[1] The mace was carried in battle by medieval bishops (Odo of Bayeux
is represented on the Bayeux tapestry as wielding one) instead of the
sword, so as to conform to the canonical rule which forbade priests
to shed blood.--[ED.]
MACEDO, JOSÉ AGOSTINHO DE (1761-1831), Portuguese poet and prose writer,
was born at Beja of plebeian family, and studied Latin and rhetoric with
the Oratorians in Lisbon. He became professed as an Augustinian in 1778,
but owing to his turbulent character he spent a great part of his time
in prison, and was constantly being transferred from one convent to
another, finally giving up the monastic habit to live licentiously in
the capital. In 1792 he was unfrocked, but by the aid of powerful
friends he obtained a papal brief which secularized him and permitted
him to retain his ecclesiastical status. Taking to journalism and
preaching he now made for himself a substantial living and a unique
position. In a short time he was recognized as the leading pulpit orator
of the day, and in 1802 he became one of the royal preachers. Macedo was
the first to introduce from abroad and to cultivate didactic and
descriptive poetry, the best example of which is his notable
transcendental poem _Meditation_ (1813). His colossal egotism made him
attempt to supersede Camoens as Portugal's greatest poet, and in 1814 he
produced _Oriente_, an insipid epic notwithstanding its correct and
vigorous verse, dealing with the same subject as the _Lusiads_--Gama's
discovery of the sea route to India. This amended paraphrase met with a
cold reception, whereupon Macedo published his _Censura dos Lusiadas_,
containing a minute examination and virulent indictment of Camoens.
Macedo founded and wrote for a large number of journals, and the tone
and temper of these and his political pamphlets induced his leading
biographer to name him the "chief libeller" of Portugal, though at the
time his jocular and satirical style gained him popular favour. An
extreme adherent of absolutism, he expended all his brilliant powers of
invective against the Constitutionalists, and advocated a general
massacre of the opponents of the Miguelite regime. Notwithstanding his
priestly office and old age, he continued his aggressive journalistic
campaign, until his own party, feeling that he was damaging the cause by
his excesses, threatened him with proceedings, which caused him in 1829
to resign the post of censor of books for the Ordinary, to which he had
been appointed in 1824. Though his ingratitude was proverbial, and his
moral character of the worst, when he died in 1831 he left behind him
many friends, a host of admirers, and a great but ephemeral literary
reputation. His ambition to rank as the king of letters led to his
famous conflict with Bocage (q.v.), whose poem _Pena de Talião_ was
perhaps the hardest blow Macedo ever received. His malignity reached its
height in a satirical poem in six cantos, _Os Burros_ (1812-1814), in
which he pilloried by name men and women of all grades of society,
living and dead, with the utmost licence of expression. His translation
of the _Odes_ of Horace, and his dramatic attempts, are only of value as
evidence of the extraordinary versatility of the man, but his treatise,
if his it be, _A Demonstration of the Existence of God_, at least proves
his possession of very high mental powers. As a poet, his odes on
Wellington and the emperor Alexander show true inspiration, and the
poems of the same nature in his _Lyra anacreontica_, addressed to his
mistress, have considerable merit.
See _Memorias para la vida intima de José Agostinho de Macedo_ (ed.
Th. Braga, 1899); _Cartas e opusculos_ (1900); _Censuras á diversas
obras_ (1901). (E. Pr.)
MACEDONIA, the name generally given to that portion of European Turkey
which is bounded on the N. by the Kara-Dagh mountain range and the
frontier of Bulgaria, on the E. by the river Mesta, on the S. by the
Aegean Sea and the frontier of Greece, and on the W. by an ill-defined
line coinciding with the mountain chains of Shar (ancient _Scardus_)
Grammus and Pindus. The Macedonia of antiquity was originally confined
to the inland region west of the Axius, between that river and the
Scardus range, and did not include the northern portion, known as
Paeonia, or the coast-land, which, with the eastern districts, was
inhabited by Thracian tribes; the people of the country were not
Hellenic. In modern Macedonia are included the viláyet of Salonica
(Turk. _Selanik_), the eastern and greater portion of the viláyet of
Monastir (sanjaks of Monastir, Servia [Turk. _Selfijé_], and part of
that of Kortcha), and the south-eastern portion of the viláyet of
Kossovo (sanjak of Usküb). The greater part of Macedonia is inhabited by
a Slavonic population, mainly Bulgarian in its characteristics; the
coast-line and the southern districts west of the Gulf of Salonica by
Greeks, while Turkish, Vlach and Albanian settlements exist
sporadically, or in groups, in many parts of the country.
_Geographical Features._--The coast-line is broken by the remarkable
peninsula of Chalcidice, with its three promontories of Athos (ancient
_Acte_), Longus (_Sithonia_) and Cassandra (_Pallene_). The country is
divided into two almost equal portions by the river Vardar (_Axius_),
the valley of which has always constituted the principal route from
Central Europe to the Aegean. Rising in the Shar mountains near
Gostivar (Bulgarian _Kostovo_), the Vardar, flowing to the N.E.,
drains the rich elevated plain of Tetovo (Turk. _Kalkandelen_) and,
turning to the S.E. at the foot of Mt Liubotrn, traverses the town and
plain of Usküb, leaving to the left the high plateau of Ovchepolye
("the sheep-plain"); then flowing through the town of Veles, it
receives on its right, near the ruins of the ancient Stobi, the waters
of its principal tributary, the Tcherna (_Erigon_), which drains the
basin of Monastir and the mountainous region of Morichovo, and after
passing through the picturesque gorge of Demir-Kapu (the Iron Gate)
finds its way to the Gulf of Salonica through the alluvial tract known
as the Campania, extending to the west of that town. The other
important rivers are the Struma (_Strymon_) and Mesta (_Nestus_) to
the east, running almost parallel to the Vardar, and the Bistritza in
the south, all falling into the Aegean. (The Black Drin, issuing from
Lake Ochrida and flowing N.W. to the Adriatic, is for the greater part
of its course an Albanian river.) The Struma, which rises in Mt
Vitosha in Bulgaria, runs through a narrow defile till, within a short
distance of the sea, it expands into Lake Tachino, and falls into the
Aegean near the site of the ancient Amphipolis. The Mesta, rising in
the Rhodope range, drains the valley of Razlog and forms a delta at
its entrance into the Aegean opposite the island of Thasos. The
Bistritza, which has its source in the eastern slope of Mt Grammus,
receives early in its course the outflow from Lake Castoria on the
left; it flows to the S.E. towards the frontier of Greece, where its
course is arrested by the Cambunian mountains; then turning sharply to
the N.E., and passing through the districts of Serfije and Verria, it
reaches the Campania and enters the Gulf of Salonica at a point a few
miles to the S.W. of the mouth of the Vardar. The valleys of most of
the rivers and their tributaries broaden here and there into fertile
upland basins, which were formerly lakes. Of these the extensive
plateau of Monastir, the ancient plain of Pelagonia, about 1500 ft.
above the sea, is the most remarkable; the basins of Tetovo, Usküb,
Kotchané, Strumnitza, Nevrokop, Melnik, Serres and Drama furnish other
examples. The principal lakes are Ochrida (_Lychnitis_) on the
confines of Albania; Prespa, separated from Ochrida by the Galinitza
mountains, and supposed to be connected with it by a subterranean
channel; Castoria, to the S.E. of Prespa; Ostrovo, midway between
Prespa and the Vardar; Tachino (_Cercinitis_) on the lower course of
the Struma; Beshik (_Bolbe_), separating the Chalcidian peninsula from
the mainland, and Doiran (probably _Prasias_), beneath the southern
declivity of the Belasitza mountains; the smaller lakes of Amatovo and
Yenije are in the alluvial plain on either side of the lower Vardar.
Lake Ochrida (q.v.) finds egress into the Black Drin (_Drilon_) at
Struga, where there are productive fisheries. The lacustrine
habitations of the Paeonians on Lake Prasias described by Herodotus
(v. 16) find a modern counterpart in the huts of the fishing
population on Lake Doiran. The surface of the country is generally
mountainous; the various mountain-groups present little uniformity in
their geographical contour. The great chain of Rhodope, continued to
the N.W. by the Rilska and Osogovska Planina, forms a natural boundary
on the north; the principal summit, Musalla (9031 ft.), is just over
the Bulgarian frontier. The adjoining Dospat range culminates in
Belmeken (8562 ft.), also just over the Bulgarian frontier. Between
the upper courses of the Mesta and Struma is the Perim Dagh or Pirin
Planina (_Orbelos_) with Elin (8794 ft.), continued to the south by
the Bozo Dagh (6081 ft.); still further south, overlooking the bay of
Kavala, are the Bunar Dagh and Mt Pangaeus, famous in antiquity for
its gold and silver mines. Between the Struma and the Vardar are the
Belasitza, Krusha and other ranges. West of the Vardar is the lofty
Shar chain (_Scardus_) overlooking the plain of Tetovo and terminating
at its eastern extremity in the pyramidal Liubotrn (according to some
authorities, 10,007 ft., and consequently the highest mountain in the
Peninsula; according to others 8989, 8856, or 8200 ft.). The Shar
range, with the Kara Dagh to the east, forms the natural boundary of
Macedonia on the N.W.; this is prolonged on the west by the
Yaina-Bistra and Yablanitza mountains with several summits exceeding
7000 ft. in height, the Odonishta Planina overlooking Lake Ochrida on
the west, the Morova Planina, the Grammus range, and Pindus with
Smolika (8546 ft.). The series of heights is broken by the valleys of
the Black Drin and Devol, which flow to the Adriatic. Between the
Vardar and the plain of Monastir the Nija range culminates in
Kaimakchalan (8255 ft.); south-west of Monastir is Mt Peristeri (7720
ft.) overlooking Lake Prespa on the east; on the west is the Galinitza
range separating it from Lake Ochrida. Between Lake Ostrovo and the
lower Bistritza are the Bermius and Kitarion ranges with Doxa (5240
ft.) and Turla (about 3280 ft.). South of the Bistritza are the
Cambunian mountains forming the boundary of Thessaly and terminating
to the east in the imposing mass of Etymbos, or Olympus (9794 ft.).
Lastly, Mt Athos, at the extremity of the peninsula of that name,
reaches the height of 6350 ft. The general aspect of the country is
bare and desolate, especially in the neighbourhood of the principal
routes; the trees have been destroyed, and large tracts of land remain
uncultivated. Magnificent forests, however, still clothe the slopes of
Rhodope, Pirin and Pindus. The well-wooded and cultivated districts of
Grevena and Castoria, which are mainly inhabited by a Vlach
population, are remarkably beautiful, and the scenery around Lakes
Ochrida and Prespa is exceedingly picturesque. For the principal
geological formations see BALKAN PENINSULA.
The climate is severe; the spring is often rainy, and the melted snows
from the encircling mountains produce inundations in the plains. The
natural products are in general similar to those of southern Bulgaria
and Servia--the fig, olive and orange, however, appear on the shores
of the Aegean and in the sheltered valleys of the southern region. The
best tobacco in Europe is grown in the Drama and Kavala districts;
rice and cotton are cultivated in the southern plains.
_Population._--The population of Macedonia may perhaps be estimated at
2,200,000. About 1,300,000 are Christians of various churches and
nationalities; more than 800,000 are Mahommedans, and about 75,000 are
Jews. Of the Christians, the great majority profess the Eastern
Orthodox faith, owning allegiance either to the Greek patriarchate or
the Bulgarian exarchate. Among the Orthodox Christians are reckoned
some 4000 Turks. The small Catholic minority is composed chiefly of
Uniate Bulgarians (about 3600), occupying the districts of Kukush and
Doiran; there are also some 2000 Bulgarian Protestants, principally
inhabiting the valley of Razlog. The Mahommedan population is mainly
composed of Turks (about 500,000). In addition to these there are some
130,000 Bulgars, 120,000 Albanians, 35,000 gipsies and 14,000 Greeks,
together with a smaller number of Vlachs, Jews and Circassians, who
profess the creed of Islam. The untrustworthy Turkish statistics take
religion, not nationality, as the basis of classification. All Moslems
are included in the _millet_, or nation, of Islam. The Rum, or Roman
(i.e. Greek) _millet_ comprises all those who acknowledge the
authority of the Oecumenical patriarch, and consequently includes, in
addition to the Greeks, the Servians, the Vlachs, and a certain number
of Bulgarians; the Bulgar _millet_ comprises the Bulgarians who accept
the rule of the exarchate; the other _millets_ are the _Katolik_
(Catholics), _Ermeni_ (Gregorian Armenians), _Musevi_ (Jews) and
_Prodesdan_ (Protestants). The population of Macedonia, at all times
scanty, has undoubtedly diminished in recent years. There has been a
continual outflow of the Christian population in the direction of
Bulgaria, Servia and Greece, and a corresponding emigration of the
Turkish peasantry to Asia Minor. Many of the smaller villages are
being abandoned by their inhabitants, who migrate for safety to the
more considerable towns--usually situated at some point where a
mountain pass descends to the outskirts of the plains. In the
agricultural districts the Christian peasants, or _rayas_, are either
small proprietors or cultivate holdings on the estates of Turkish
landowners. The upland districts are thinly inhabited by a nomad
pastoral population.
_Towns._--The principal towns are Salonica (pop. in 1910, about
130,000), Monastir (60,000), each the capital of a viláyet, and Usküb
(32,000), capital of the viláyet of Kossovo. In the Salonica viláyet
are Serres (28,000), pleasantly situated in a fertile valley near Lake
Tachino; Nevrokop (6200), Mehomia (5000), and Bansko (6500), in the
valley of the Upper Mesta; Drama (9000), at the foot of the Bozo Dagh,
with its port Kavala (9500); Djumaia (6440), Melnik (4300) and Demir
Hissar (5840) in the valley of the Struma, with Strumnitza (10,160)
and Petrich (7100) in the valley of its tributary, the Strumnitza;
Veles (Turk. _Koprülü_) on the Vardar (19,700); Doiran (6780) and
Kukush (7750); and, to the west of the Vardar, Verria (Slav. _Ber_,
anc. _Beroea_, Turk. _Karaferia_, 10,500), Yenijé-Vardar (9599) and
Vodena (anc. _Edessa_, q.v., 11,000). In the portion of the Kossovo
viláyet included in Macedonia are Kalkandelen (Slav. _Tetovo_,
19,200), Kumanovo (14,500) and Shtip (Turk. _Istib_, 21,000). In the
Monastir viláyet are Prilep (24,000) at the northern end of the
Pelagonian plain, Krushevo (9350), mainly inhabited by Vlachs, Resen
(4450) north of Lake Prespa, Florina (Slav. _Lerin_, 9824); Ochrida
(14,860), with a picturesque fortress of Tsar Samuel, and Struga
(4570), both on the north shore of Lake Ochrida; Dibra (Slav. _Debr_)
on the confines of Albania (15,500), Castoria (Slav. _Kostur_), on the
lake of that name (6190), and Kozhané (6100). (Dibra, Kavala,
Monastir, Ochrida, Salonica, Serres, Usküb and Vodena are described in
separate articles.)
The Turks.
_Races._--Macedonia is the principal theatre of the struggle of
nationalities in Eastern Europe. All the races which dispute the
reversion of the Turkish possessions in Europe are represented within
its borders. The Macedonian probably may therefore be described as the
quintessence of the Near Eastern Question. The Turks, the ruling race,
form less than a quarter of the entire population, and their numbers are
steadily declining. The first Turkish immigration from Asia Minor took
place under the Byzantine emperors before the conquest of the country.
The first purely Turkish town, Yenijé-Vardar, was founded on the ruins
of Vardar in 1362. After the capture of Salonica (1430), a strong
Turkish population was settled in the city, and similar colonies were
founded in Monastir, Ochrida, Serres, Drama and other important places.
In many of these towns half or more of the population is still Turkish.
A series of military colonies were subsequently established at various
points of strategic importance along the principal lines of
communication. Before 1360 large numbers of nomad shepherds, or Yuruks,
from the district of Konia, in Asia Minor, had settled in the country;
their descendants are still known as Konariotes. Further immigration
from this region took place from time to time up to the middle of the
18th century. After the establishment of the feudal system in 1397 many
of the Seljuk noble families came over from Asia Minor; their
descendants may be recognized among the beys or Moslem landowners in
southern Macedonia. At the beginning of the 18th century the Turkish
population was very considerable, but since that time it has
continuously decreased. A low birth-rate, the exhaustion of the male
population by military service, and great mortality from epidemics,
against which Moslem fatalism takes no precautions, have brought about a
decline which has latterly been hastened by emigration. On the other
hand, there has been a considerable Moslem immigration from Bosnia,
Servia, Bulgaria and Greece, but the newcomers, _mohajirs_, do not form
a permanent colonizing element. The Turkish rural population is found in
three principal groups: the most easterly extends from the Mesta to
Drama, Pravishta and Orfano, reaching the sea-coast on either side of
Kavala, which is partly Turkish, partly Greek. The second, or central,
group begins on the sea-coast, a little west of the mouth of the
Strymon, where a Greek population intervenes, and extends to the
north-west along the Kara-Dagh and Belasitza ranges in the direction of
Strumnitza, Veles, Shtip and Radovisht. The third, or southern, group is
centred around Kaïlar, an entirely Turkish town, and extends from Lake
Ostrovo to Selfijé (Servia). The second and third groups are mainly
composed of Konariot shepherds. Besides these fairly compact settlements
there are numerous isolated Turkish colonies in various parts of the
country. The Turkish rural population is quiet, sober and orderly,
presenting some of the best characteristics of the race. The urban
population, on the other hand, has become much demoralized, while the
official classes, under the rule of Abdul Hamid II. and his
predecessors, were corrupt and avaricious, and seemed to have parted
with all scruple in their dealings with the Christian peasantry. The
Turks, though still numerically and politically strong, fall behind the
other nationalities in point of intellectual culture, and the contrast
is daily becoming more marked owing to the educational activity of the
Christians.
The Greeks and Vlachs.
The Greek and Vlach populations are not always easily distinguished, as
a considerable proportion of the Vlachs have been hellenized. Both show
a remarkable aptitude for commerce; the Greeks have maintained their
language and religion, and the Vlachs their religion, with greater
tenacity than any of the other races. From the date of the Ottoman
conquest until comparatively recent times, the Greeks occupied an
exceptional position in Macedonia, as elsewhere in the Turkish Empire,
owing to the privileges conferred on the patriarchate of Constantinople,
and the influence subsequently acquired by the great Phanariot families.
All the Christian population belonged to the Greek _millet_ and called
itself Greek; the bishops and higher clergy were exclusively Greek;
Greek was the language of the upper classes, of commerce, literature and
religion, and Greek alone was taught in the schools. The supremacy of
the patriarchate was consummated by the suppression of the autocephalous
Slavonic churches of Ipek in 1766 and Ochrida in 1767. In the latter
half of the 18th century Greek ascendancy in Macedonia was at its
zenith; its decline began with the War of Independence, the
establishment of the Hellenic kingdom, and the extinction of the
Phanariot power in Constantinople. The patriarchate, nevertheless,
maintained its exclusive jurisdiction over all the Orthodox population
till 1870, when the Bulgarian exarchate was established, and the Greek
clergy continued to labour with undiminished zeal for the spread of
Hellenism. Notwithstanding their venality and intolerance, their merits
as the only diffusers of culture and enlightenment in the past should
not be overlooked. The process of hellenization made greater progress in
the towns than in the rural districts of the interior, where the
non-Hellenic populations preserved their languages, which alone saved
the several nationalities from extinction. The typical Greek, with his
superior education, his love of politics and commerce, and his distaste
for laborious occupations, has always been a dweller in cities. In
Salonica, Serres, Kavala, Castoria, and other towns in southern
Macedonia the Hellenic element is strong; in the northern towns it is
insignificant, except at Melnik, which is almost exclusively Greek. The
Greek rural population extends from the Thessalian frontier to Castoria
and Verria (_Beroea_); it occupies the whole Chalcidian peninsula and
both banks of the lower Strymon from Serres to the sea, and from Nigrita
on the west to Pravishta on the east; there are also numerous Greek
villages in the Kavala district. The Mahommedan Greeks, known as
Valachides, occupy a considerable tract in the upper Bistritza valley
near Grevena and Liapsista. The purely Greek population of Macedonia may
possibly be estimated at a quarter of a million. The Vlachs, or Rumans,
who call themselves _Aromuni_ or _Aromâni_ (i.e. Romans), are also known
as _Kutzovlachs_ and _Tzintzars_: the last two appellations are, in
fact, nicknames, "Kutzovlach" meaning "lame Vlach," while "Tzintzar"
denotes their inability to pronounce the Rumanian _cinci_ (five). The
Vlachs are styled by some writers "Macedo-Rumans," in contradistinction
to the "Daco-Rumans," who inhabit the country north of the Danube. They
are, in all probability, the descendants of the Thracian branch of the
aboriginal Thraco-Illyrian population of the Balkan Peninsula, the
Illyrians being represented by the Albanians. This early native
population, which was apparently hellenized to some extent under the
Macedonian empire, seems to have been latinized in the period succeeding
the Roman conquest, and probably received a considerable infusion of
Italian blood. The Vlachs are for the most part either highland
shepherds or wandering owners of horses and mules. Their settlements are
scattered all over the mountains of Macedonia: some of these consist of
permanent dwellings, others of huts occupied only in the summer. The
compactest groups are found in the Pindus and Agrapha mountains
(extending into Albania and Thessaly), in the neighbourhood of Monastir,
Grevena and Castoria, and in the district of Meglen. The Vlachs who
settle in the lowland districts are excellent husbandmen. The urban
population is considerable; the Vlachs of Salonica, Monastir, Serres and
other large towns are, for the most part, descended from refugees from
Moschopolis, once the principal centre of Macedonian commerce. The towns
of Metzovo, on the confines of Albania, and Klisura, in the Bistritza
valley, are almost exclusively Vlach. The urban and most of the rural
Vlachs are bilingual, speaking Greek as well as Rumanian; a great number
of the former have been completely hellenized, partly in consequence of
mixed marriages, and many of the wealthiest commercial families of Vlach
origin are now devoted to the Greek cause. The Vlachs of Macedonia
possibly number 90,000, of whom only some 3000 are Mahommedans. The
Macedonian dialect of the Rumanian language differs mainly from that
spoken north of the Danube in its vocabulary and certain phonetic
peculiarities; it contains a number of Greek words which are often
replaced in the northern speech by Slavonic or Latin synonyms.
The Albanians, Circassians, &c.
The Albanians, called by the Turks and Slavs _Arnauts_, by the Greeks
[Greek: Apbanitai], and by themselves _Shkyipetar_, have always been the
scourge of western Macedonia. After the first Turkish invasion of
Albania many of the chiefs or beys adopted Mahommedanism, but the
conversion of the great bulk of the people took place in the 16th and
17th centuries. Professing the creed of the dominant power and entitled
to bear arms, the Albanians were enabled to push forward their limits at
the expense of the defenceless population around them, and their
encroachments have continued to the present day. They have not only
advanced themselves, but have driven to the eastward numbers of their
Christian compatriots and a great portion of the once-prosperous Vlach
population of Albania. Albanian revolts and disturbances have been
frequent along the western confines of Macedonia, especially in the
neighbourhood of Dibra: the Slavonic peasants have been the principal
sufferers from these troubles, while the Porte, in pursuance of the
"Islamic policy" adopted by the sultan Abdul Hamid II., dealt tenderly
with the recalcitrant believers. In southern Macedonia the Albanians of
the Tosk race extend over the upper Bistritza valley as far west as
Castoria, and reach the southern and western shores of Lakes Prespa and
Ochrida: they are also numerous in the neighbourhood of Monastir. In
northern Macedonia the Albanians are of the Gheg stock: they have
advanced in large numbers over the districts of Dibra, Kalkandelen and
Usküb, driving the Slavonic population before them. The total number of
Albanians in Macedonia may be estimated at about 120,000, of whom some
10,000 are Christians (chiefly orthodox Tosks). The Circassians, who
occupy some villages in the neighbourhood of Serres, now scarcely number
3000: their predatory instincts may be compared with those of the
Albanians. The Jews had colonies in Macedonia in the time of St Paul,
but no trace remains of these early settlements. The Jews now found in
the country descend from refugees who fled from Spain during the
persecutions at the end of the 15th century: they speak a dialect of
Spanish, which they write with Hebrew characters. They form a
flourishing community at Salonica, which numbers more than half the
population: their colonies at Monastir, Serres and other towns are poor.
A small proportion of the Jews, known as _Deunmé_ by the Turks, have
embraced Mahommedanism.
The Slavonic Population.
With the exception of the southern and western districts already
specified, the principal towns, and certain isolated tracts, the whole
of Macedonia is inhabited by a race or races speaking a Slavonic
dialect. If language is adopted as a test, the great bulk of the rural
population must be described as Slavonic. The Slavs first crossed the
Danube at the beginning of the 3rd century, but their great immigration
took place in the 6th and 7th centuries. They overran the entire
peninsula, driving the Greeks to the shores of the Aegean, the Albanians
into the Mirdite country, and the latinized population of Macedonia into
the highland districts, such as Pindus, Agrapha and Olympus. The Slavs,
a primitive agricultural and pastoral people, were often unsuccessful in
their attacks on the fortified towns, which remained centres of
Hellenism. In the outlying parts of the peninsula they were absorbed, or
eventually driven back, by the original populations, but in the central
region they probably assimilated a considerable proportion of the
latinized races. The western portions of the peninsula were occupied by
Serb and Slovene tribes: the Slavs of the eastern and central portions
were conquered at the end of the 7th century by the Bulgarians, a
Ugro-Finnish horde, who established a despotic political organization,
but being less numerous than the subjected race were eventually absorbed
by it. The Mongolian physical type, which prevails in the districts
between the Balkans and the Danube, is also found in central Macedonia,
and may be recognized as far west as Ochrida and Dibra. In general,
however, the Macedonian Slavs differ somewhat both in appearance and
character from their neighbours beyond the Bulgarian and Servian
frontiers: the peculiar type which they present is probably due to a
considerable admixture of Vlach, Hellenic, Albanian and Turkish blood,
and to the influence of the surrounding races. Almost all independent
authorities, however, agree that the bulk of the Slavonic population of
Macedonia is Bulgarian. The principal indication is furnished by the
language, which, though resembling Servian in some respects (e.g. the
case-endings, which are occasionally retained), presents most of the
characteristic features of Bulgarian (see BULGARIA: _Language_). Among
these may be mentioned the suffix-article, the nasal vowels (retained in
the neighbourhood of Salonica and Castoria, but modified elsewhere as in
Bulgarian), the retention of l (e.g. _vulk_ "wolf," _bel_ "white";
Servian _vuk_, _beo_), and the loss of the infinitive. There are at
least four Slavonic dialects in Macedonia, but the suffix-article,
though varying in form, is a constant feature in all. The Slavs of
western Macedonia are of a lively, enterprising character, and share the
commercial aptitude of the Vlachs: those of the eastern and southern
regions are a quiet, sober, hardworking agricultural race, more
obviously homogeneous with the population of Bulgaria. In upper
Macedonia large family communities, resembling the Servian and Bulgarian
_zadruga_, are commonly found: they sometimes number over 50 members.
The whole Slavonic population of Macedonia may be estimated at about
1,150,000, of whom about 1,000,000 are Christians of the Orthodox faith.
The majority of these own allegiance to the Bulgarian exarchate, but a
certain minority still remains faithful to the Greek patriarchate. The
Moslem Bulgarians form a considerable element: they are found
principally in the valley of the upper Mesta and the Rhodope district,
where they are known as _Pomaks_ or "helpers," i.e. auxiliaries to the
Turkish army.
_The Racial Propaganda._--The embittered struggle of the rival
nationalities in Macedonia dates from the middle of the 19th century.
Until that period the Greeks, owing to their superior culture and their
privileged position, exercised an exclusive influence over the whole
population professing the Orthodox faith. All Macedonia was either
Moslem or Orthodox Christian, without distinction of nationalities, the
Catholic or Protestant _millets_ being inconsiderable. The first
opposition to Greek ecclesiastical ascendancy came from the Bulgarians.
The Bulgarian literary revival, which took place in the earlier part of
the 19th century, was the precursor of the ecclesiastical and national
movement which resulted in the establishment of the exarchate in 1870
(see BULGARIA). In the course of the struggle some of the Bulgarian
leaders entered into negotiations with Rome; a Bulgarian Uniate church
was recognized by the Porte, and the pope nominated a bishop, who,
however, was mysteriously deported to Russia a few days after his
consecration (1861). The first exarch, who was elected in 1871, was
excommunicated with all his followers by the patriarch, and a
considerable number of Bulgarians in Macedonia--the so-called
"Bulgarophone Greeks"--fearing the reproach of schism, or influenced by
other considerations, refrained from acknowledging the new spiritual
power. Many of the recently converted uniates, on the other hand,
offered their allegiance to the exarch. The firman of the 28th of
February 1870 specified a number of districts within the present
boundaries of Bulgaria and Servia, as well as in Macedonia, to which
Bulgarian bishops might be appointed; other districts might be subjected
to the exarchate should two-thirds of the inhabitants so desire. In
virtue of the latter provision the districts of Veles, Ochrida and Usküb
declared for the exarchate, but the Turkish government refrained from
sanctioning the nomination of Bulgarian bishops to these dioceses. It
was not till 1891 that the Porte, at the instance of Stamboloff, the
Bulgarian prime minister, whose demands were supported by the Triple
Alliance and Great Britain, issued the _berat_, or exequatur, for
Bulgarian bishops at Ochrida and Usküb; the sees of Veles and Nevrokop
received Bulgarian prelates in 1894, and those of Monastir, Strumnitza
and Dibra in 1898. The Bulgarian position was further strengthened in
the latter year by the establishment of "commercial agents" representing
the principality at Salonica, Usküb, Monastir and Serres. During this
period (1891-1898) the Bulgarian propaganda, entirely controlled by the
spiritual power and conducted within the bounds of legality, made rapid
and surprising progress. Subsequently the interference of the Macedonian
committee at Sofia, in which the advocates of physical force
predominated, and the rivalry of factions did much to injure the
movement; the hostility of the Porte was provoked and the sympathy of
the powers alienated by a series of assassinations and other crimes.
According to the official figures, the Bulgarian schools, which in 1893
were 554, with 30,267 pupils and 853 teachers, in 1900 numbered 785
(including 5 gymnasia and 58 secondary schools), with 39,892 pupils and
1250 teachers. A great number of the schools were closed by the Turkish
authorities after the insurrection of 1903 and many had not been
reopened in 1909; the teachers were imprisoned or had fled into exile.
The Rumanian movement comes next to the Bulgarian in order of time. The
Vlachs had shown greater susceptibility to Greek influence than any of
the other non-Hellenic populations of Macedonia, and, though efforts to
create a Rumanian propaganda were made as early as 1855, it was not till
after the union of the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia in 1861
that any indications of a national sentiment appeared amongst them. In
1886 the principal apostle of the Rumanian cause, a priest named Apostol
Margaritis, founded a gymnasium at Monastir, and the movement,
countenanced by the Porte, supported by the French Catholic missions,
and to some extent encouraged by Austria, has made no inconsiderable
progress since that time. There are now about forty Rumanian schools in
Macedonia, including two gymnasia, and large sums are devoted to their
maintenance by the ministry of education at Bucharest, which also
provides qualified teachers. The Rumanian and Servian movements are at a
disadvantage compared with the Bulgarian, owing to their want of a
separate ecclesiastical organization, the orthodox Vlachs and Serbs in
Turkey owning allegiance to the Greek patriarchate. The governments of
Bucharest and Belgrade therefore endeavoured to obtain the recognition
of Vlach and Servian _millets_, demanding respectively the establishment
of a Rumanian bishopric at Monastir and the restoration of the
patriarchate of Ipek with the appointment of a Servian metropolitan at
Usküb. The Vlach _millet_ was recognized by the Porte by iradé on the
23rd of May 1905, but the aims of the Servians, whose active
interference in Macedonia is of comparatively recent date, have not been
realized. Previously to 1878 the hopes of the Servians were centred on
Bosnia, Herzegovina and the viláyet of Kossovo; but when the Berlin
Treaty assigned Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria, the national
aspirations were directed to Macedonia, the Slavonic population of which
was declared to be Servian. The strained relations existing between
Russia and Bulgaria from 1886 to 1895 were to the advantage of the
Servian propaganda, which after 1890 made remarkable progress. Great
expenditure has been incurred by the Servian government in the opening
and maintenance of schools. At the beginning of 1899 there were stated
to be 178 Servian schools in the viláyets of Usküb, Salonica and
Monastir (including fifteen gymnasia), with 321 teachers and 7200
pupils.
The Albanian movement is still in an inceptive stage; owing to the
persistent prohibition of Albanian schools by the Turks, a literary
propaganda, the usual precursor of a national revival, was rendered
impossible till the outbreak of the Young Turk revolution in July 1908.
After that date numerous schools were founded and an Albanian committee,
meeting in November 1908, fixed the national alphabet and decided on the
adoption of the Latin character. The educational movement is most
conspicuous among the Tosks, or southern Albanians. Notwithstanding the
encroachments of their rivals, the impoverishment of the patriarchate,
and the injury inflicted on their cause by the Greco-Turkish War of
1897, the Greeks still maintain a large number of schools; according to
statistics prepared at Athens there were in 1901, 927 Greek schools in
the viláyets of Salonica and Monastir (including five gymnasia), with
1397 teachers and 57,607 pupils. The great educational activity
displayed by the proselytizing movements in Macedonia, while tending to
the artificial creation of parties, daily widens the contrast between
the progressive Christian and the backward Moslem populations.
_Antiquities._--Macedonia, like the neighbouring Balkan countries,
still awaited exploration at the beginning of the 20th century, and
little had been learned of the earlier development of civilization in
these regions. The ancient indigenous population has left many traces
of its presence in the tumuli which occur on the plains, and more
especially along the valley of the Vardar. The unquiet state of the
country went far to prevent any systematic investigation of these
remains; excavations, however, were made by Körte and Franke at
Niausta and near Salonica (see Kretschner, _Einleitung in die
Geschichte der griechischen Sprache_, pp. 176, 421), and fragments of
primitive pottery, with peculiar characteristics, were found by
Perdrizet at Tchepelje, on the left bank of Lake Tachino. The oldest
archaeological monuments of Macedonia are its coins, for which the
mines of Crenides (the later Philippi), at the foot of Mt Pangaeus, of
Chalcidice, of the island of Thasos, and of the mountains between Lake
Prasias and the ancient Macedonian kingdom (Herod. v. 17), furnished
abundance of metal. From the reign of Alexander I., in the epoch of
the Persian wars (502-479 B.C.), the Macedonian dynasty issued silver
coins of a purely Greek style. The Thracian communities around Mt
Pangaeus also produced a variety of coins, especially at the beginning
of the 5th century. The great octodrachms of this period were perhaps
struck for the purpose of paying tribute to the Persians when the
country between the Strymon and the Nestos was in their possession;
most of the specimens have been found in Asia Minor. These large
pieces present many characteristics of the Ionian style; it is evident
that the Thracians derived the arts of minting and engraving from the
neighbouring Thasos, itself a colony from the Ionian Paros. The
monarchs of Pella were enthusiastic admirers of Hellenic culture, and
their court was doubtless frequented by Greek sculptors as well as men
of letters, such as Herodotus and Euripides. At Pella has been found a
funerary _stele_ of the late 5th or early 4th century representing a
Macedonian _hetaerus_--a beautiful specimen of the best Greek art, now
preserved in the Imperial Ottoman Museum at Constantinople. To the
Hellenic period belong the vaulted tombs under tumuli discovered at
Pella, Pydna, Palatitza, and other places; the dead were laid in
marble couches ornamented with sculptures, like those of the so-called
sarcophagus of Alexander at Constantinople. These tombs doubtless
received the remains of the Macedonian nobles and _hetaeri_: in one of
them a fresco representing a conflict between a horseman and a warrior
on foot has been brought to light by Kinch. Similarly constructed
places of sepulture have been found at Eretria and elsewhere in
Greece. At Palatitza the ruins of a remarkable structure, perhaps a
palace, have been laid bare by Heuzey and Daumet. Unlike Greece, where
each independent city had its acropolis, Macedonia offers few remnants
of ancient fortification; most of the country towns appear to have
been nothing more than open market-centres. The most interesting ruins
in the country are those of the Roman and Byzantine epochs, especially
those at Salonica (q.v.). The Byzantine fortifications and aqueduct of
Kavala are also remarkable. At Verria (_Beroea_) may be seen some
Christian remains, at Melnik a palace of the age of the Comneni, at
Serres a fortress built by the Servian tsar Stephen Dushan
(1336-1356). The remains at Filibejik (_Philippi_) are principally of
the Roman and Byzantine periods; the numerous _ex voto_ rock-tablets
of the acropolis are especially interesting. The Roman inscriptions
found in Macedonia are mainly funerary, but include several ephebic
lists. The funerary tablets afford convincing proof of the persistence
of the Thracian element, notwithstanding hellenization and
latinization; many of them, for instance, represent the well-known
Thracian horseman hunting the wild boar. The monastic communities on
the promontory of Athos (q.v.), with their treasures of Byzantine art
and their rich collections of manuscripts, are of the highest
antiquarian interest.
_History._--For the history of ancient Macedonia see MACEDONIAN
EMPIRE.[1] After its subjugation by the Romans the country was divided
into four districts separated by rigid political and social limitations.
Before long it was constituted a province, which in the time of Augustus
was assigned to the senate. Thenceforward it followed the fortunes of
the Roman empire, and, after the partition of that dominion, of its
eastern branch. Its Thraco-Illyrian inhabitants had already been largely
latinized when Constantine the Great made Byzantium the imperial
residence in A.D. 330; they called themselves Romans and spoke Latin.
Towards the close of the 4th century the country was devastated by the
Goths and Avars, whose incursions possessed no lasting significance. It
was otherwise with the great Slavonic immigration, which took place at
intervals from the 3rd to the 7th century. An important ethnographic
change was brought about, and the greater part of Macedonia was
colonized by the invaders (see BALKAN PENINSULA).
Byzantine and Bulgarian Domination.
The Slavs were in their turn conquered by the Bulgarians (see BULGARIA:
_History_) whose chief Krum (802-815) included central Macedonia in his
dominions. The Byzantines retained the southern regions and Salonica,
which temporarily fell into the hands of the Saracens in 904. With the
exception of the maritime districts, the whole of Macedonia formed a
portion of the empire of the Bulgarian tsar Simeon (893-927); the
Bulgarian power declined after his death, but was revived in western
Macedonia under the Shishman dynasty at Ochrida; Tsar Samuel (976-1014),
the third ruler of that family, included in his dominions Usküb, Veles,
Vodena and Melnik. After his defeat by the emperor Basil II. in 1014
Greek domination was established for a century and a half. The Byzantine
emperors endeavoured to confirm their positions by Asiatic colonization;
Turkish immigrants, afterwards known as Vardariotes, the first of their
race who appeared in Macedonia, were settled in the neighbourhood of
Salonica in the 9th century; colonies of Uzes, Petchenegs and Kumans
were introduced at various periods from the 11th to the 13th century.
While Greeks and Bulgarians disputed the mastery of Macedonia the
Vlachs, in the 10th century, established an independent state in the
Pindus region, which, afterwards known as Great Walachia, continued to
exist till the beginning of the 14th century. In 1185 southern Macedonia
was exposed to a raid of the Normans under William of Sicily, who
captured Salonica and massacred its inhabitants. After the taking of
Constantinople in 1204 by the Franks of the fourth crusade, the Latin
empire of Romania was formed and the feudal kingdom of Thessalonica was
bestowed on Boniface, marquis of Montferrat; this was overthrown in 1222
by Theodore, despot of Epirus, a descendant of the imperial house of the
Comneni, who styled himself emperor of Thessalonica and for some years
ruled over all Macedonia. He was defeated and captured by the Bulgarians
in 1230 and the remnant of his possessions, to which his son John
succeeded, was absorbed in the empire of Nicaea in 1234. Bulgarian rule
was now once more established in Macedonia under the powerful monarch
Ivan Asen II. (1218-1241) whose dynasty, of Vlach origin, had been
founded at Trnovo in 1186 after a revolt of the Vlachs and Bulgars
against the Greeks. A period of decadence followed the extinction of the
Asen dynasty in 1257; the Bulgarian power was overthrown by the Servians
at Velbuzhd (1330), and Macedonia was included in the realm of the great
Servian tsar Dushan (1331-1355) who fixed his capital at Usküb. Dushan's
empire fell to pieces after his death, and the anarchy which followed
prepared the way for the advance of the Turks, to whom not only
contending factions at Constantinople but Servian and Bulgarian princes
alike made overtures.
Turkish Rule.
Macedonia and Thrace were soon desolated by Turkish raids; when it was
too late the Slavonic states combined against the invaders, but their
forces, under the Servian tsar Lazar, were routed at Kossovo in 1389 by
the sultan Murad I. Salonica and Larissa were captured in 1395 by
Murad's son Bayezid, whose victory over Sigismund of Hungary at
Nicopolis in 1396 sealed the fate of the peninsula. The towns in the
Struma valley were yielded to the Turks by John VII. Palaeologus in
1424; Salonica was taken for the last time in 1428 by Murad II. and its
inhabitants were massacred. Large tracts of land were distributed among
the Ottoman chiefs; a system of feudal tenure was developed by Mahommed
II. (1451-1481), each fief furnishing a certain number of armed
warriors. The Christian peasant owners remained on the lands assigned to
the Moslem feudal lords, to whom they paid a tithe. The condition of the
subject population was deplorable from the first, and became worse
during the period of anarchy which coincided with the decadence of the
central power in the 17th and 18th centuries; in the latter half of the
17th century efforts to improve it were made by the grand viziers
Mehemet and Mustafa of the eminent house of Koprülü. The country was
policed by the janissaries (q.v.). Numbers of the peasant proprietors
were ultimately reduced to serfdom, working as labourers on the farms or
_tchifliks_ of the Moslem beys. Towards the end of the 18th century many
of the local governors became practically independent; western Macedonia
fell under the sway of Ali Pasha of Iannina; at Serres Ismail Bey
maintained an army of 10,000 men and exercised a beneficent despotism.
For more than two centuries Albanian incursions, often resulting in
permanent settlements, added to the troubles of the Christian
population. The reforms embodied in the Hatt-i-Sherif of Gulhané (1839)
and in the Hatt-i-humayun (1856), in both of which the perfect equality
of races and religions was proclaimed, remained a dead letter; the first
"Law of the Vilayets" (1864), reforming the local administration,
brought no relief, while depriving the Christian communities of certain
rights which they had hitherto possessed.
European Intervention.
Treaties of San Stefano and Berlin.
In 1876 a conference of the powers at Constantinople proposed the
reorganization of the Bulgarian provinces of Turkey in two viláyets
under Christian governors-general aided by popular assemblies. The
"western" viláyet, of which Sofia was to be the capital, included
northern, central and western Macedonia, extending south as far as
Castoria. The _projet de règlement_ elaborated by the conference was
rejected by the Turkish parliament convoked under the constitution
proclaimed on the 23rd of December 1876; the constitution, which was
little more than a device for eluding European intervention, was shortly
afterwards suspended. Under the treaty of San Stefano (March 3, 1878)
the whole of Macedonia, except Salonica and the Chalcidic peninsula, was
included in the newly formed principality of Bulgaria; this arrangement
was reversed by the Treaty of Berlin (July 13) which left Macedonia
under Turkish administration but provided (Art. xxiii.) for the
introduction of reforms analogous to those of the Cretan Organic Statute
of 1868. These reforms were to be drawn up by special commissions, on
which the native element should be largely represented, and the opinion
of the European commission for eastern Rumelia was to be taken before
their promulgation. The Porte, however, prepared a project of its own,
and the commission, taking this as a basis, drew up the elaborate "Law
of the Vilayets" (Aug. 23, 1880). The law never received the sultan's
sanction, and European diplomacy proved unequal to the task of securing
its adoption.
The Macedonian Question.
The Berlin Treaty, by its artificial division of the Bulgarian race,
created the difficult and perplexing "Macedonian Question." The
population handed back to Turkish rule never acquiesced in its fate; its
discontent was aggravated by the deplorable misgovernment which
characterized the reign of Abdul Hamid II., and its efforts to assert
itself, stimulated by the sympathy of the enfranchised portion of the
race, provoked rival movements on the part of the other Christian
nationalities, each receiving encouragement and material aid from the
adjacent and kindred states. Some insignificant risings took place in
Macedonia after the signature of the Berlin Treaty, but in the interval
between 1878 and 1893 the population remained comparatively tranquil,
awaiting the fulfilment of the promised reforms.
Bulgarian Conspiracies.
In 1893, however, a number of secret revolutionary societies
(_druzhestva_) were set on foot in Macedonia, and in 1894 similar bodies
were organized as legal corporations in Bulgaria. The fall of Stamboloff
in that year and the reconciliation of Bulgaria with Russia encouraged
the revolutionaries in the mistaken belief that Russia would take steps
to revive the provisions of the San Stefano treaty. In 1895 the "Supreme
Macedo-Adrianopolitan Committee" (_Vrkhoven Makedoni-Odrinski Komitet_)
was formed at Sofia and forthwith despatched armed bands into northern
Macedonia; the town of Melnik was occupied for a short time by the
revolutionaries under Boris Sarafoff, but the enterprise ended in
failure. Dispirited by this result, the "Vrkhovists," as the
revolutionaries in Bulgaria were generally styled, refrained from any
serious effort for the next five years; the movement was paralysed by
dissensions among the chiefs, and rival parties were formed under
Sarafoff and General Tzoncheff. Meanwhile the "Centralist" or local
Macedonian societies were welded by two remarkable men, Damian Grueff
and Gotzé Delcheff, into a formidable power known as the "Internal
Organization," founded in 1893, which maintained its own police, held
its own tribunals, assessed and collected contributions, and otherwise
exercised an _imperium in imperio_ throughout the country, which was
divided into rayons or districts, and subdivided into departments and
communes, each with its special staff of functionaries. The Internal
Organization, as a rule, avoided co-operation with the revolutionaries
in Bulgaria; it aimed at the attainment of Macedonian autonomy, and at
first endeavoured, but unsuccessfully, to enlist the sympathies of the
Greeks and Servians for the programme of "Macedonia for the
Macedonians."
Greek Action.
The principle of autonomy was suspected at Athens and Belgrade as
calculated to ensure Bulgarian predominance and to delay or preclude the
ultimate partition of the country. At Athens, especially, the progress
of the Bulgarian movement was viewed with much alarm; it was feared that
Macedonia would be lost to Hellenism, and in 1896 the _Ethniké Hetaerea_
(see GREECE and CRETE) sent numerous bands into the southern districts
of the country. The Hetaerea aimed at bringing about a war between
Greece and Turkey, and the outbreak of trouble in Crete enabled it to
accomplish its purpose. During the Greco-Turkish War (q.v.) Macedonia
remained quiet, Bulgaria and Servia refraining from interference under
pressure from Austria, Russia and the other great powers. The reverses
of the Greeks were to the advantage of the Bulgarian movement, which
continued to gain strength, but after the discovery of a hidden dépôt of
arms at Vinitza in 1897 the Turkish authorities changed their attitude
towards the Bulgarian element; extreme and often barbarous methods of
repression were adopted, and arms were distributed among the Moslem
population. The capture of an American missionary, Miss Stone, by a
Bulgarian band under Sandansky in the autumn of 1901 proved a windfall
to the revolutionaries, who expended her ransom of LT16,000 in the
purchase of arms and ammunition.
Troubles in 1902: Intervention of the Powers.
In 1902 the Servians, after a prolonged conflict with the Greeks,
succeeded with Russian aid in obtaining the nomination of Mgr.
Firmilian, a Servian, to the archbishopric of Usküb. Contemporaneously
with a series of Russo-Bulgarian celebrations in the Shipka pass in
September of that year, an effort was made to provoke a rising in the
Monastir district by Colonel Yankoff, the lieutenant of General
Tzoncheff; in November a number of bands entered the Razlog district
under the general's personal direction. These movements, which were not
supported by the Internal Organization, ended in failure, and merciless
repression followed. The state of the country now became such as to
necessitate the intervention of the powers, and the Austrian and Russian
governments, which had acted in concert since April 1897, drew up an
elaborate scheme of reforms. The Porte, as usual, endeavoured to
forestall foreign interference by producing a project of its own, which
was promulgated in November 1902, and Hilmi Pasha was appointed
Inspector General of the Rumelian viláyets and charged with its
application. The two powers, however, persevered in their intention and
on the 21st of February 1903 presented to the Porte an identic
memorandum proposing a series of reforms in the administration, police
and finance, including the employment of "foreign specialists" for the
reorganization of the gendarmerie.
Bulgarian Insurrection in 1903.
At the same time the Bulgarian government, under pressure from Russia,
arrested the revolutionary leaders in the principality, suppressed the
committees, and confiscated their funds. The Internal Organization,
however, was beyond reach, and preparations for an insurrection went
rapidly forward. In March a serious Albanian revolt complicated the
situation. At the end of April a number of dynamite outrages took place
at Salonica; public opinion in Europe turned against the revolutionaries
and the Turks seized the opportunity to wreak a terrible vengeance on
the Bulgarian population. On the 2nd of August, the feast of St Elias, a
general insurrection broke out in the Monastir viláyet, followed by
sporadic revolts in other districts. The insurgents achieved some
temporary successes and occupied the towns of Krushevo, Klisura and
Neveska, but by the end of September their resistance was overcome; more
than 100 villages were burned by the troops and bashi-bazouks, 8400
houses were destroyed and 60,000 peasants remained homeless in the
mountains at the approach of winter.