thought in the thirteenth century.
[Illustration]