to be given and as to the method of giving the training. The decision
will be in such detail as to constitute a general plan, or a proper
basis therefor, from which a detailed plan may be developed.
A detailed training plan, developed from the foregoing decision, will
assemble the necessary information and assumptions, will state the
general plan for training, and will prescribe the appropriate training
tasks. It will also include any proper coordinating measures, make
provision for the logistics of the training plan, and finally provide
for the exercise of command and for supervision over the training.
A training plan may be briefed by annexing appropriate
documents,--e.g., a program and a schedule. The commander will
ordinarily issue a schedule for training to be given under his own
supervision; he will usually issue a program for training to be given
by his subordinates, who will in turn prepare their own schedules.
* * * * *
Subsidiary problems involving intelligence (page 160), when solved by
the procedure distinctive of the first step, call for an intelligence
estimate along the lines indicated, in general, in Chapter VI.
Section I-A of the Estimate will include a summary of the salient
features of the present situation and of the contemplated strategical
and tactical operations. The incentive, to be found in a previous
decision of the commander, will be noted. The assigned objective will
be the making of provision for adequate intelligence of the enemy and
of the theater of operations. The mission will be:--
(Task) To make provision for adequate intelligence of the
enemy and of the theater of operations,
(Purpose) in order to contribute to freedom of action in the
operations contemplated.
Section I-B of the intelligence estimate will take account of the
factors as to intelligence and as to related matters which are noted
in the Estimate Form (Chapter VI) for a basic estimate.
Section II will consider the possible procedures for obtaining
information, i.e., for its collection, including reports from
collecting agencies.
Section III will consider the capabilities of the enemy as to
counter-intelligence measures.
Section IV will compare the various procedures open for the collection
of information and for reports thereof.
Section V will include a decision as to the essential elements of
information desired. The decision will be in sufficient detail to
serve as a general plan (or a basis therefor), to be developed into a
detailed plan for obtaining information and for converting it into
intelligence.
A detailed intelligence plan will include appropriate information and
assumptions. It will state the general plan for obtaining
intelligence. This statement will include the essential elements of
information desired. The plan will include appropriate tasks for
information-collecting agencies, with times and destinations for
reports of information. The task for each collecting agency will be
based on the general plan (above); such task will also be
synchronized with the projected operations prescribed for such agency
in current Operation Orders (Chapter VIII). The agency's inherent
capabilities--its limitations as well as its powers--will be given
due consideration. Requests to be made on collecting agencies not
under the commander's control will be noted in the information (as to
own forces) given in the plan (see above).
Logistics arrangements will include, for example, provisions for
handling prisoners of war, the disposition of captured documents and
other materials, and the supply of maps, charts, and photographs.
Counter intelligence measures will be specified where applicable.
These include such matters as censorship, press relations, camouflage,
and propaganda. Finally, the plan will include provision for the
rendition of routine and special reports, for special charts (or maps)
accompanying or pertinent to such reports, and for any intelligence
conferences.
The essential elements of information desired are frequently stated in
question form. Each question deals with an enemy course of action or
with one or more of the enemy operations pertaining to such a course
(page 161).
The tasks assigned to collecting agencies, or the requests made on
collecting agencies not under the commander's control, will call for
information (negative, if desired, as well as positive) as to specific
indications of the enemy's action--past, present, or intended--and of
the characteristics of the theater as related thereto. The indications
to be sought for and reported are carefully determined by the
commander in expectation that information obtained as to such matters
will enable him to draw conclusions which will answer the questions
posed by the essential elements of information.
For example, essential elements of information, with corresponding
indications, may be as follows:
Essential Elements Indications
1. Will the enemy patrol the a. Presence or absence of enemy
trade route from A to B? forces (number and types of
vessels) between meridians--and--,
as far north as--and as far
south as--.
b. Times enemy forces observed
in area noted.
c. Apparent activity of enemy
forces so noted.
2. Will the enemy cover focal a. Presence or absence of enemy
points M and N? forces (numbers and types of
vessels) in (a specified area
or areas).
b. Times enemy forces observed
in areas noted in a, above.
c. Apparent activity of enemy so
noted.
d. Has M or N been prepared
as a naval base; an air base
for seaplanes, for land planes?
Is M or N readily accessible to
enemy battleships? What are
the characteristics of the
available entrances to sheltered
anchorages? (Etc.)
Another type of subsidiary problem which may call for a separate
subsidiary plan relates to logistics (page 162). This problem is
particularly applicable to the planning stage, because the
contingencies which it involves can, to a considerable degree, be
foreseen. In this case the situation which the commander usually
desires to bring about is adequate freedom of action with respect to
supply and related matters. He wishes to solve this problem so
completely during the present step that a logistics plan, concurrently
executed with his basic plan, will require minimum subsequent
attention.
A logistics estimate by the procedure distinctive of the first step
will include in Section I-A a summary of the pertinent features of the
existing strategical and tactical situation, and of contemplated
strategical and tactical operations. It will also include a statement
of the salient features of the existing logistics situation. The
incentive, to be found in a previous decision of the commander, will
be noted. The assigned objective will be the making of adequate
provision for logistics support. The mission will be:--
(Task) to make provision for adequate logistics support,
(Purpose) in order to contribute to freedom of action in the
operations contemplated. (In each particular case the
operations contemplated will be indicated by proper
phraseology in the mission or by reference to the summary of
the situation).
Section I-B of the estimate will take account of the logistics factors
cited in the Estimate Form (Chapter VI) for a basic estimate, but will
specify details to the further extent necessary.
Section II will discuss the various possible procedures for affording
appropriate logistics support of the various categories.
Section III will discuss enemy actions to hamper or prevent adequate
logistics support.
Section IV will deal with selection of the best logistics procedure.
Section V will state the decision as to the essential elements of the
logistics support to be afforded, in such detail as will constitute a
general plan (or a proper basis therefor) from which a detailed plan
can be developed.
A detailed logistics plan, developed from the foregoing estimate, will
assemble the necessary information and assumptions. It will state the
general plan for logistics support. It will then provide for
appropriate action as to each type of logistics support, or will state
proper tasks for the several subdivisions of the force concerned
therewith. It will include, also, any coordinating measures. It will,
finally, make provision for exercise of command with reference to
logistics support, as well as for any necessary or desirable time
elements and similar considerations.
* * * * *
From all of the foregoing discussions it is apparent that the numerous
possible subsidiary problems are all related to the basic problem
either directly or through an intervening subsidiary problem. The
nature of this relationship is seen through the (subsidiary) purpose,
determined for the particular (subsidiary) task; therefore, the
understanding of the problem involves a statement or visualization of
the (subsidiary) purpose in each case.
PART III
THE EXERCISE OF PROFESSIONAL JUDGMENT
IN THE EXECUTION OF THE PLAN
CHAPTER VIII
THE INAUGURATION OF THE PLANNED ACTION
(The Third Step--The Formulation and Issue of Directives)
In the discussion which now follows, it is demonstrated that,
if the second step (Chapter VII) has been carried through
completely, the formulation of directives requires only the
completion of details of the Order Form, which is explained.
The various types of naval plans and directives are also
described.
Scope of the Third Step. As previously stated (in Chapter V, on page
107), the inauguration of the planned action (the third step) begins
when the commander forms the intention of immediately promulgating, as
one or more directives, his solution of the problem represented by the
second step. The third step ends at the moment when the problem
becomes one of supervising the planned action in the course of its
execution.
Military Plans and Military Directives. A plan is a proposed scheme,
procedure, or method of action for the attainment of an objective. It
is one of the essential links between decision and action.
A directive, in the general sense, initiates or governs conduct or
procedure. It is the means by which one's will or intent is made known
to others. Sometimes the word is employed as a synonym for "order"; at
others, it carries the significance of various instructions ranging
from the simple to the complex; at still others, it denotes a plan
formulated to be placed in effect in a particular contingency or when
so directed. In all cases, a directive, to be suitable as a guide for
others, has as its origin a plan.
The words plan and directive are used herein as follows:--A plan may
exist only in the mind. Even if formulated and set down in writing, it
may receive no distribution. A plan continues to be exclusively a plan
so long as it concerns the originating commander alone, and it never
loses its identity as a proposed procedure or method of action. When,
however, the commander forms the intent of promulgating the plan
immediately, the plan becomes also a directive. At this point, as
noted in the preceding paragraph ("Scope of the Third Step"), the
execution phase begins, from the standpoint of the exercise of mental
power, with the inauguration of the planned action.
A directive may therefore be (1) an order effective upon receipt, in
which case it may be an order placing in effect a plan already issued;
or a directive may be (2) a formulated plan which the commander
intends to issue immediately to his subordinates.
Accordingly, certain written instruments prepared under the
designation of plans are also included under the classification of
directives. In the use of these terms hereinafter, the distinction
between a plan viewed as a basis for a directive, and a plan intended
to be promulgated as a directive, will be indicated in the context.
Whether written or mental, the complete plan will cover the scope of
the Decision, and will be the commander's method of procedure for his
future conduct of operations. A commander may, or may not, formulate
his complete plan in writing, or embody it in a formal directive which
will provide for the execution, in full, of the Decision of his
estimate. He may find that his plan divides into several parts, and he
may make separate provision for the execution of each of these parts.
While the integrity of a plan depends upon the soundness of its
essential details, the plan is properly formulated as a directive or
directives projected in detail, only so far into the future as the
commander's estimate of the situation assures him of reasonable
freedom of action (see page 57).
Where the commander divides his plan into parts for separate
accomplishment, he will naturally exercise care that each part is, in
itself, the suitable basis for a complete and homogeneous plan.
Successful execution of all these plans results in the complete
accomplishment of his Decision.
Directives required to further the success of a particular operation
may be issued without awaiting formulation of the entire plan. Parts
of the plan may be transmitted as fragmentary directives to guide the
action of subordinates in instantaneous or early execution. Such cases
are far more frequent than are those in which a formal written plan,
to guide either the operations in their entirety or a part thereof, is
prepared and distributed as a directive. Effective action by the
subordinate is thus not delayed by the absence of complete written
directives.
The commander, more especially during war, may be the only individual
who is conversant with the entire plan. He may consider that the
necessity for secrecy is paramount, or that there are features to
whose details he is unwilling to commit himself until the situation is
clearer. However, he may usually expect to disclose its scope and
general features to his immediate superior, and the plan in its
entirety to his next junior; or, in the interests of mutual
understanding, to all his subordinates of the next lower echelon or
even to his entire command. The scope of the plan also may be a
determining factor. If the plan covers an entire campaign or an
extended series of operations, its dissemination is less likely and
less general than if it is concerned with only a minor operation.
During peace, in exercises simulating war, the complete plan is
frequently given circulation for purposes of training.
Subsidiary Plans. Subsidiary plans, discussed in Chapter VII (page
168), are frequently issued as annexes to the Operation Plan (page
196) which carries into effect the basic Decision. The commander will
be the judge as to whether alternative subsidiary plans are necessary
or desirable under the circumstances.
Essentials of Military Directives.
General. By the issue of directives, a commander communicates to his
subordinates his plans or such parts of them as he desires. Directives
may be oral or written, or may be transmitted by despatch.
Whether a directive is to be effective upon receipt, or under
specified conditions, or at a specific time, or upon further
instructions from the commander, will be evident from its nature, or
will be prescribed in the body of the directive itself.
The manner of determining the details of a plan has been discussed in
Chapter VII. The matter contained therein is pertinent to the
preparation of a plan that is not to be issued as a directive as well
as to one that is to be so issued.
The various categories of directives customarily employed in our naval
service, and standard forms for these, are described hereinafter.
The essentials of a military directive which is designed to govern the
execution of a plan are:
(a) That it indicate the general plan for the common effort
of the entire force.
(b) That it organize the force with a view to the effective
accomplishment of this plan.
(c) That it assign tasks to the subdivisions of the force,
such that the accomplishment of these tasks will result in
the accomplishment of the plan adopted for the entire
force.
(d) That it make appropriate provision for coordination among
subdivisions, for logistics support, and for the
collection of information and the dissemination of
intelligence, that it state the conditions under which the
plan is to become effective; and that it indicate the
location of the commander during the period of execution.
Some of these essentials may have found their expression in previous
instructions, or may be unnecessary because of the state of mutual
understanding. On the other hand, the directive may include annexes in
the form of alternative and subsidiary plans, letters of instructions
(page 188), and other material designed to be of assistance in the
intelligent accomplishment of the assigned task.
In issuing a directive, whether written or oral, except such a
fragmentary order as has previously been described (page 184), a
commander has the following definite responsibilities:
(a) To ensure that subordinates understand the
situation,--therefore, to give them pertinent available
information.
(b) To set forth clearly the general plan to be carried out by
his entire force, as well as the tasks to be accomplished
by each subdivision of his force.
(c) To provide each of these subdivisions with adequate means
to accomplish its assigned task.
(d) To allow subordinate commanders appropriate discretion
within the limits of their assigned tasks, without,
however, sacrifice of the necessary coordination.
He will also bear in mind that a directive will best convey his will
and intent and will be most easily understood by his subordinates if
it is clear, brief, and positive.
Clarity demands the use of precise expressions susceptible of only the
desired interpretation. Normally, the affirmative form is preferable
to the negative. The importance of clarity has been summed up in the
saying, "An order which can be misunderstood will be misunderstood".
If misunderstandings arise on the part of trained subordinates the
chief fault often lies with the person who issued the directive.
Brevity calls for the omission of superfluous words and of unnecessary
details. Short sentences are ordinarily more easily and rapidly
understood than longer ones. Brevity, however, is never to be sought
at the expense of clarity. The attainment of brevity often requires
considerable expenditure of effort and of time. But time is not to be
sacrificed in the interests of obtaining brevity in directives, when
the proper emphasis should rather be on initiating early action.
Positiveness of expression suggests the superior's fixity of purpose,
with consequent inspiration to subordinates to prosecute their tasks
with determination. The use of indefinite and weakening expressions
leads to suspicion of vacillation and indecision. Such expressions
tend to impose upon subordinates the responsibilities which belong to
and are fully accepted by a resolute superior.
Restatement of the Decision for Use in the Directive
Except where special considerations exist to the contrary, it will be
found that the expression of the Decision for use in a directive will
most clearly indicate the intent of the commander if stated in terms
of the objective to be attained by his force (i.e., of the situation
to be created or maintained) and of the outlined action for its
attainment (page 104). Such expression is usually possible in problems
of broad strategical scope (page 88). In other cases difficulty may be
encountered. For instance, in tactical problems dealing with the
detailed employment of weapons, the action may necessarily be couched
in the terms of a series of acts (see page 95).
No precise form is prescribed; thoughts clearly expressed are more
important than form. It is customary to begin with "This force (or
group) will", and then state with brevity the Decision as (and if)
modified, adding the motivating task which is the purpose of the
Decision. The motivating task is connected with the preceding
statement by words such as "in order to", "to assist in", or
"preparatory to", as the case may be.
Since his original expression of the Decision in the first step
(Chapter VI), the commander has studied the operations required to
carry it out. He therefore has gained a knowledge, which he did not
then have, of how his action is to be carried out. He may now be able
to compile a brief of these operations, applicable to all of them and
therefore informative to all subordinate commanders. He may be able to
say how, or even where and when, the effort of his force will be
exerted.
As an illustration, if his Decision is "to destroy enemy battle-line
strength", his operations might be described "by gun action at long
range during high visibility". Should the commander, solely for the
purpose of making his intent clearer to his subordinate commanders,
now decide to include the latter phrase in the re-wording of his
Decision, he may do so at this point.
It may sometimes be necessary to restate the Decision for another
reason. It will be recalled that the commander is frequently obliged
to recognize that he cannot carry out all of these operations, and
that he therefore decides to issue a directive to carry out certain
ones selected for the first stage (page 164). In such a case, he may
not now be able to use the full Decision as originally determined. In
that event he couches the Decision in terms of the partial
accomplishment inherent in the operations to be undertaken.
Standard Forms for Plans and Directives
Form. Experience has shown that military directives usually give best
results if cast in a standard form well known alike to originator and
recipient. Such a form tends to prevent the omission of relevant
features, and to minimize error and misunderstanding. However, a
commander may find that lack of opportunity to facilitate mutual
understanding by personal conference requires that one or more
subordinates receive instructions in greater detail than a standard
form seems to permit. A letter of instructions may then be
appropriate. The commander himself is the best judge as to the
application of a form to his needs of the moment, and as to the
necessity for adherence to form in whatever particular.
Useful as form is, it is important to keep in mind that it is the
servant and not the master.
The standard form in use in our naval service, long known as the Order
Form, is applicable, with certain modifications, to all written plans
and directives.
The Order Form will now be described in detail from the standpoint of
its general application to all classes of directives, including the
commander's written plan, whether or not promulgated as a directive.
The Order Form. Because of established usage, and for other reasons
noted hereinafter, it is desirable that certain clerical details be
handled as follows:
(a) To minimize errors, all numerals are spelled out, except
paragraph numbers and those in the heading.
(b) For emphasis, and to minimize errors, all geographical
names and names of vessels are spelled entirely with
capitals.
(c) To standardize arrangement and facilitate reading, a
narrow left-hand margin is left abreast the heading and
the task organization, and a wider margin is left abreast
the paragraphs.
(d) For the same reasons, the main paragraph numbers are
indented in the wider margin.
(e) For emphasis, the task-force or task-group titles of the
task organization, wherever occurring, are underlined.
The sequence in which the subject matter is presented is a logical
arrangement which experience has shown to be effective. Since every
item has a definite place in the form, formulation is simplified, and
ready reference is facilitated.
In a written directive, the prescribed paragraph numbering is always
followed, even if no text is inserted after a number. This practice
serves as a check against accidental omission, and as confirmatory
evidence that omissions are intentional. For example, if there is no
new information to be disseminated, the paragraph number "1" is
written in its proper place, followed by the words "No further
information".
When the subject matter to be presented under any one paragraph is
voluminous, it may be broken up into a number of subparagraphs. Except
in paragraph 3, these subparagraphs are unlettered.
The Heading contains:
In the upper right-hand corner in the following sequence:
(a) The title of the issuing officer's command, such as
NORTHERN SCOUTS, or ADVANCED FORCE, etc., preceded by the
titles, in proper order within the chain of command, of
all superior echelons or of such higher echelons as will
ensure adequate identification.
(b) The name of the flagship, as U.S.S. AUGUSTA, Flagship.
(c) The place of issue: for example, NEWPORT, R.I., or, At
Sea, Lat. 34 deg.-40' N., Long. 162 deg.-20' W.
(d) The time of issue: that is, the month, day, year, and
hour; for example, July 12, 1935; 1100.
In the upper left-hand corner in the following sequence:
(e) The file notations and classification: SECRET or
CONFIDENTIAL, the classification being underlined and
spelled with capitals. This classification is repeated on
succeeding pages,
(f) The type and serial number of the directive, such as
Operation Plan No. 5, the words Operation Plan being
underlined. This is repeated on succeeding pages.
The Body. The task organization, which consists of a tabular
enumeration of task forces or task groups, the composition of each,
and the rank and name of its commander, is the beginning of the body
of the directive. It is customary to omit the name of the issuing
officer from any task force or task group commanded by him. Any unit
included in a force named in the task organization is, by virtue of
that fact, directed to act under the command of the commander of the
specified force.
When so desired for additional ready identification, task forces and
their subdivisions may be numbered. In our naval service, systematic
methods for such numerical designation are indicated from time to time
by proper authority. Numerals for this purpose are entered in the task
organization to the left of the title of each appropriate task force
or subdivision thereof. The numerals may be placed in parentheses.
The directive is addressed for action solely to the commanders of the
task forces or task groups listed in the task organization.
Train vessels assigned exclusively to particular combatant task forces
are listed among the units of those forces in the task organization.
If the directive is to be used for assigning tasks involving
strategical or tactical movement directly to the Train, or to any
Train units, such units are grouped together to form a separate task
force. If instructions to the Train are to be issued in another
directive, the Train need not appear as a separate force in the task
organization. As a matter of general custom, the Train is usually not
included as a task force unless it is to accompany, or act in tactical
concert with, some one or more of the combatant task forces listed.
Each task force named in this table, together with its numerical
designation, is preceded by a separate letter, (a), (b), (c), etc.,
and its assigned task is set forth in a similarly lettered
subparagraph in paragraph 3.
Paragraph 1 is the information paragraph. It contains such available
information of enemy and own forces as is necessary for subordinates
to understand the situation and to cooperate efficiently. Paragraph 1
contains no part of the tasks assigned by the commander. Information
of the enemy and that of own forces, and assumptions where pertinent,
are usually set forth in separate unlettered subparagraphs.
When deemed advisable, unless secrecy or other considerations forbid,
paragraph 1 may include statements of the general plans of various
higher echelons in the chain of command. A statement of the general
plan of the next higher commander will frequently be included. For the
same reasons, the commander will often include in this paragraph a
statement of his own assigned task, unless, of course, this point is
adequately covered in the statement of his general plan in paragraph
2. Inclusion of such matters may enable subordinates to gain a clearer
visualization of the relationships existing among the several
objectives envisaged by the higher command.
To promote cooperation, paragraph 1 may also state the principal tasks
of coordinate forces of the commander's own echelon; for like reasons,
the principal tasks of other task forces of the command not listed in
the task organization may be included. Where the immediate superior
has prescribed particular methods to other forces for cooperation and
security, these may also be set forth as a matter of information. (See
page 167.)
In this paragraph, distinction is drawn between information which is
based upon established facts, and that of merely probable accuracy.
The latter is not to be confused with assumptions which, in Operation
Plans, are accepted as a basis. (See page 155.)
When writing their own information paragraphs, subordinate commanders
do not necessarily copy verbatim the information contained in the
order of their superior. Good procedure calls for them to digest that
information, select what is essential, and present it with any
additional information considered necessary. Care is taken to include
necessary information of coordinate task forces.
Paragraph 2 states the general plan of the complete force under the
command of the officer who issued the directive. If several directives
are issued for carrying out a single, complete plan (see, for example,
discussion of fragmentary orders, page 184), then paragraph 2 is
usually the same in all of them. The amount of detail given in this
paragraph is sufficient to ensure a clear comprehension by the
subordinates as to what is to be accomplished by the force as a whole.
It is customary to begin with the words, "This force will", followed
by a statement of the general plan and, unless secrecy or other
considerations forbid, by the purpose of the effort embodied therein.
(See Restatement of the Decision, page 187).
Paragraph 3 assigns individual tasks to all of the task forces listed
in the task organization. This paragraph is divided into as many
subparagraphs, (a), (b), (c), etc., as there are task forces
enumerated in the task organization. Each subparagraph commences with
the designating letter in parentheses, followed by the title of the
task force, underlined.
Normally the tasks for each task force are stated in order of their
importance. If preferred, however, the sequence of tasks may be
chronological, i.e., in the order of their execution. Each method has
certain advantages, according to the nature of the situation. Where
the chronological sequence is utilized, that fact is clearly
indicated, in order to avoid confusion. (See also page 166). After the
statement of the tasks, these subparagraphs conclude with such
detailed instructions as are necessary.
In cases where the entire force is listed in the task organization,
the proper formulation of tasks requires that the accomplishment of
all the tasks of paragraph 3 result in the accomplishment of the
general plan set forth for the entire force in paragraph 2. On the
other hand, where several directives are issued, each to a different
part of the force, with a paragraph 2 common to all, then the
accomplishment of the tasks of all of the paragraphs 3, of the several
directives is properly equivalent to the accomplishment of the general
plan prescribed in the common paragraph 2.
Where two or more task forces have identical task assignments, only
the common subparagraph need be written after the title of the task
forces concerned, thus:
(a) Submarine Detachment,
(b) Air Patrol, (assignment of the common task or tasks).
If the Train has been included as a separate force of the task
organization, it will be given its tasks as to tactical and
strategical movement in a separate subparagraph of paragraph 3.
In order to avoid repetition, task assignments and instructions which
apply to all task forces, or which pertain to the general conduct of
the operation, are embodied in a final subparagraph, designated as
3(x). It is particularly necessary that there be included in this
subparagraph the measures (e.g., as to cooperation, security,
intelligence, and the like) pertaining to freedom of action and
applicable to the force as a whole. Any tasks or instructions
applicable to individual task forces, only, will have been included in
the appropriate earlier subparagraph(s) (i.e., 3 (a), (b), (c), etc.).
To avoid repetition in these subparagraphs, coordinating instructions
applying to more than one task force may also be included, when
convenient to do so, in paragraph 3 (x).
Paragraph 3 (x) of Operation Plans and Battle Plans prescribes, in
addition to other applicable matters, the time and/or manner of
placing the plan in effect.
Paragraph 4 is the logistics paragraph. It sets forth the availability
of services and supplies, and describes and gives effect to the
general plan for the logistics support of the operation. If the
information and instructions as to logistics are long and detailed,
they may be embodied in a separate logistics plan, which is referred
to in paragraph 4, and is attached as an annex.
Paragraph 4 is not used for assigning tasks as to movement, either for
the Train or for any other subdivision of the force.
Paragraph 5 is the command paragraph. It contains instructions
considered necessary for the control of the command during the
operation, such as the plan of communications, zone time to be used,
rendezvous, and location of the commander. Paragraph 5 completes the
body.
The Ending consists of the signature, the list of annexes, the
distribution, and the authentication, as noted below:
The Signature of the commander issuing the directive, with his
rank and command title, is placed at the end, for example:
John Doe, Vice Admiral, Commander Northern Scouts.
Annexes consist of amplifying instructions which are so
extensive as to make them undesirable for inclusion in the
directive itself. They contain detailed instructions, in
written form or in the form of charts or sketches. Separate
Communications, Logistics, Sortie, Movement, Cruising,
Intelligence, Scouting, Screening, Approach and Deployment
Plans may be, and frequently are, disseminated as annexes to a
directive. Alternative Plans may also be annexed.
Annexes are referred to in the appropriate paragraph of the
body of the directive, and are listed and serially lettered in
capitals at the end near the left-hand margin, immediately
below the body and the signature, and above the distribution.
The Distribution indicates to whom the directive will be
transmitted and the medium of transmission. The recording of
this distribution in the directive is essential for the
information of all concerned.
Standard distribution may be indicated, as Distribution I, II,
etc.
Authentication. Unless signed by the issuing officer, each
copy of the directive distributed is authenticated by the
signature, rank, and designation of the Flag Secretary, with
the addition of the seal whenever possible.
Campaign Plans. Campaign Plans (see page 196), when communicated to
officers on the highest echelons, are usually, in the Order Form,
modified as follows:
Heading. No change.
Task Organization. Not usually used.
Paragraph 1. In addition to the information to be furnished,
a statement is given of the assumptions (page 155)
forming the basis of the plan.
Paragraph 2. No change.
Paragraph 3. This shows the stages into which the campaign has
been divided; the several operations which will be
undertaken in each stage, and the order of their
accomplishment; and usually the forces to be made
available for the first stage.
Paragraph 4. No change.
Paragraph 5. No change.
If it be found desirable, however, to employ a letter of instructions
instead of a formal directive, this may be done. In this case the
letter sets forth the essential features of the subject matter as
above described for the Order Form.
Sample Outline Form. For convenient reference, the outline form of an
Operation Plan is appended (see page 219). The Operation Order follows
the same form, the essential difference being that the Operation Order
makes no provision for assumptions, and is effective upon receipt
unless otherwise provided in the body of the Order.
Types of Naval Directives
Naval directives in common use are: War Plans, Campaign Plans,
Operation Plans, Operation Orders, Battle Plans, and Battle Orders.
Basic War Plans designate operating forces, assign broad strategical
tasks to these forces, and, where required, delimit theaters of
operations. These plans also assign duties to the supporting services
such as naval communications, etc. Requirements as to logistics plans
are also included. Accepted usage designates, as Contributory Plans,
the subsidiary plans which are prepared in support of Basic War Plans.
Campaign Plans. A campaign, as initially visualized, is a clearly
defined major stage of a war. A campaign, after it has passed into
history, sometimes bears the name of a leader, or a seasonal or
geographical designation. It may consist of a single operation, or of
successive or concurrent operations. The operations of a campaign have
properly a definite objective, the attainment or abandonment of which
marks the end of the campaign. (See also page 37, as to operations.)
A Campaign Plan indicates what might be called the "schedule of
strategy" which the commander intends to employ to attain his ultimate
objective for the campaign. Such a plan usually sets forth the stages
into which he proposes to divide the campaign, shows their sequence,
and outlines:
(a) The general plan for the entire campaign.
(b) The general plan involved in each stage and the order of
accomplishment, so far as the commander has been able to project his
action into the future, and usually,
(c) The forces to be made available for the first stage. The Campaign
Plan is primarily for the guidance of the commander himself. When
necessary for information or approval, it is forwarded to higher
authority. To provide the necessary background, it may sometimes be
furnished to the principal subordinates. In any case, the interests of
secrecy demand that its distribution be extremely limited.
Operation Plans. An Operation Plan may cover projected operations, or
may be contingent upon the occurrence of a particular event, or
combination of events. It may be issued in advance of the event. It is
placed in effect at a specified time or by special order, as
prescribed in the body of the plan itself. It provides for either a
single operation, or for a connected series of operations to be
carried out simultaneously or in successive steps. It is prepared for
dissemination to task-force commanders.
Usually, an Operation Plan covers more complex operations than does an
Operation Order, and projects operations over a greater time and
space. It allows more latitude to subordinate commanders, and provides
for less direct supervision by the issuing officer. It has typically
the distinguishing feature of including, in paragraph 1, the
assumptions upon which the plan is based.
To provide for eventualities under varying sets of assumptions, the
commander may formulate several alternative Operation Plans (see pages
155 and 156).
Operation Orders. An Operation Order deals with an actual situation,
usually of limited scope, in which the commander considers that he
possesses sufficient reliable information to warrant an expectation
that certain specific operations can be initiated and carried through
to completion as ordered. The Operation Order does not include
assumptions and, unless it contains a proviso to the contrary, is
effective upon receipt.
Under the conditions obtaining in modern warfare, there are few
occasions where the Operation Plan will not accomplish the full
purpose of the Operation Order. The use of the Operation Plan removes
the undesirable feature of imposing possible restriction on the
latitude allowed the subordinate without, in any degree, lessening the
authority of the commander.
Battle Plans. A Battle Plan sets forth methods for the coordinated
employment of forces during battle. If prepared in advance, it usually
is based on certain assumptions which are clearly stated in the plan.
Battle Plans may merely include provisions for a particular combat, or
they may include provisions for a connected series of separate or
coordinate engagements, possibly culminating in a general action, and
all directed toward the early attainment of a specified tactical
objective. Such combats may range in scope from engagements between
small forces to engagements between entire fleets.
Battle Orders are generally limited to the despatches required to
place a Battle Plan in effect, and to direct such changes in plan, or
to initiate such detailed operations, as may be necessary during the
progress of battle.
CHAPTER IX
THE SUPERVISION OF THE PLANNED ACTION
(The Fourth Step)
The discussion in Chapter IX invites attention to the special
considerations which influence the supervision of the planned
action. The Running Estimate, which employs the procedure
typical of the fourth step, is described in detail.
Nature of Discussion. As explained previously (Foreword, page 4), the
vast and important subject of the execution of the plan is treated
herein, as to details, chiefly from the standpoint of the mental
effort.
After the commander has issued a directive placing a plan in effect,
it is his responsibility to supervise the execution of the planned
action. Through the collection, analysis, evaluation, and
interpretation of new information (page 161), he will be able to
maintain a grasp of present progress and of future possibilities. He
will correct deficiencies and errors in the plan and in its execution.
He will guide the direction of effort toward the attainment of the
objective. He will ensure that his forces conform their movement in
correct relation to the physical objectives and to each other. He will
reapportion strength to meet new conditions, through comparison of his
accrued losses with respect to those he has anticipated. He will take
appropriate measures for freedom of action.
If a new plan is needed, the commander will evolve one and adopt it.
If the old plan requires changes as to its larger aspects, he will
make such changes. Otherwise, he will modify details of his plan as
the situation may demand, always, however, endeavoring to retain the
integrity of the larger aspects. He will issue additional directives
as may be required from time to time.
Goal of Planning. The function of planning (Part II, preceding) is to
afford a proper basis for effective execution. Effective action,
therefore, is the goal of planning.
Otherwise, planning is aimless, except as a mental exercise. Such
mental exercise, though it be with no thought of specific application
in the realm of action, has nevertheless the same fundamental aim as
if the planning were so intended. The aim of such mental exercise is
the inculcation of habits of thought which will provide a sound basis
for effective action.
Importance of Execution. Sound planning is, as explained in previous
chapters, the best basis for consistently effective action. Yet,
important as planning is, the effective outcome of plans depends upon
their execution.
While an unsound plan affords no firm basis for successful action,
recognition has long been accorded to the companion fact that a
perfect plan, poorly executed, may not provide as firm a foundation
for success as a reasonably good plan, carried out with resolution.
No plan, moreover, can be confidently expected to anticipate all
eventualities. Notwithstanding every effort to foresee all
possibilities, unexpected changes are to be regarded as normal. This
fact emphasizes the importance of effective supervision of the planned
action.
The importance of such supervision reaches its maximum during actual
hostilities; then (page 4) the necessity for alert supervision creates
an accentuated demand for the intelligent application of mental power
to the solution of military problems. Professional judgment then
assumes supreme importance because vital issues may hinge upon the
decisions reached during the development of the action.
Conditions in War. Standards of performance in peacetime exercises
cannot be a conclusive guide as to what may be expected under the
conditions of war. In the conduct of hostilities against a strong and
determined enemy, men and materiel do not always function at their
best. Commanders undergo extreme strains. Orders are often
misinterpreted or go astray. Men, and the machines which they operate,
frequently give less effective service than under the conditions of
peace.
In war, mistakes are normal; errors are usual; information is seldom
complete, often inaccurate, and frequently misleading. Success is won,
not by personnel and materiel in prime condition, but by the debris of
an organization worn by the strain of campaign and shaken by the shock
of battle. The objective is attained, in war, under conditions which
often impose extreme disadvantages. It is in the light of these facts
that the commander expects to shape his course during the supervision
of the planned action.
The Incentive. During the supervision of the action, problems calling
for decision may derive their incentive, as already noted (page 79)
either from a directive issued by superior authority, or by reason of
a Decision which the commander himself has already made, or because of
a recognition, by the commander concerned, of an incentive
originating from the demands of the situation.
In the event that the incentive appears in the form of a new task
assigned by a higher echelon, the commander's problem may become,
relatively, simple. In such a case he is relieved of the necessity of
recognizing for himself that the time is ripe for a new decision. This
fact, however, in no wise alters his fundamental responsibility for
taking action, or for abstaining therefrom, in accordance with the
actual demands of the situation (page 15) in the event that the
assigned task requires modification or alteration, or, further, in the
event that circumstances even call for a departure from his
instructions. Should modification, alteration, or departure be in
order, the commander is responsible for recognition of the fact that
the demands of the situation have introduced further problems.
Such recognition, therefore, irrespective of whether higher authority
has issued instructions covering the new situation, constitutes an
incentive to take action. No commander is justified in taking wrong
action, or in taking none, merely because no instructions have been
received. The ability to recognize the fact that the situation
presents a new problem is therefore a primary qualification for
command.
Recognition of New Problems. The supervision of the planned action, as
the fourth step (see Chapter V) of the exercise of mental effort in
the solution of military problems, therefore constitutes in itself a
problem, in that it involves fundamentally the ability to recognize
the existence of new situations which present new problems for
solution. To recognize such new problems requires a constant, close
observation of the unfolding of the original situation.
Only an alert commander can invariably determine whether the situation
is unfolding along the lines which he desires and as promulgated in
the directives formulated in the third step (see Chapter V and Chapter
VIII). In effect, the commander, after action has begun, considers the
changing situation as a variable in the problem presented by the
original situation. With the march of events he is, therefore,
constantly critical to detect whether variations in the original
situation are in accordance with his design or whether these
variations demand a departure from his plan.
Nature of Readjustments Required. If variations in the original
situation are in accordance with his design, the commander has the
assurance that all goes well, and that the unfolding of the situation
is following his intent. However, if this is not the case, changed
circumstances may demand recognition of the fact that a new problem
has presented itself. In this event a new incentive, arising from the
demands of the situation, calls for the solution of the new problem by
the procedure distinctive of the first step (Chapter VI).
Should directives of higher authority introduce a new incentive, the
commander solves such a new problem, also, by employing the procedure
distinctive of the first step.
On the other hand, the commander may find that the changed situation
motivates merely a modification of his previously determined
operations and of his directives already in force. In other words,
while his basic problem (Chapters V and VI) may remain the same, need
may arise for certain deviations from the decisions arrived at in the
first and second steps of its solution. Should this be the case, each
such problem will require solution by a return to the procedures
described (Chapter VII) with reference to the second step.
In the event of a demonstrated need, not for any change of plan, but
for a clarification of directives, the procedure involved is that
distinctive of the third step (Chapter VIII).
The commander may not safely view the succession of events with
complacency, even though the situation appears to be unfolding
according to plan. Perhaps the enemy may be purposely lessening his
opposition, in order to prepare for the launching of an offensive
elsewhere. As the situation unfolds, everything is viewed with
intelligent suspicion.
It is also possible that, during the progress of an operation, an
unforeseen opportunity may present itself to take advantage of a new
situation and to strike the enemy a more serious blow than that
originally intended.
Unwise caution is to be avoided no less than undue temerity. Where a
change appears, after proper consideration, to be indicated, no
hesitancy is justified in abandoning the original plan. Blind
adherence to plan is to be condemned no less than unwarranted
departures from predetermined procedure. Obstinate insistence on the
use of a certain method, to the exclusion of others calculated to
attain the same effect, may jeopardize the success of the effort.
Undue emphasis on the particular means to be used, and on the manner
of their employment, may exact a penalty by obscuring the objective.
On the other hand, undesirable departures from plan involve a
corresponding penalty, because changes, unless duly justified by the
situation, increase the possibility of failure. Frequency of such
changes, to the point of vacillation, is a sure indication of a lack
of aptitude for the exercise of command.
Importance of the Will of the Commander. It is accordingly clear that
qualification for the exercise of command requires the mental capacity
to recognize the need for changes in plan, or for no change. No less
essential, however, are the moral qualities required to carry
justified changes into effect, or to resist the pressure of events in
favor of changes not justified by the situation. (See also pages 8, 9,
and 72.)
Hence the universal importance accorded, by the profession of arms, to
the will of the commander. This is the quality which, together with
the mental ability to understand what is needed, enables the commander
to bend events in conformity with his plan (page 47), or, where such
shaping of circumstances is infeasible, to ensure for his command
every possible advantage which can be obtained.
A recognized defect of certain forms of theoretical problems lies in
the fact that they indicate, themselves, the time when a Decision is
needed. In other words, they fail to vest the commander with
responsibility for the decision that the time has come for a Decision
to be made. Hence the great importance, from the viewpoint of timing,
of those problems and exercises which partake more fully of the
reality of war. The successful conduct of war, notwithstanding its
demand for utmost mental power, is founded predominantly on those
moral qualities (see pages 9 and 72) which spring less from the
intellect than from the will.
Problems Involving Modifications of the Basic Plan
Relatively minor deviations from decisions reached during the first
and second steps of the solution of a military problem are frequently
required during the action phase, because of incentives arising from
the demands of the situation. Such requirements will not occasion
serious dislocation in the predetermined effort of the competent
commander.
However, more momentous situations are also to be expected. These will
present new problems for the commander to solve. Such new problems, so
long as they do not challenge the integrity of the basic plan, will
not prevent the competent commander from proceeding with his
predetermined effort if he takes appropriate action in due time to
control the unfolding situation. To maintain such control may call for
the exercise of outstanding qualities of the mind and of the will.
For example, it is assumed that the commander's basic Decision was to
destroy an enemy convoy, the purpose of the Decision being to prevent
the convoy from reaching its destination. Now, it is supposed that,
during the supervision of the action planned for the destruction of
the enemy convoy, the commander receives information of a hostile
reinforcement. It is further supposed that this reinforcement, if it
joins the enemy convoy's escort, can jeopardize the success of the
basic plan.
The commander is now confronted with a serious situation which, if not
controlled by action of the right kind, at the right time, and at the
right place, may result in shattering his basic plan. However, if the
commander takes action along correct lines in due time, he can still
preserve the integrity of his basic plan and so continue to control
the shaping of the situation.
Having re-examined his solution of his basic problem and found it
sound, the commander finds himself under the necessity of resolving a
perplexity as to what to do about the enemy reinforcement. In this
case, he concludes that his proper action is to prevent the enemy
reinforcement from protecting the convoy. This task, self-assigned
because of the demands of the situation, becomes the basis for the
mission of his new problem, the mission being:--
(Task) To prevent the enemy reinforcements from protecting the
convoy,
(Purpose) in order to contribute to the eventual destruction
of the convoy.
The commander now considers the various courses of action open to him
for the accomplishment of this mission. He also considers the enemy
courses of action. He then considers each of the former in relation to
each of the latter. He compares, on this basis, each of his retained
courses of action with the others and so selects the best course of
action. Finally, he arrives, in this manner, by the same process as in
a basic problem (Chapter VI), at a decision as to the best course of
action. Should this decision be to sink the enemy reinforcement, its
statement linked to its purpose, would be:--
To destroy the enemy reinforcement, in order to prevent it
from protecting the convoy.
Problems Challenging the Integrity of the Basic Plan
During the planned action, a change in the situation may have the
effect of challenging the integrity of the basic plan. The commander
is then faced by a problem calling for the exercise of the highest
order of ability. While problems of this type probably occur with
least frequency, they are the most important of those which may be
encountered during the fourth step.
Because such a problem, arising from the demands of a new situation,
requires a re-estimate of the basic situation, the essential procedure
is the same as for a basic problem (Chapter VI), but certain
modifications necessarily appear.
Summary of the Situation. While a commander will rarely find himself
operating without instructions, the importance of problems arising
when no directive applies is not lessened by the fact that such
problems may infrequently occur. When the commander is faced with a
situation not covered in orders of his superior, action may be
necessary before he can inform higher authority and receive
instructions. Usually this situation will be an emergency. Often it
will not allow time for a written estimate. The fact that such a
situation has arisen, and the reasons causing the commander to
conclude that it has arisen, are appropriately included in Section I-A
of the Estimate, under the "Summary of the Situation".
Recognition of the Incentive. The conclusion on the part of the
commander that the situation requires him to make provision for its
maintenance, or for a change, which in either case calls for a
departure from his basic Decision, constitutes a recognition of his
new incentive.
Appreciation of the Objective. Frequently the new incentive will
indicate that the objective embodied in the commander's present task
is no longer suitable, but that the purpose of his mission still
applies. By modifying the objective indicated in his assigned task,
but adhering to that in the purpose of his mission, he may be able to
visualize a new objective which will be appropriate to the new
circumstances. In this case the retained purpose assists the commander
to select a new objective which he can confidently adopt as the basis
for a new task which he assigns to himself.
If neither the commander's task nor the purpose of his mission apply
in the new situation, the evolution of a proper new objective may be
much more difficult. Under such circumstances the commander, by the
use of such information as may be in his possession, will first
endeavor to deduce an objective whose attainment constitutes a
suitable purpose. Such a deduction will be made on the basis of the
larger circumstances of the war, the campaign, or the operation.
Having made this determination, the commander will then deduce a task
appropriate to the new situation and in furtherance of the adopted
purpose. (See Chapter IV, page 52.)
Formulation of the New Mission. An appropriate new task having been
determined, as well as a proper purpose, the commander is now in a
position to formulate his mission. The procedure to this end is the
same as described (Chapter VI) with respect to the estimate of a basic
problem.
Other Items of the Estimate. For such problems of the fourth step,
other items of the Estimate Form require no essential modification of
the procedures described (Chapter VI) as applicable for the first
step.
The Further Procedure Applicable to Such Problems of The Fourth Step
After the commander has reached his new decision, the further course
of events may call for the resolution of the required new action into
detailed operations and for the inauguration of a new planned effort.
In such case, these procedures are accomplished through processes
essentially similar to, and fortified by the experience gained in,
those distinctive of the second and third steps. (Chapters VII and
VIII, respectively).
The new planned effort having been inaugurated, its supervision
continues, in turn, through the critical observation and the
appropriate action described herein as distinctive of the fourth step.
The Running Estimate of the Situation
The procedure employed in the constant, close observation of the
unfolding of the situation--to the end that justified changes of plan
may be initiated, while those uncalled-for may be avoided--is known as
the "Running Estimate of the Situation". Such an estimate, as
indicated by its name, is intended to keep pace with the flow of
events, so that the commander may be assured, at any time, that his
concurrent action will be based on sound decision. To this end, there
is a definite technique for which the standard Estimate Form provides
the basis. This technique is an aid for solution of the problem
involved in the supervision of the planned action.
Aim of the Technique Involved. Any procedure adopted to this end is
properly intended to assist in the supervision of the planned action,
but not to restrict the commander to particular methods. Flexibility
is a prime consideration. The ultimate aim of the technique is (see
also page 114) the rapid and successful exercise of mental effort in
the fast-moving events of the tactical engagement. It is under such
conditions, more especially, that effective supervision of the planned
action becomes a problem calling for every facility that can be
afforded the commander.
Nature of the Technique. The solution of this problem requires
mentally or in writing according to the particular case, (a) the
assembly of information as to events bearing on the situation, and (b)
the organization of this knowledge in a manner permitting its ready
use. Accordingly, it will be found helpful, where circumstances permit
written records to be kept, to provide for (a) a journal (a form of
diary) of events, with a file to support it, and (b) a work sheet to
organize applicable information in proper form for use. The journal
affords a basis for the work sheet. The latter in turn facilitates the
procedure, continuous while the action lasts, of estimating the
situation so that a Decision maybe rendered at any time desired.
Where written records are unnecessary or impracticable, the same
fundamental process is nevertheless employed. The fact that the
process is then wholly mental, without extraneous aids, involves no
change in the basic character of the essential procedure.
Journal. The journal, to serve the purpose indicated above, is kept in
a form permitting entry of essential data as to information needed for
the Running Estimate. Such data may include (see the suggested Form,
next page) the appropriate heading of the journal, the entries
applicable to each item of pertinent information, and the
authentication with which the journal, for any chosen period, is
closed.
* * * * *
JOURNAL
(Organization, staff subdivision, etc.)
From: .................................................
(date and hour)
To: ...................................................
(date and hour)
Place: ................................................
----+-----+------+-------+------+--------+--------------------+-------
TOR | TOD | Time | Serial| From | To |Incidents, Messages,|Action
| | Dated| No. | |(Action)| Orders, etc. |Taken
----+-----+------+-------+------+--------+--------------------+-------
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
----+-----+------+-------+------+--------+--------------------+-------
The heading of the journal is completed by inserting the designation
of the organization and, where appropriate, the staff subdivision
concerned, as well as the date and hour of beginning and closing the
journal, and the place (or general area) where the commander is
located.
Each entry includes, where appropriate, a time notation: for example,
as to the occurrence of an incident; the receipt (TOR) or despatch
(TOD) of a message; the receipt or issue of an order. The serial
number assigned to the entry is recorded. The "time dated" is the date
and hour of the incident, or, in the case of the message or order, the
date and hour appearing thereon.
Entry of the nature of incidents or of the content of messages and
orders, etc., is made under the heading "Incidents, Messages, Orders,
etc."; for example:
As to an incident:
Enemy bombed light forces in screen from northward.
As to a message:
Our troops held up on Beach A since 0500 this date.
In the case of a message or order, the source and the action
addressee(s) are recorded in the columns marked "From" and "To
(action)" respectively. The content of the despatch or order then
follows. The amount of detail to be included depends upon the needs of
the work sheet (see below) in its capacity as a basis for the running
estimate of the situation. Further details can be ascertained, if
needed, by reference to the journal file.
The action taken ("None" entered, if none is taken) is indicated
briefly under that heading. In the case of the above entry as to the
enemy bombing light forces, the "action taken" might, for example
read:
Prepared for torpedo attack.
A single journal may be maintained for the commander concerned; or, if
so desired, separate journals may be kept, for their respective
purposes, by the several principal officers of his staff.
The journal itself and its use are readily adaptable to informal
methods of preparation and maintenance. The Journal Form may be
prepared hastily, as needed or desired. Where appropriate, the Journal
Form may be made up in quantity by printing, multigraphing, or other
practicable methods.
Journal File. The file to support the journal is merely an assembly of
the records (messages, records of oral orders, and the like) from
which the journal is compiled. Each item of the file bears a serial
number corresponding to that of its entry in the journal. An ordinary
spike-file is frequently adequate for safe-keeping of these records
while in use. When the journal is closed, the corresponding
journal-file is filed with the journal, in accordance with standing
instructions or in compliance with any particular disposition directed
by the commander concerned or by higher authority.
Work Sheet. The usual form of the work sheet follows the form of the
estimate of the situation. A single work sheet may be kept for the
commander concerned, or, if so desired, separate work sheets may be
maintained, for their respective purposes, by the several principal
subdivisions of his staff. If a single work sheet is maintained,
entries by the several staff subdivisions may be facilitated by
dividing the work sheet among them, provided that the entire document
can always be promptly assembled for use as needed.
The work sheet, while an important official document, is ordinarily
informal in nature. The various headings, items, or titles (other than
the main heading) are merely copied, ordinarily, from the usual
Estimate Form. An example of a work sheet is as follows (see next
page):
WORK SHEET
(For Running Estimate of the Situation)
........................................
(Organization, staff subdivision, etc.)
From: ..................................
(Date and hour)
To: ....................................
(Date and hour, if pertinent)
Place: .................................
I. Establishment of the Basis for Solution of the Problem.
A. The Appropriate Effect Desired.
(1) Summary of the Situation.
(Note: No other heading would be entered on the first page.)
* * *
(2) Recognition of the Incentive.
(Note: No other heading would be entered on the (initial)
(second) page.)
* * *
(3) Appreciation of the Assigned Objective.
(Note: No other heading would be entered on the (initial)
(third) page.)
(4) Formulation of the Mission.
(Note: No other heading would be entered on the (initial)
(fourth) page.)
* * *
B. (Note: This and subsequent headings are entered in the manner
indicated as to Section I-A, above.)
The remaining necessary headings and subheadings of the Estimate Form
would be entered similarly, in due order, on succeeding pages.
The use of a voluminous work-sheet is facilitated by entering item
headings in a narrow column at the left, and by cutting away unused
space below the several headings in such column, so that all the
headings (or the more important ones) can be seen at a glance. A
person using the work-sheet can then readily find any page desired.
The main heading (top, first page) is filled out in the same manner as
for the journal.
The other headings, for subdivisions of the work sheet, are ordinarily
transcribed from the usual Estimate Form, according to the needs for
the purpose of the particular work sheet. Such needs will vary with
circumstances. As has also been noted, the Estimate Form, itself
(Chapter VI), varies with the situation. For these reasons, the
work-sheet form is necessarily flexible, and will rarely be prescribed
in detail. Reproduction by printing, etc., will not be so frequent as
in the case of more rigid forms. The work sheet is authenticated only
if it is filed (see below), or if authentication is desired for other
reasons. The work sheet is, in fact, as indicated by its name, merely
a vehicle to facilitate the performance of important mental work.
When the work sheet has served its purpose, it is usually destroyed.
It is not, ordinarily, a permanent record, since such purpose is
served by the journal and its file. When a formal Estimate is made up
from the work sheet, such Estimate may serve the purpose of an
additional record. If no formal Estimate is made up for a given period
and the commander desires the corresponding work sheet to be preserved
for record, he may so direct.
Ordinarily, the work sheet is not destroyed or filed (and a new one
started) at any specified time. The work sheet is kept current by
marking out old entries no longer applicable; by inserting new
entries; and by inserting fresh pages when old ones have been filled.
The old pages, unless otherwise desired, may be destroyed.
A separate page of the work sheet is ordinarily used for each item
under which entries are to be made. This procedure applies not only to
principal headings, but also to subordinate titles, according to the
convenience of the user.
The procedure of devoting a separate page, initially, to each item of
the form enables additional pages to be inserted, where needed.
Manifestly, the amount of space needed for particular items of the
form cannot always be foreseen. The entries, for example, under the
"Summary of the Situation", in Section I-A of the Estimate Form, may
require little space or a great deal, depending upon the occurrence of
events and upon the period of time covered by the particular work
sheet. The same considerations are applicable as to other items.
When a work sheet is used as the basis for rendering special reports
(e.g., as to intelligence or operations), its form follows that used
for such reports. It is, therefore, in essence, merely an
outline-form, for entry of applicable data.
Procedure as to Entries. When a report, a plan, a dispatch, or other
pertinent item is received, its applicable content may first be
entered on the chart (or charts) maintained by the commander (or by
his staff). Thereafter the usual procedure would be an entry in the
journal, followed by a corresponding entry in the work sheet. The
document so received and recorded would then be placed in the journal
file. This procedure is subject to proper variation, as desired.
Immediate entry of data on the chart enables the commander and staff
to study the implications of the item, without waiting for completion
of routine clerical work.
Outgoing messages, instructions, etc., after approval or signature by
the commander, are handled by a similar routine. Where applicable,
such routine involves appropriate entry on the chart, in the journal,
and in the work sheet. The routine of entry is preferably based on a
copy (or copies), in order to avoid delay in dispatch.
Staff Organization and Functioning. The commander may desire important
documents to be handed to him at once, on receipt. He may, of course,
call for them at any time. He naturally will not, however, permit any
unnecessary delay to occur in the usual routine disposition of such
items. The routine exists to assist him, and its arbitrary disruption,
if he has properly defined the essential routine in the first
instance, cannot but work to his disadvantage.
Few things are more disturbing to the functioning of a staff than
undue eccentricity on the part of the commander or of senior members
of the staff. For instance, a personal habit to be rigorously
suppressed--a habit not infrequently in evidence, especially under
strain of active operations--is that of absent-mindedly pocketing
documents needed in the work under way. This subject might, but for
limitations of space, be illustrated by numerous other examples whose
homely character may not safely be permitted to detract from their
considered importance to unity of effort.
Where circumstances permit, it is desirable that incoming and outgoing
items be reproduced in quantity sufficient to supply separate copies
for the commander and for the several interested members of his staff.
A competent staff brings to the commander's attention all the items
necessary--but only those necessary--for his proper performance of his
duties. Inordinate attention by the commander to unnecessary detail
cannot but tend to distract his attention from his proper duties.
The importance of smooth and effective functioning of a staff
emphasizes the need for an established, though flexible, procedure.
Such procedure, if reasonably standardized, facilitates unity of
action, not only within staffs, but also among the several commanders,
and their staffs, throughout the chain of command.
The same fundamentals apply as to staff organization. If proper
functioning of staffs is generally understood, and if staffs are
correctly organized to perform their functions, the basis for their
sound organization will become a matter of general understanding. Such
organization, so understood, becomes a powerful influence in behalf of
unity of effort.
Staff functions--i.e., characteristic activities of staffs--divide
fundamentally into two classifications. These may be referred to, for
convenience of terminology, as "general" and "special".
The latter have to do with the characteristic operations of the
command, rather than of the commander; they therefore relate to such
matters as routine administration and to the technical aspects of
movement, of the use of weapons, and of supply, sanitation, and
hospitalization. The administrative, technical, and supply staff, thus
broadly considered, may be said to be concerned with special functions
relating to the operations of the command.
By contrast, the functions of the commander, as such, have to do with
the necessary supervision of these special functions and, more
especially, with the important duty of planning for the future
employment of the command. The supervisory and planning activities
may, for purposes of differentiation from the specialties noted above,
be properly described as general functions. They relate more
particularly to the duties performed personally by the commander or,
where such duties become too onerous for performance by one person, by
specifically designated members of his staff.
In our naval service, the higher commanders are provided, where
appropriate, with a chief of staff, who coordinates and supervises the
work of the entire staff. Provision is also made, where the nature and
amount of the work to be done calls for such assignment, for the
detail of additional staff officers to perform the important general
functions mentioned above. Appropriate provision is also made for
staff officers to care for the special functions inherent in the
character of the particular command.
The important general functions referred to are those relating to
intelligence duties, and to operations. Intelligence duties have to do
with the collection of information as to the enemy and the theater of
operations, the analysis of this information, its evaluation, its
conversion into intelligence by the process of drawing conclusions,
i.e., by interpretation, and, finally, its dissemination to the
command or to other appropriate destinations (page 161). Intelligence
estimates and plans have been discussed previously (Chapters VII and
VIII).
Operations, in the sense in which the term is employed in this
connection, relate to the strategical or tactical activities of the
command, as distinguished from routine functions pertaining to such
matters as administration and supply. Operations, therefore, as a term
employed in contradistinction to intelligence activities, refer more
especially to the performance of the commander's own force, while
intelligence functions are oriented more particularly with respect to
the activities of the enemy. Operation plans, which may include
subsidiary intelligence plans, have been discussed previously
(Chapters VII and VIII).
Further details in this connection are touched on hereafter with
respect to rendition of reports and estimates.
Reports. The work-sheet facilitates the rendition, at any time, of
such special reports as may be required by higher authority, or by the
commander from his staff. The appropriate staff officer is prepared at
all times to render a report, oral or written, informal or formal,
brief or detailed, of the situation of the command and of other
friendly forces, or of the situation with reference to the enemy.
No less important than rendition of reports to the commander and to
higher authority is the duty of the staff, or of the commander if he
lacks such staff assistance, to insure that subordinate commands
receive pertinent information at the proper time. Cooperating friendly
forces will also require such information. This need is sometimes met
by the issue of periodical reports or bulletins. However, during the
intervals between such reports, and at all times when such reports are
lacking, it is a primary duty of the commander and staff to ensure
that all concerned are informed as to the situation. The work sheet is
a valuable aid for the performance of this duty.
Oral Estimates. When called for by higher authority, or by the
commander from his staff, oral estimates of the situation can be
rendered promptly and effectively by reference to the work sheet.
Estimates called for by the commander are presented by the appropriate
staff officers. Presentation is made to the commander or, if so
directed, to the chief of staff, the latter being prepared to render,
in turn, an estimate to the commander. Oral estimates desired by
higher authority are made by the commander, or by the staff officer
concerned, at the direction of his commander.
Partial estimates may be called for from time to time as to particular
aspects of the situation.
In the larger staffs, the work is facilitated if each principal staff
officer is prepared to present his appropriate portion of the
estimate. In such case the intelligence officer deals with matters
relating to the enemy; the operations officer deals with those
relating to own forces, etc. The entire staff acts as a team in the
presentation of a well-rounded estimate which will bring all pertinent
matters to the attention of the commander so that he may arrive at a
sound decision.
Should the commander call also for recommendations as to the decision
or decisions to be made, the appropriate members of the staff will be
prepared to submit their views. They will be prepared, as well, to
answer at any time the calls of higher authority for information, for
the conclusions of the commander, or for his recommendations. Should
the commander have no staff for the performance of the foregoing
functions, such detailed duties devolve upon him personally.
Certain further aspects of estimates of the situation, with reference
to the circumstances obtaining during the supervision of the planned
action, are noted under the discussion of written estimates, which
follows.
Written Estimates. The foregoing remarks as to oral estimates are no
less applicable to those submitted in written form, whether formal or
informal, partial or full, brief or detailed. The nature of an
estimate, as to these characteristics, will largely depend on the time
element. A long and detailed estimate, often desirable when time is
available, may be wholly impracticable when the press of events
requires rapid decision. The written estimate, even if informal,
partial, or brief, would frequently be out of place in situations
where an oral estimate would be adequate or, if not adequate, would be
all that could be accomplished under the circumstances of the case.
Special Remarks as to Entries
Entries on Charts. Entries on charts are made by the usual
conventional signs and symbols. Colors are employed where appropriate.
Information not yet confirmed is indicated as doubtful; e.g., by a
question mark. Special remarks, comments, or other notations may also
be entered, but in such a manner as not to obscure other data on the
chart.
Where operations of land forces are involved, maps are prepared by the
methods prescribed for own land forces. The higher naval staffs, or
those of forces specially designated for such operations, may include
army officers who will look after these matters; marine officers may
also be assigned such duties.
Special charts or maps are those prepared for special purposes. A
chart (or map) maintained to show the existing situation is known as a
"situation chart" (or map). Charts (or maps) prepared for particular
operations are known as "operations charts" (or maps).
Entries in Journals. Entries in journals, already referred to, are
purely factual. Such entries may be complete copies of the content of
incoming or outgoing orders or messages. Again, as already indicated
(page 209), entries may consist of condensations of such matters. The
oral instructions of the commander are also appropriate items for
entry, when the matter is of sufficient importance. The journal may
also make note of the movements of the commander, his staff officers,
and other persons. Other pertinent happenings may also be made the
subject of entry.
Entries in Work Sheets. Entries in the work sheet, since it is the
basis for estimates of the situation, are both factual and otherwise.
All matters entered in the journal are normally appropriate for
notation in the work sheet. Information not yet confirmed is indicated
as doubtful. The work sheet is also the proper place for notation of
matters of conjecture (noted as such) and for other like items related
to estimates of the situation. The various considerations influencing
the commander and staff, with respect to current operations, are
proper entries in the work sheet. Its informal character affords wide
latitude as to entries which may be considered worthy of record in
this manner. The underlying consideration is that anything may and
should be entered which will be of value in preparing estimates or
rendering the special reports for which the work sheet is to provide
the basis.
A succinct running account of the situation is kept posted to date
under the appropriate heading of the work sheet.
Entry is also made of the incentive which motivates the solution of
the problem presented by the situation. Notation is made as to whether
the incentive arises from a task imposed by higher authority or is
derived by the commander from other sources (see page 200). In either
case, the work sheet is the proper place for the entry of such facts
and of the reasons which have led the commander to regard this
incentive as motivating his actions in the situation existing at the
time.
Information of the enemy, after receipt from the various collecting
agencies (radio, observers, subordinate forces, etc.), is subject to
the usual procedures of analysis, evaluation, interpretation, and
dissemination (page 214). Analysis determines the source and the
circumstances which led to the dispatch of the message. Evaluation
determines its degree of reliability. Interpretation calls for drawing
conclusions. The resulting intelligence is then disseminated to those
concerned, either within the command or elsewhere.
Since information of the enemy does not become intelligence until
converted thereinto by the process of drawing conclusions, this
important procedure is recorded briefly in the work sheet. Such record
makes available, for inclusion in estimates or in reports, the reasons
which have formed the basis for such conclusions.
Information of friendly forces, with any deductions drawn therefrom,
is similarly entered in the appropriate portions of the work sheet.
The facts and conclusions as to fighting strength of own and enemy
forces are important entries. The summary of fighting strength
includes proper conclusions as to the relative fighting strength of
the opposing forces, own and enemy's.
The work sheet is also the proper document for other entries pertinent
to estimates of the situation: e.g., the determination of own courses
of action, the examination into enemy capabilities, and the selection
of own best course of action. The commander's decisions, as rendered
from time to time, are also entered for purposes of temporary record.
Summary
The work sheet, therefore, if properly utilized, contains the Running
Estimate of the Situation, and is supported by the journal and the
journal file. By the use of the Running Estimate and its supporting
documents, the commander is enabled to keep himself apprised of the
developments of the situation. On this basis he is able to detect the
necessity for any changes in his plan and to arrive promptly at
decisions in accordance with such needs. These decisions become the
basis for new or modified plans and directives, to cause the action of
his command to conform to changes in the situation.
Where the full procedure described in this Chapter is unnecessary or
impracticable, a suitable modification without fundamental change will
be found applicable. The mental process, even if no records are kept
in writing, applies to the supervision of the planned action in every
situation.
CONCLUSION
The discussion of "Sound Military Decision" now closes with a
brief review of the application of mental power to the
solution of military problems.
Mental power, which includes the ability to arrive at sound solutions
of military problems, is a recognized essential component of fighting
strength because (page 18) it is the source of professional judgment.
The procedure most likely to ensure sound solutions is the studied
employment of a natural mental process, differing in no fundamental
respect from that effectively utilized in all other human activities.
The basic mental procedure remains unchanged, irrespective of the
nature of the problem,--be it simple or complex, its solution
instantaneous or slow. The procedure is especially adapted to the
needs of the profession of arms through the use of the Fundamental
Military Principle. By outlining the essential elements involved, this
Principle, a valid guide for the solution of military problems, covers
the full scope of the application of mental power as a recognized
component of fighting strength.
It is more especially during the swift-moving action of the tactical
engagement that moral capacity to command, and mental ability to solve
military problems, experience the maximum pressure of events. It is
then, also, that the responsibility of the commander creates an added
demand for intelligent application of mental power because of the
vital issues which may hinge upon his decisions. That this pressure be
successfully sustained, and this responsibility effectively
discharged, is the goal of any system of mental training in the
profession of arms (page 114).
On a fundamental basis of earnest thought, mental ability, character,
knowledge, and experience, finally rests the soundness of decision.
OUTLINE FORM OF AN OPERATION PLAN
TITLES OF THE
SUPERIOR ECHELONS,
File Notations TITLE OF THE FORCE,
SECRET (or CONFIDENTIAL) NAME OF SHIP, Flagship.
Operation Plan PLACE OF ISSUE,
No. ---- Date and hour of issue.
TASK ORGANIZATION.
(a) Task Force Title, Rank and name of its commander. Composition
of Task Force.
(b) (Similarly enumerate other Task Forces after appropriate
letter (b), (c), etc.)
1. Information. Information of enemy and own forces affecting
the Plan and needed by subordinate commanders. If no
further information is available, the statement "No
further information" is inserted. Distinction is made
between matters of conjecture and of fact. If desired,
indicate the tasks and general objectives of higher
echelons and of coordinate forces of the commander's
echelon, and of other forces of the command, not listed in
the Task Organization. If desired, include general
measures prescribed by the immediate superior for
cooperation and security.
Assumptions. Statement of the assumptions upon which the
Plan is based. Assumptions are things taken for granted as
the basis for action.
2. The general plan for the whole force actually under the
command of the officer issuing the Plan, and, if desired,
the methods of executing it, and its purpose. If
additional matter is needed to convey clearly the will and
intent of the commander, such matter may be added.
3. (a) Title of Task Force (a), followed by a statement of the
principal task, other tasks, and detailed instructions for
the particular Task Force. Tasks may be stated, if
preferred, in chronological order. Include directions as to
cooperation, security, and intelligence activities.
(b) Title of Task Force (b), followed by a subparagraph of
similar substance and arrangements as in (a) above.
(x) Instructions that apply to all Task Forces or that
pertain to the general conduct of the operation, including,
if desired, coordinating instructions applying to more than
one task force. Include, particularly, measures for
cooperation, security, and intelligence activities. Include
statement of the time and/or manner in which the Operation
Plan is to be placed in effect.
4. Broad instructions concerning logistics measures necessary
to the operation, or reference to Logistics Annex, if one
has been prepared in connection with the operation.
5. Measures necessary to the exercise of command, such as plan
of communications, zone time to be used, rendezvous, and
location of Commander during operation.
(Signature)
Rank,
Title of Command.
ANNEXES.
A. (Name)
B. do NOTE--The Operation Order (see page 196) follows this
Form except that it makes no provision for assumptions,
DISTRIBUTION and is effective on receipt unless otherwise provided in
the body of the Order.
(Authentication)
(Seal)
TABULAR FORMS
TABULAR FORM OF THE ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION
Section Page
I. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BASIS FOR SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM.
A. The Appropriate Effect Desired 118
(1) Summary of the Situation 119
(2) Recognition of the Incentive 119
(3) Appreciation of the Assigned Objective 119
(4) Formulation of the Mission 121
B. Relative Fighting Strength 121
(To include only such of the following factors as appear
to be necessary background for the later reasoning in
Sections II to IV.)
(1) Survey of the Means Available and Opposed 123
*(a) General Factors 124
(i) Political Factors 124
(ii) Economics Factors 125
(iii) Psychological Factors 125
(iv) Information and Counter-Information
Measures 126
(b) Factors More Directly Applicable to the
Armed Forces 127
(i) Vessels, including Aircraft 127
(ii) Land Forces, including land-based
aviation 127
(iii) Personnel 127
(iv) Material 128
(v) Logistics 128
(2) Survey of the Characteristics of the Theater
of Operations 129
(a) Hydrography 129
(b) Topography 130
(c) Weather 130
(d) Daylight and Dark Periods 130
(e) Relative Location and Distance 131
(f) Lines of Transportation and Supply 131
(g) Facilities and Fortifications 131
(h) Communications 131
(3) Conclusions as to Relative Fighting Strength 132
II. DETERMINATION OF SUITABLE, FEASIBLE, AND ACCEPTABLE
COURSES OF ACTION.
A. Analysis of the Assigned Objective 135
B. Survey of Courses of Action 135
C. Application of Tests for Suitability, Feasibility,
and Acceptability 137
D. Listing Retained Courses of Action 139
III. EXAMINATION INTO THE CAPABILITIES OF
THE ENEMY 139
A. Survey of the Enemy's Problem 141
(1) Summary of the Enemy's Situation 141
(2) Analysis of the Effect Desired by the Enemy 141
B. Survey of Enemy Capabilities 143
C. Application of Tests for Suitability, Feasibility,
and Acceptability 144
D. Listing Retained Enemy Courses of Action 144
IV. SELECTION OF THE BEST COURSE OF ACTION.
A. Analysis and Comparison of Retained Courses of
Action 145
B. Determination of the Best Course of Action 148
V. THE DECISION 151
* Usually included only in an estimate of broad scope.
On the reverse side, page 224, will be found a Tabular Form of the
Resolution of the Required Action into Detailed Operations.
CAUTION. This folder is merely a guide, provided in order to
facilitate reference to the subject matter of Chapters VI and VII. It
is not possible to arrive at sound military decision by its use
alone.
TABULAR FORM OF THE RESOLUTION OF THE REQUIRED ACTION INTO DETAILED
OPERATIONS
Page
1. Assumptions 155-156
2. Alternative Plans 156-157
3. Application of the Essential Elements of a
Favorable Military Operation 157-164
(a) Correct physical objectives 157-158
(1) Effective action with relation to 158
(b) Advantageous relative positions 159
(c) Freedom of action 159-162
(d) Proper apportionment of fighting strength 162-164
4. Testing of Operations for Suitability, Feasibility
and Acceptability 164-165
(a) Listing of retained operations 165
5. The Formulation of Tasks 165
(a) Testing of tasks for suitability, feasibility
and acceptability 165
6. The Organization of Task Forces and Task Groups 165-166
(a) Grouping of tasks 165-166
(b) Assignment of necessary strength 166
(c) Completion of the organization 166
7. Application of the Fundamental Military Principle
to the Determination of Objectives Embodied in Tasks 167
8. The Assembly of Measures for Freedom of Action 167-168
9. The Assembly of Information 168
10. The Preparation of Subsidiary Plans 168-179
INDEX
INDEX
A
Acceptable consequences as to costs, principle for determination
of 34, 35
Acceptability, application of test for 101, 102, 137, 144, 147, 164,
165, 167
Action,
effective, against correct physical objectives 157
freedom of (See Freedom of Action)
physical conditions prevailing in field of 31
supervision of the 4, 197
Action, courses of, (See Courses of Action)
Annexes to Order Form 193
Application of
essential elements of favorable military operations 157-164
tests for suitability, feasibility, and acceptability 99-102,
137-139, 144, 147, 164, 165, 167
the Fundamental Military Principle 43-77
Apportionment of fighting strength,
during amphibious operations 67
discussion of 66-70
dispersion and concentration involved in 67, 68
diversion, bearing of, on 68
feasibility and acceptability of 69, 70
joint operations 67
numerical considerations 67
procedure for determining proper 69
a salient feature of a military situation (operation) 38, 39, 40, 41
types, training and equipment of forces 67
Appropriate effect desired,
assigned objective becomes 49
as the basis for the objective 52
definition of 21
enemy's 143
operations studied from viewpoint of 162-164
forms part of basis for solution of problem 30
principle for determination of 33
requirements for an understanding of 43
suitability as to 118-120
Areas,
coveted or in dispute 65
geographical not under one's own control 65
geographical under one's own control 65
no land, belong equally to all nations 62
sea, not under command 92
sea, securing command of 92
sea, under command 92
Armament, material factor of 128
Armed forces,
command of 11
factors more directly applicable to 127
function and character of 8
fundamental objective of 8
initial requisite to effective use of 11
Art of War,
a true concept of, requirement of 9-10
foundation of 1
Assumptions,
defined and discussed 155, 171
may form basis of Estimate 111
Authentication, order form 194
B
Basic,
decision 82
estimate of the situation 82
problem 81
problems challenging integrity of, plan(s) 203
problems involving modification of, plan(s) 201
situation 82
war plans 195
Basis,
of science of war 1
for solution of problem 20, 21, 29, 30, 43, 118, 134
Battle Plans 168-171, 196
Blind adherence to plan condemned 200
Body of order form 190
Brevity, required in directives 186
C
Campaign Plans,
defined 195
form of 194
Campaigns of Twentieth Century reflect intensity of mental training 2
Capabilities of enemy,
examination into 139-145
examination not complete under certain conditions 146
survey of 143
Cause and effect 3
correct relation between, established by principles 22
natural forces and resultant conditions 19
principles as valid statements of 19
Challenge to integrity of basic plan 203
Characteristics,
commander's personal 127
influence of, on fighting strength 31, 34, 43
of (field) theater of (action) operations 31, 35, 39-41, 43, 52, 64,
65, 129-132
racial or national 126
Clarity,
required in directives 186
Command,
adherence to chain of, essential to mutual understanding 14
chain of 12, 53
echelons of 12
mental preparation for 114
paragraph, in order form 193
responsibility and authority inherent in 12
the ideal of 11
training for 11
unity of 71
Commander,
may depart from his instructions 16
may modify or alter assigned task 15
relation of, to subordinates 15
staff of a 13
the personification of command 11
Communication(s),
lines of 67, 91
plans, as an annex 193
provision for 168
study of in strategical and tactical estimates 131-182
Component(s),
human and material, of fighting strength 8, 9
major, of military problems 43-47
mental power, recognized essential, of fighting strength 18, 217
parts of an operation assigned as tasks 162
Condition(s),
influence of, on resources 21
of armed forces 128, 129
of material 128
in war, peacetime exercises not a conclusive guide to 198
Consequences as to costs, principle for determination of acceptable 35
Constructive representations, establishing basis for 103
Corollaries to the Decision 153
Corollary principle,
of the Correct Military Objective 42
of Effective Military Operations 42
Correct military objective(s),
corollary principle of the 42
selection of 47-51
Correct physical objectives, effective action against 157, 158
Course(s) of action,
analysis and selection of 97, 104
analysis of, settles suitability, feasibility and acceptability 97
as tentative solutions, complete or partial 88, 93, 136
classified as to suitability, feasibility and acceptability 139
combination of enemy's 146
combination of, into complete solution 93, 138
comparison of, summarized 148
consideration of operations involved in 98
defined 88
degree of detail in which, may be visualized varies 96
determination and selection of the best 145-161
each, embodies an objective 82
examples of 89
how phrased 109
listing of 136, 139
listing of retained 139, 148
listing of retained enemy's 144
no rigid line of demarcation between, and operations pertaining
thereto 92
predetermined 86, 96, 102
rejection of 138, 139, 147
resolving into operations 147
retained, analyses and comparison of 145-147
selection of the best 145-151
survey of 135-137
test for suitability, feasibility and acceptability of 82, 98-102,
187, 144, 147, 164, 166, 167
visualization of 93
when embodied in decision 88
D
Daylight and dark periods 130
Decision 161-154
basic 82
corollaries to the 153
embodies best solution of the problem 22
expresses a general plan of action 83
indicates general objective 104
purpose of the 152
relation of, to detailed plan and directives 153
relation of, to mission 105
restatement of, for use in directive 187
statement of 151
subsidiary 106, 108
Detailed Plan 44, 49
Dilemma,
definition of 148
procedure in case of 149
Directive(s)
basic 82
defined 183
formulation and issue of 183
fragmentary 184
military, essentials of 185
military plans and military 183
requirements of a 186
subsidiary, and plans 106
types of naval 195
Distance,
involved in movements 65
relative location and 131
Distribution of Order Form 194
Diversions 68
Doctrine,
derivation of meaning of 16
military 16
E
Echelon of command, definition of 12
Economic factors 125
Effect desired,
appropriate, defined 21
by enemy, analysis of 141
character distinctly military, in war 35
enemy's 143
factor of the 39-41
further 20
produced by action of natural causes 19
source of 20-21
suitable to further effect, if appropriate 21, 30
End in view,
a result to be produced, an effect desired 30
requirements for attainment of an 30, 31
Ending of Order Form 193
Enemy, information of 215
Enemy('s),
capabilities, examination into 139-146
capabilities, survey of 143
information of the 190, 216
problem, survey of 141-143
situation, summary of 141
situation, re-estimate of 146
Entries in journals and work-sheets 214
Essential elements,
of a favorable military operation 47, 157
of a favorable military situation 47
relationship existing among 3
Establishment of the basis for solution of the problem 118-136
Estimate form,
a flexible guide 117
variation in requirements of 170
Estimate(s) of the Situation,
basic 82
provides basis for plan 82
estimate within an 83
form, a detailed guide for use of Fundamental Military Principle 113
founded on Fundamental Military Principle, 82
oral 212
running 107, 118, 204-205
subsidiary 106
tabular form of 222
Examination into capabilities of enemy 139-145
Execution of plans, importance of 198
F
Facilities and fortifications 131
Factor(s),
defined 25
directly applicable to armed forces 127
each to be weighed in connection with others 28
general, applicable to broad estimates 124
in relation to a situation 25
interdependency of 32, 39-41
pertinent, relation of, to effects to be produced 28
strength and weakness 132, 133
Favorable military situation,
essential elements of a, unchanged through the years 1
salient features of a 39
Favorably progressing military operation, salient features of a 38, 39
Feasibility 39-41, 61, 99
application of test of 187, 144, 147, 164, 165, 167
consideration of, calls for survey of comparative resources 31
facility of execution as test for 100
prospects of success as test for 100
relation of, to correct end in view 31, 32
Features,
salient, of favorable military situation 38-41
Feints 59
Fighting strength,
apportionment of 66-70, 162-164
conclusions as to 132
derivation of 35
human and material components of 8
mental power, a recognized essential component of 18, 217
relative 4, 35, 43, 52, 121, 122, 132
survey of factors of 88
File, journal, description of 207
Force(s),
armed, function and character of 8
requirements of, for task groups 166
task, organization of 165
Form,
estimate, a flexible guide 117
order, detailed description of 188-195
order, discussion of 183-196
standard, for plans and directives 188
use of, in solution of problem 110-113
Formulation,
of mission 82, 87, 121, 204
of tasks 84-86, 165, 192
Freedom of action,
a salient feature of a military situation (operation) 38-41
adequate, measures for ensuring 160-162
assembly of measures for 167
best basis for devising measures for 76
discussion of 70-77
initiative, of paramount importance to 74
list of matters requiring consideration for ensurance of 16
logistics support essential to 74
morale founded upon sound discipline, an essential to 72
organization, of primary importance in contributing to 71
relation of offensive to 75
security measures necessary to 74
Fundamental considerations,
factors become, in particular circumstances 28
the basis for the successful conduct of war 1
Fundamental military philosophy 3
Fundamental Military Principle 39-42
Fundamental principle for attainment of an end 32
Fundamentals common to all campaigns of history 1
Further effect(s),
consideration of 120
indicated by higher authority 33
relation of, to effect desired 30
G
General factors applicable to broad estimates 124
General plan,
a comprehensive method of attaining the assigned objective 49, 109
the Decision available as a 22, 44, 88
indicated in or developed from the Decision 155
Genius, fallacy of relying on availability of 2
Goal of planning 197
Groups, Task, organization of 165
Guide,
the Estimate Form a flexible 117
the Fundamental Military Principle a valid and practical 41
H
Heading of Order Form 189
Hydrography in theater of operations 129
I
Incentive,
during supervision of the action 198
recognition of the 20, 43, 44, 50, 79, 82, 119, 203
relationship of, with motivating task 79
Indoctrination, meaning and application of 16
Information,
and counter-information measures 126
its collection, analysis, evaluation and interpretation 122
of enemy and of friendly forces 190, 216
paragraph of Order Form 190
Initiative,
offensive is a method of seizing 75
relation of, to freedom of action 74
Instructions,
action may be necessary before receipt of 203
commander may depart from 16
letter of, in lieu of directive cast in standard form 188
the letter and spirit of, variation from 103
Intelligence,
accurate, related to freedom of action 76
and counter-intelligence, measures for 160-161
derived from information 122
plan 177
subsidiary problem involving 176
Intelligent suspicion, everything to be viewed with 200
Inventiveness and versatility, special attention to desirable 126
J
Journal file, description of 207
Journal for entry of data in running estimate,
description of 205-207
entries in, purely factual 214
Judgment, professional,
essential to good leadership 3
exercise of, in planning 117-179
exercise of, in the execution of the plan 183-217
has its source in mental power 217
relation of to successful conduct of war 40-114
L
Letters of instruction, use of 85, 188
Life, the ability to withstand punishment 188
Listing,
of courses of action 186, 189
of operations in definite sequence 158
of retained courses of action 139, 148
Logical thought,
necessity for 22
principles in their relation to 22
separates the rational from the irrational 22
Logistics,
factor of direct concern to armed forces 129
paragraph of Order Form 198
plan 179
support, commander hampered without 74
support, measures for 162
Loyalty,
a military necessity 15
more than a moral virtue 14
mutual, born of mutual confidence 9
M
Material, a factor applicable to armed forces 128
Means,
available, and opposed 31-36, 38-41, 43, 52
survey of 123
to be made available, principle for determination of 34
Measures,
for adequate freedom of action 160-162, 167
for exercise of command 160, 168
for information and counter-information 126
for intelligence and counter-intelligence 160
for logistics support 162, 167
for security, cooperation and intelligence 167
for training 160
Mental elements of fighting strength enumerated 9
Mental power,
essential component of fighting strength 18, 217
vital, as basis for professional counsel to State 10
Mental process(es) (See Natural mental process(es))
Military plans and directives (See Directive(s))
Military effort, no easy road to goal of 4
Military operation(s),
application of essential elements of a favorable 157
as tentative solutions of problems, denominated as course(s) of
action 82
attainment of military objective depends on effective 40, 47
determination of effective 55
possible confusion because of phraseology as to 109
principle of effective 42
Military principles, procedure for developing 29
Military problem(s), (See also Problem(s))
conclusion as to approach to solution of 113
approach to solution of, involves four distinct steps 80
basic 81, 82
effect to be produced and action required to produce it, major
considerations in solving 44
use of a form in solution of 110-118
four steps in solution of 79-114
involvements of full solution of 82
major components of 43, 44
solution of 44, 79-114
first step, in 81-106
second step, in 106, 117-164
third step, in 107, 155-179
fourth step, in 107, 183-216
sequence of the four steps in 107-109, 113
sound basis for, establishment of 20, 43
Military situation, every, has both strategical State in military
matters 10
Military situation, every, has both strategical and tactical aspects 83
Mission,
an assigned task coupled with purpose 87
clearly indicates the appropriate effect desired 121
double or multiple tasks in 88
formulation of, 82, 87, 121 204
manner of expressing 87
restated 135
subsidiary 170, 172, 174-176
Mobility, as a material factor 128
Modification of basic plan, problems involving 201
Morale, discussion of 72, 73
Motivating task 80
Mutual understanding essential to unity of effort 14
final aim of 15
N
National and racial characteristics, factors of 126
Natural law,
human activities governed by 29
relation of cause, effect and further effect to 19, 32
relation of, to human activity 11
Natural mental process(es),
adapted to military requirements 80
application of, to problems of war 11
employed by normal mature human beings 19
studied employment of, ii, 217
Naval directives, types of 195
O
Objective(s),
appreciation of (assigned) 44, 82, 119, 203
assigned 48-50, 119-121, 135
attainment of, by chain of command 12
best attained by properly directed effort 45, 79
chain of 48, 62, 54
correct military, principle of 42
selection of 43, 46, 47, 51, 117-184
correct military, relation of, to favorable military situation 37
correct physical, determination of (See also physical
objective(s)) 157, 158
determination of, embodied in tasks 167
general 49, 60
immediate 3, 64
inferred in assigned tasks 49, 84, 88, 104
in mind 37, 47
in space, physical 37, 47
intermediate 54
in war is an effect to be produced 36
national 7
physical (See also physical objective(s))
purpose of attainment usually given to subordinates, 48
selection of correct military 43, 45, 47, 51, 117-134
specified in tasks 84, 104, 49, 88
tentatively selected 51
typically selected by commander himself 50
ultimate 3, 54
Offensive, relation of, to freedom of action 75
Operation plans 195
Operation(s),
planning detailed 3
developed from measures for freedom of action 160
effective military, principle of 42
enemy's, envisaged by commander 144
favorable military situation dependent upon effective 1, 41
in relation to required action 106-107
listing of 158
military 37, 109
naval, classification of 92
order (plan), outline form of 219
reconsideration of 159
resolution of required action into 155-179
resolving courses of action into 147
theater of, characteristics of 129
Oral estimate 212
Order form,
annexes to 193
authentication of 194
body of 190
detailed description of 188-194
distribution of 194
purpose of 112, 188
Organization of task forces and tasks groups 165
Organization, staff, and functioning 210-212
Outline form of Operation Plan 219
P
Perplexity, source of every problem 20, 79
Personnel factor applicable to armed forces 127
Philosophy, fundamental military 3
Physical conditions in field of action 34
Physical objective(s),
defined 37, 47, 167
determination of correct 65
discussion of 55-59
effective action against 157, 158
eventual, a land objective 58
fundamental considerations in determination of 55
relation of, to (mental) objective 38
a salient feature of a military situation (operation) 47
series of, to be dealt with in successive stages 56
suitability, feasibility and acceptability of 56-59
Pithy statements, danger of 24
Planned action,
inauguration of 183-196
supervision of 197-217
Planning, goal of 197
Plan(s),
alternative 156
as proposed methods of procedure 21
basic 82, 108, 195
basic, problems challenging integrity of 203
basic, problems involving modification of 201
battle, described 168-171
best, incorporated in Decision 22
blind adherence to, condemned 200
campaign 194, 195
comparison of 21
detailed 22, 49, 105
general 2, 22, 88, 105, 155, 183
intelligence 177
logistics 179
military directives and military 183
of execution 108
operation, outline form of 219
outlined, plan embodied in basic decision 108
subsidiary 106, 168, 186, 201
Policy,
coordination of national 9
implementation of national 7
relation of, to military strategy 9
Political factors 124
Position(s) (See relative position(s))
Positiveness, required in directives 187
Power, mental, moral and physical 8, 217
Predetermined course(s) of action 86, 96, 102
Principle(s),
a natural law 22
cannot replace logical thought 28
corollary for determination of the appropriate effect to be desired 33
corollary or subordinate 22, 23, 28
establish (es) relations between cause and effect 22
false, why man adopts them; their danger 24
for determination of acceptable consequences as to cost 35
for determination of the proper means to be made available 34
for determination of the proper physical conditions to be
established in the field of action 34
for determining salient features of favorable military situation 39
formulation and use of 23, 27
fundamental, if basic in its field 22
fundamental, for the attainment of an end 32
in relation to logical thought 22
military, procedure for development of 29
of effective military operations 42
of the correct military objective 42
review of conclusions as to 29
the Fundamental Military 39-41
Principles of War (so-called) value and limitations of 25
Problem(s),
appearance of perplexity in situation results in 20
basic, the solution of 117
basis for solution of 20-21
challenging integrity of basic plan 203
courses, of action as tentative solutions of 136
enemy's, survey of 141
establishment of basis for solution of 118
involving modification of basic plan 201
recognition of new 199
solution of 20, 44
subsidiary 106
arising because of no sound solution for basic 149
how solved 106, 169
involving intelligence 176
involving preparation of battle plans 171
relating to logistics 178
relating to training 175
tactical 108
Psychological factors 125
Purpose,
of Decision 152-153
of Mission 87, 121
re-examined 135
R
Racial characteristics as psychological factor 126
Raid may be a valuable operation 73
Readjustments required during supervision of planned action 199
Recognition of the incentive 119, 203
Reestimate of the situation 146
Rejection of courses of action 138, 139, 147
Relations, external 124
Relative fighting strength 4, 35, 43, 52, 121, 122
conclusions as to 132
feasibility and acceptability as to 121-133
Relative location and distance 131
Relative position(s),
advantageous 159
characteristics of theatre, important from standpoint of 64
discussion of 59-66
fundamental considerations as to 59
procedure for determination and selection of advantageous 61, 159
salient feature of a military situation (operation) 38-41
suitability, feasibility and acceptability of 61-66
Resources,
as part of basis for solution of problem 21, 30
feasibility requires survey of 31
Restatement of the decision for use in the directive 187
Rule(s) of action,
circumstances alter cases, a reliable 24
faulty, unfortunate consequences of 23, 24
pithy statements as 24
search for reliable, by human mind 23
Running estimate 107, 113, 204
S
Salient features,
considered in selecting objective 51
of a situation 39
of military operations 38-41, 111
Science of war, basis for 1
Scientific analysis 1
Scientific approach to solution of military problems 2
Scientific investigation 1
Sea(s),
areas, operations for securing command of 92
high, and air above, presumably common property 62
movement by land, and air 60
provides theatre of operations with distinctive characteristics 80
routes, an important subject of study 62, 131
surface of, provides roads 62
Security measures 74
Selection of the best course of action 145-151
Sequence of operations, visualized 158
Sequence of tasks, chronological or in order of importance 166
Signature in Order Form 193
Situation,
a combination of circumstances 20, 25
actual or assumed 79
basic 82
enemy, summary of 141
produced by effects of certain causes 25
summary of 82, 119, 203
to be maintained or created 21, 30
Solution(s) of problem(s),
establishment of basis for 118-135
process of 135-151
tentative 88, 93, 97, 136
Sound decision, approach presented for reaching 3
Staff,
assistance, utilization of 93
of commander 13
organization and functioning 210-212
Stages, successive, for accomplishment of effort 164
Standard form for plans and directives 188
Strategy,
and tactics inseparable 10, 11
differentiated from tactics by end in view 83
distinguished by objectives 3, 10
in relation to policy 9
in relation to tactics 10
Strength and weakness factors 132
Strength, relative fighting (see also fighting strength) 4, 33, 43,
52, 121, 122, 132
Subordinates, proper relationship of, to commander 15
Subsidiary mission 170, 172, 174, 175, 176
Subsidiary plans,
as annexes 185
preparation of 168-179
Subsidiary problem(s) (See also Problem(s))
arising because of no sound solution for basic problem 149
how solved 106,169
involving intelligence 176
involving preparation of battle plan 171
relative to logistics 178
relative to training 175
Suitability,
application of test for 98-102, 137, 144, 147, 164
requirement of 31, 32, 39-41, 43, 51, 56
Summarized comparison of courses of action 148
Supervision of planned action 197-216
Suspicion, intelligent, everything to be viewed with 200
T
Tactics,
and strategy inseparable 10
differentiated from strategy by end in view 83
Task(s)
as a predetermined course of action 86
assignment of, to subordinates 84, 192, 193
expressed in terms of accomplishment 84
forces and task groups 165, 166, 190
formulation of 165
logistics 166
manner of expressing 84-86
modification of, may be required by changing situation 15
motivating 80, 153
of the mission 87, 121, 136
organization 14, 165, 166, 190
properly conceived, indicate an objective 84
re-examination of 135
underlying 103
Technique, nature of, in solution of problems 205
Tentative solution(s) of problem(s) 88, 93, 97, 136
Tests for suitability, feasibility and acceptability 137-139, 144,
147, 164, 168
Theater of operations, survey of characteristics of 129-132
Training,
measures for 160
peacetime 2
subsidiary problem relating to 175
tactical 72
Transportation and supply, lines of 131
Types of naval directives 195
U
Undesirable departures from plan involve penalty 201
Unforeseen opportunity to strike enemy may be presented 200
Unity of effort,
adherence to chain of command, essential to 12
between management and labor 126
most important single factor 12, 13
mutual understanding requisite to 14
V
Versatility, as a psychological factor 126
Vessels, including aircraft, as a factor applicable to armed forces 127
W
War,
a human activity and subject to natural law 11
as understood herein 8
conditions in, peacetime exercises not conclusive guide to 198
effective conduct of, requirements and demands of 17
specialized nature of, as a human activity 35
Warfare, naval, discussion of 91, 92
Weather 130
Will of the commander, importance of 201
Work Sheet,
description of 207-210
entries in 214
facilitates oral estimates 212
facilitates special reports 212
facilitates written estimates 213
summary of 216
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