FOOTNOTES:

[1] See further, Bousset, _Religion des Judentums_, ed. ii. pp. 289

&c., 381 &c., 585 &c.

[2] See Gunkel, _Schopfung und Chaos_ (1893).

[3] It is, of course, uncertain whether this phenomenon already

occurs in 2 Cor. vi. 15, since here Belial might still be Satan; cf.

however, _Ascensio Jesaiae_ iv. 2 &c.; _Sibyll_. iii. 63 &c., ii. 167

&c.

[4] It is not necessary to decide whether the epistle is by St Paul

or by a pupil of Paul, although the former seems to the present

writer to be by far the more probable, in spite of the brilliant

attack on the genuineness of the epistle by Wrede in _Texte und

Ubersetzungen_, N.F. ix. 2.

[5] Cf. 2 Thess. ii. 8; the Targum also, in its comment on the

passage of Isaiah, applies "the wicked" to Antichrist.

[6] See Bousset, _Kommentar zur Offenbarung Johannis_, on these

passages.

[7] _Ibid._ ch. xvii.: and Charles, _Ascension of Isaiah_, lvii. sq.

[8] Harnack, _Chronologie der altchristlichen Literatur_, i. 573

[9] See Bousset, in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklop. fur Theologie und

Kirsche_ (ed. 3), xviii. 273 &c.

[10] Latin text by Sackur, cf. _op. cit._ 1 &c.; Greek text by V.

Istrin.

[11] See Bousset, _Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte_, xx. p. 289 &c.

[12] Published in Merx, _Archiv zur Erforschung des Alten Testament_.

[13] See especially the _Ludus de Antichristo_, ed. W. Meyer.

ANTICLIMAX (i.e. the opposite to "climax"), in rhetoric, an abrupt

declension (either deliberate or unintended) on the part of a speaker or

writer from the dignity of idea which he appeared to be aiming at; as in

the following well-known distich:--

"The great Dalhousie, he, the god of war,

_Lieutenant-colonel to the earl of Mar_."

An anticlimax can be intentionally employed only for a jocular or

satiric purpose. It frequently partakes of the nature of antithesis,

as--

"Die and endow a _college_ or a _cat_."

It is often difficult to distinguish between "anticlimax" and "bathos";

but the former is more decidedly a relative term. A whole speech may

never rise above the level of bathos; but a climax of greater or less

elevation is the necessary antecedent of an anticlimax.

ANTICOSTI, an island of the province of Quebec, Canada, situated in the

Gulf of St Lawrence, between 49 deg. and 50 deg. N., and between 61 deg.

40' and 64 deg. 30' W., with a length of 135 m. and a breadth of 30 m.

Population 250, consisting chiefly of the keepers of the numerous

lighthouses erected by the Canadian government. The coast is dangerous,

and the only two harbours, Ellis Bay and Fox Bay, are very indifferent.

Anticosti was sighted by Jacques Cartier in 1534, and named Assomption.

In 1763 it was ceded by France to Britain, and in 1774 became part of

Canada. Wild animals, especially bears, are numerous, but prior to 1896

the fish and game had been almost exterminated by indiscriminate

slaughter. In that year Anticosti and the shore fisheries were leased to

M. Menier, the French chocolate manufacturer, who converted the island

into a game preserve, and attempted to develop its resources of lumber,

peat and minerals.

See Logan, _Geological Survey of Canada, Report of Progress from its

Commencement to 1863_ (Montreal, 1863-1865); E. Billings, _Geological

Survey of Canada: Catalogue of the Silurian Fossils of Anticosti_

(Montreal, 1866); J. Schmitt, _Anticosti_ (Paris, 1904).

ANTICYCLONE (i.e. opposite to a cyclone), an atmospheric system in which

there is a descending movement of the air and a relative increase in

barometric pressure over the part of the earth's surface affected by it.

At the surface the air tends to flow outwards in all directions from the

central area of high pressure, and is deflected on account of the

earth's rotation (see FERREL'S LAW) so as to give a spiral movement in

the direction of the hands of a watch face upwards in the northern

hemisphere, against that direction in the southern hemisphere. Since the

air in an anticyclone is descending, it becomes warmed and dried, and

therefore transmits radiation freely whether from the sun to the earth

or from the earth into space. Hence in winter anticyclonic weather is

characterized by clear air with periods of frost, causing fogs in towns

and low-lying damp areas, and in summer by still cloudless days with

gentle variable airs and fine weather.

ANTICYRA, the ancient name of three cities of Greece, (1) (Mod.

_Aspraspitia_), in Phocis, on the bay of Anticyra, in the Corinthian

gulf; some remains are still visible. It was a town of considerable

importance in ancient times; was destroyed by Philip of Macedon;

recovered its prosperity; and was captured by T. Quinctius Flamininus in

198 B.C. The city was famous for its black hellebore, a herb which was

regarded as a cure for insanity. This circumstance gave rise to a number

of proverbial expressions, like [Greek: Antikuras se dei] or "naviget

Anticyram," and to frequent allusions in the Greek and Latin writers.

Hellebore was likewise considered beneficial in cases of gout and

epilepsy. (2) In Thessaly, on the right bank of the river Spercheus,

near its mouth. (3) In Locris, on the north side of the entrance to the

Corinthian gulf, near Naupactus.

ANTIETAM, the name of a Maryland creek, near which, on the 16th-17th of

September 1862, was fought the battle of Antietam or Sharpsburg (see

AMERICAN CIVIL WAR), between the Federals under McClellan and the

Confederates commanded by Lee. General McClellan had captured the passes

of South Mountain farther east on the 14th, and his Army of the Potomac

marched to meet Lee's forces which, hitherto divided, had, by the 16th,

successfully concentrated between the Antietam and the Potomac. The

Confederate Army of Northern Virginia occupied a position which, in

relation to the surrounding country, may be compared to the string of a

bow in the act of being drawn, Lee's left wing forming the upper half of

the string, his right the lower, and the Potomac in his rear the bow

itself. The town of Sharpsburg represents the fingers of the archer

drawing the bow. The right wing of the position was covered by the

Antietam as it approaches the Potomac, the upper course of that stream

formed no part of the battlefield. Generals Longstreet and Jackson

commanded the right and left wings. The division of A.P. Hill was at

Harper's Ferry, but had received orders to rejoin Lee. McClellan's

troops appeared late on the 16th, and Hooker was immediately sent across

the upper Antietam. He had a sharp fight with Jackson's men, but night

soon put an end to the contest. Early on the 19th the corps of Sumner

and Mansfield followed Hooker across the upper stream whilst McClellan's

left wing (Burnside's corps) drew up opposite Lee's extreme right. The

Federal leader intended to hold back his centre whilst these two forces

were rolling up Lee's wings. The battle began with a furious assault on

the extreme right by Hooker's corps. After a very severe struggle he was

repulsed with the loss of a quarter of his men, Jackson's divisions

suffering even more severely and losing nearly all their generals and

colonels. It was only the arrival of Hood and D.H. Hill which enabled

Stonewall Jackson's corps to hold its ground, and had the other Federal

corps been at hand to support Hooker the result might have been very

different. Mansfield next attacked farther to the left and with better

fortune. Mansfield was killed, but his successor led the corps well, and

after heavy fighting Hood and D.H. Hill were driven back. Again want of

support checked the Federals and the fight became stationary, both sides

losing many men. Sumner now came into action, and overhaste involved him

in a catastrophe, his troops being attacked in front and flank and

driven back in great confusion with nearly half their number killed and

wounded; and their retreat involved the gallant remnants of Mansfield's

corps. Soon afterwards the Federal divisions of French and Richardson

attacked D.H. Hill, whose men were now exhausted by continuous fighting.

Here occurred the fighting in the "Bloody Lane," north of Sharpsburg

which French and Richardson eventually carried. Opposed as they were by

D.H. Hill, whose men had fought the battle of South Mountain and had

already been three times engaged _a fond_ on this day, proper support

must have enabled the Federals to crush Lee's centre, but Franklin and

Porter in reserve were not allowed by McClellan to move forward and the

opportunity passed. Burnside, on the southern wing, had received his

orders late, and acted on them still later. The battle was over on the

right before he fired a shot, and Lee had been able to use nearly all

his right wing troops to support Jackson. At last Burnside moved

forward, and, after a brilliant defence by the handful of men left to

oppose him, forced the Antietam and began to roll up Lee's right, only

to be attacked in rear himself by A.P. Hill's troops newly arrived from

Harper's Ferry. The repulse of Burnside ended the battle. Pressure was

brought to bear on McClellan to renew the fight, but he refused and Lee

retired across the Potomac unmolested. The Army of the Potomac had lost

11,832 men out of 46,000 engaged; the cavalry and two corps in reserve

had only lost 578. Lee's 31,200 men lost over 8000 of their number.

See the bibliography appended to AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, and also General

Palfrey's _Antietam and Fredericksburg_.

ANTI-FEDERALISTS, the name given in the political history of the United

States to those who, after the formation of the federal Constitution of

1787, opposed its ratification by the people of the several states. The

"party" (though it was never regularly organized as such) was composed of

states rights, particularistic, individualistic and radical democratic

elements; that is, of those persons who thought that a stronger

government threatened the sovereignty and prestige of the states, or the

special interests, individual or commercial, of localities, or the

liberties of individuals, or who fancied they saw in the government

proposed a new centralized, disguised "monarchic" power that would only

replace the cast-off despotism of Great Britain. In every state the

opposition to the Constitution was strong, and in two--North Carolina and

Rhode Island--it prevented ratification until the definite establishment

of the new government practically forced their adhesion. The

individualistic was the strongest element of opposition; the necessity,

or at least the desirability, of a bill of rights was almost universally

felt. Instead of accepting the Constitution upon the condition of

amendments,--in which way they might very likely have secured large

concessions,--the Anti-Federalists stood for unconditional rejection, and

public opinion, which went against them, proved that for all its

shortcomings the Constitution was regarded as preferable to the Articles

of Confederation. After the inauguration of the new government, the

composition of the Anti-Federalist party changed. The Federalist (q.v.)

party gradually showed broad-construction, nationalistic tendencies; the

Anti-Federalist party became a strict-construction party and advocated

popular rights against the asserted aristocratic, centralizing tendencies

of its opponent, and gradually was transformed into the

Democratic-Republican party, mustered and led by Thomas Jefferson, who,

however, had approved the ratification of the Constitution and was not,

therefore, an Anti-Federalist in the original sense of that term.

See O.G. Libby, _Geographical Distribution of the Vote ... on the

Federal Constitution, 1787-1788_ (University of Wisconsin, Bulletin,

1894); S.B. Harding, _Contest over the Ratification of the Federal

Constitution in ... Massachusetts_ (Harvard University Studies, New

York, 1896); and authorities on political and constitutional history

in the article UNITED STATES.

ANTIGO, a city and the county-seat of Langlade county, Wisconsin,

U.S.A., about 160 m. N.W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) 4424; (1900) 5145,

of whom 965 were foreign-born; (1905) 6663; (1910) 7196. It is served by

the Chicago & North Western railway. Antigo is the centre of a good

farming and lumbering district, and its manufactures consist principally

of lumber, chairs, furniture, sashes, doors and blinds, hubs and

spokes, and other wood products. The city has a Carnegie library. Antigo

was first settled in 1880, and was chartered as a city in 1885. Its name

is said to be part of an Indian word, _neequee-antigo-sebi_, meaning

"evergreen."

ANTIGONE, (1) in Greek legend, daughter of Oedipus and Iocaste

(Jocasta), or, according to the older story, of Euryganeia. When her

father, on discovering that Iocaste, the mother of his children, was

also his own mother, put his eyes out and resigned the throne of Thebes,

she accompanied him into exile at Colonus. After his death she returned

to Thebes, where Haemon, the son of Creon, king of Thebes, became

enamoured of her. When her brothers Eteocles and Polyneices had slain

each other in single combat, she buried Polyneices, although Creon had

forbidden it. As a punishment she was sentenced to be buried alive in a

vault, where she hanged herself, and Haemon killed himself in despair.

Her character and these incidents of her life presented an attractive

subject to the Greek tragic poets, especially Sophocles in the

_Antigone_ and _Oedipus at Colonus_, and Euripides, whose _Antigone_,

though now lost, is partly known from extracts incidentally preserved in

later writers, and from passages in his _Phoenissae_. In the order of

the events, at least, Sophocles departed from the original legend,

according to which the burial of Polyneices took place while Oedipus was

yet in Thebes, not after he had died at Colonus. Again, in regard to

Antigone's tragic end Sophocles differs from Euripides, according to

whom the calamity was averted by the intercession of Dionysus and was

followed by the marriage of Antigone and Haemon. In Hyginus's version of

the legend, founded apparently on a tragedy by some follower of

Euripides, Antigone, on being handed over by Creon to her lover Haemon

to be slain, was secretly carried off by him, and concealed in a

shepherd's hut, where she bore him a son Maeon. When the boy grew up, he

went to some funeral games at Thebes, and was recognized by the mark of

a dragon on his body. This led to the discovery that Antigone was still

alive. Heracles pleaded in vain with Creon for Haemon, who slew both

Antigone and himself, to escape his father's vengeance. On a painted

vase the scene of the intercession of Heracles is represented

(Heydermann, _Uber eine nacheuripideische Antigone_, 1868). Antigone

placing the body of Polyneices on the funeral pile occurs on a

sarcophagus in the villa Pamfili in Rome, and is mentioned in the

description of an ancient painting by Philostratus (_Imag._ ii. 29), who

states that the flames consuming the two brothers burnt apart,

indicating their unalterable hatred, even in death.

(2) A second Antigone was the daughter of Eurytion, king of Phthia, and

wife of Peleus. Her husband, having accidentally killed Eurytion in the

Calydonian boar hunt, fled and obtained expiation from Acastus, whose

wife made advances to Peleus. Finding that her affection was not

returned, she falsely accused Peleus of infidelity to his wife, who

thereupon hanged herself (Apollodorus, iii. 13).

ANTIGONUS CYCLOPS (or MONOPTHALMOS; so called from his having lost an

eye) (382-301 B.C.), Macedonian king, son of Philip, was one of the

generals of Alexander the Great. He was made governor of Greater Phrygia

in 333, and in the division of the provinces after Alexander's death

(323) Pamphylia and Lycia were added to his command. He incurred the

enmity of Perdiccas, the regent, by refusing to assist Eumenes (q.v.) to

obtain possession of the provinces allotted to him. In danger of his

life he escaped with his son Demetrius into Greece, where he obtained

the favour of Antipater, regent of Macedonia (321); and when, soon

after, on the death of Perdiccas, a new division took place, he was

entrusted with the command of the war against Eumenes, who had joined

Perdiccas against the coalition of Antipater, Antigonus, and the other

generals. Eumenes was completely defeated, and obliged to retire to Nora

in Cappadocia, and a new army that was marching to his relief was routed

by Antigonus. Polyperchon succeeding Antipater (d. 319) in the regency,

to the exclusion of Cassander, his son, Antigonus resolved to set

himself up as lord of all Asia, and in conjunction with Cassander and

Ptolemy of Egypt, refused to recognize Polyperchon. He entered into

negotiations with Eumenes; but Eumenes remained faithful to the royal

house. Effecting his escape from Nora, he raised an army, and formed a

coalition with the satraps of the eastern provinces. He was at last

delivered up to Antigonus through treachery in Persia and put to death

(316). Antigonus again claimed authority over the whole of Asia, seized

the treasures at Susa, and entered Babylonia, of which Seleucus was

governor. Seleucus fled to Ptolemy, and entered into a league with him

(315), together with Lysimachus and Cassander. After the war had been

carried on with varying success from 315 to 311, peace was concluded, by

which the government of Asia Minor and Syria was provisionally secured

to Antigonus. This agreement was soon violated on the pretext that

garrisons had been placed in some of the free Greek cities by Antigonus,

and Ptolemy and Cassander renewed hostilities against him. Demetrius

Poliorcetes, the son of Antigonus, wrested part of Greece from

Cassander. At first Ptolemy had made a successful descent upon Asia

Minor and on several of the islands of the Archipelago; but he was at

length totally defeated by Demetrius in a naval engagement off Salamis,

in Cyprus (306). On this victory Antigonus assumed the title of king,

and bestowed the same upon his son, a declaration that he claimed to be

the heir of Alexander. Antigonus now prepared a large army, and a

formidable fleet, the command of which he gave to Demetrius, and

hastened to attack Ptolemy in his own dominions. His invasion of Egypt,

however, proved a failure; he was unable to penetrate the defences of

Ptolemy, and was obliged to retire. Demetrius now attempted the

reduction of Rhodes, which had refused to assist Antigonus against

Egypt; but, meeting with obstinate resistance, he was obliged to make a

treaty upon the best terms that he could (304). In 302, although

Demetrius was again winning success after success in Greece, Antigonus

was obliged to recall him to meet the confederacy that had been formed

between Cassander, Seleucus and Lysimachus. A decisive battle was fought

at Ipsus, in which Antigonus fell, in the eighty-first year of his age.

Diodorus Siculus xviii., xx. 46-86; Plutarch, _Demetrius, Eumenes_;

Nepos, _Eumenes_; Justin xv. 1-4. See MACEDONIAN EMPIRE; and Kohler,

"Das Reich des Antigonos," in the _Sitzungsberichte d. Berl. Akad._,

1898, p. 835 f.

ANTIGONUS GONATAS (c. 319-239 B.C.), Macedonian king, was the son of

Demetrius Poliorcetes, and grandson of Antigonus Cyclops. On the death

of his father (283), he assumed the title of king of Macedonia, but did

not obtain possession of the throne till 276, after it had been

successively in the hands of Pyrrhus, Lysimachus, Seleucus, and Ptolemy

Ceraunus. Antigonus repelled the invasion of the Gauls, and continued in

undisputed possession of Macedonia till 274, when Pyrrhus returned from

Italy, and (in 273) made himself master of nearly all the country. On

the advance of Pyrrhus into Peloponnesus, he recovered his dominions. He

was again (between 263 and 255) driven out of his kingdom by Alexander,

the son of Pyrrhus, and again recovered it. The latter part of his reign

was comparatively peaceful, and he gained the affection of his subjects

by his honesty and his cultivation of the arts. He gathered round him

distinguished literary men--philosophers, poets, and historians. He died

in the eightieth year of his age, and the forty-fourth of his reign. His

surname was usually derived by later Greek writers from the name of his

supposed birthplace, Gonni (Gonnus) in Thessaly; some take it to be a

Macedonian word signifying an iron plate for protecting the knee;

neither conjecture is a happy one, and in our ignorance of the

Macedonian language it must remain unexplained.

Plutarch, _Demetrius, Pyrrhus, Aratus_; Justin xxiv. 1; xxv. 1-3;

Polybius ii. 43-45, ix. 29, 34. See Thirlwall, _History of Greece_,

vol viii. (1847); Holm, _Griech. Gesch._ vol. iv. (1894); Niese,

_Gesch. d. griech. u. maked. Staaten_, vols. i. and ii. (1893, 1899);

Beloch, _Griech. Gesch._ vol. iii. (1904); also

Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, _Antigonos von Karystos_ (1881).

ANTIGONUS OF CARYSTUS (in Euboea), Greek writer on various subjects,

flourished in the 3rd century B.C. After some time spent at Athens and

in travelling, he was summoned to the court of Attalus I. (241-197) of

Pergamum. His chief work was the _Lives of Philosophers_ drawn from

personal knowledge, of which considerable fragments are preserved in

Athenaeus and Diogenes Laertius. We still possess his _Collection of

Wonderful Tales_, chiefly extracted from the [Greek: Thaumasia

Akousmata] attributed to Aristotle and the [Greek: Thaumasia] of

Callimachus. It is doubtful whether he is identical with the sculptor

who, according to Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxxiv. 19), wrote books on his

art.

Text in Keller, _Rerum Naturalium Scriptores Graeci Minores_, i.

(1877); see Kopke, _De Antigono Carystio_ (1862);

Wilamowitz-Mollendorff, "A. von Karystos," in _Philologische

Untersuchungen_, iv. (.1881).

ANTIGUA, an island in the British West Indies, forming, with Barbuda and

Redonda, one of the five presidencies in the colony of the Leeward

Islands. It lies 50 m. E. of St Kitts, in 17 deg. 6' N. and 61 deg. 45'

W., and is 54 m. in circumference, with an area of 108 sq. m. The

surface is comparatively flat, and there is no central range of

mountains as in most other West Indian islands, but among the hills in

the south-west an elevation of 1328 ft. is attained. Owing to the

absence of rivers, the paucity of springs, and the almost complete

deforestation, Antigua is subject to frequent droughts, and although the

average rainfall is 45.6 in., the variations from year to year are

great. The dryness of the air proves very beneficial to persons

suffering from pulmonary complaints. The high rocky coast is much

indented by bays and arms of the sea, several of which form excellent

harbours, that of St John being safe and commodious, but inferior to

English Harbour, which, although little frequented, is capable of

receiving vessels of the largest size. The soil, especially in the

interior, is very fertile. Sugar and pineapples are the chief products

for export, but sweet potatoes, yams, maize and guinea corn are grown

for local consumption. Antigua is the residence of the governor of the

Leeward Islands, and the meeting place of the general legislative

council, but there is also a local legislative council of 16 members,

half official and half unofficial. Until 1898, when the Crown Colony

system was adopted, the legislative council was partly elected, partly

nominated. Elementary education is compulsory. Agricultural training is

given under government control, and the Cambridge local examinations and

those of the University of London are held annually. Antigua is the see

of a bishop of the Church of England, the members of which predominate

here, but Moravians and Wesleyans are numerous. There is a small

volunteer defence force. The island has direct steam communication with

Great Britain, the United States and Canada, and is also served by the

submarine cable. The three chief towns are St John, Falmouth and Parham.

St John (pop. about 10,000), the capital, situated on the north-west, is

an exceedingly picturesque town, built on an eminence overlooking one of

the most beautiful harbours in the West Indies. Although both Falmouth

and Parham have good harbours, most of the produce of the island finds

its way to St John for shipment. The trade is chiefly with the United

States, and the main exports are sugar, molasses, logwood, tamarinds,

turtles, and pineapples. The cultivation of cotton has been introduced

with success, and this also is exported. The dependent islands of

Barbuda and Redonda have an area of 62 sq. m. Pop. of Antigua (1901),

34,178; of the presidency, 35,073.

Antigua was discovered in 1493 by Columbus, who is said to have named it

after a church in Seville, called Santa Maria la Antigua. It remained,

however, uninhabited until 1632, when a body of English settlers took

possession of it, and in 1663 another settlement of the same nation was

effected under the direction of Lord Willoughby, to whom the entire

island was granted by Charles II. It was ravaged by the French in 1666,

but was soon after reconquered by the British and formally restored to

them by the treaty of Breda. Since then it has been a British

possession.

ANTILEGOMENA ([Greek: antilegomena], contradicted or disputed), an

epithet used by the early Christian writers to denote those books of the

New Testament which, although sometimes publicly read in the churches,

were not for a considerable time admitted to be genuine, or received

into the canon of Scripture. They were thus contrasted with the

_Homologoumena_, or universally acknowledged writings. Eusebius (_Hist.

Eccl._ iii. 25) applies the term _Antilegomena_ to the Epistle of James,

the Epistle of Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, the Acts of Paul, the

Shepherd of Hermas, the Teaching of the Apostles, the Apocalypse of

John, and the Gospel according to the Hebrews. In later usage it

describes those of the New Testament books which have obtained a

doubtful place in the Canon. These are the Epistles of James and Jude, 2

Peter, 2 and 3 John, the Apocalypse of John, and the Epistle to the

Hebrews.

ANTILIA or ANTILLIA, sometimes called the Island of the Seven Cities

(Portuguese _Isla das Sete Cidades_), a legendary island in the Atlantic

ocean. The origin of the name is quite uncertain. The oldest suggested

etymology (1455) fancifully connects it with the name of the Platonic

Atlantis, while later writers have endeavoured to derive it from the

Latin _anterior_ (i.e. the island that is reached "before" Cipango), or

from the _Jezirat al Tennyn_, "Dragon's Isle," of the Arabian

geographers. Antilia is marked in an anonymous map which is dated 1424

and preserved in the grand-ducal library at Weimar. It reappears in the

maps of the Genoese B. Beccario or Beccaria (1435), and of the Venetian

Andrea Bianco (1436), and again in 1455 and 1476. In most of these it is

accompanied by the smaller and equally legendary islands of Royllo, St

Atanagio, and Tanmar, the whole group being classified as _insulae de

novo repertae_, "newly discovered islands." The Florentine Paul

Toscanelli, in his letters to Columbus and the Portuguese court (1474),

takes Antilia as the principal landmark for measuring the distance

between Lisbon and the island of Cipango or Zipangu (Japan). One of the

chief early descriptions of Antilia is that inscribed on the globe which

the geographer Martin Behaim made at Nuremberg in 1492 (see MAP:

_History_). Behaim relates that in 734--a date which is probably a

misprint for 714--and after the Moors had conquered Spain and Portugal,

the island of Antilia or "Septe Cidade" was colonized by Christian

refugees under the archbishop of Oporto and six bishops. The inscription

adds that a Spanish vessel sighted the island in 1414. According to an

old Portuguese tradition each of the seven leaders founded and ruled a

city, and the whole island became a Utopian commonwealth, free from the

disorders of less favoured states. Later Portuguese tradition localized

Antilia in the island of St Michael's, the largest of the Azores. It is

impossible to estimate how far this legend commemorates some actual but

imperfectly recorded discovery, and how far it is a reminiscence of the

ancient idea of an elysium in the western seas which is embodied in the

legends of the Isles of the Blest or Fortunate Islands.

ANTILLES, a term of somewhat doubtful origin, now generally used,

especially by foreign writers, as synonymous with the expression "West

India Islands." Like "Brazil," it dates from a period anterior to the

discovery of the New World, "Antilia," as stated above, being one of

those mysterious lands, which figured on the medieval charts sometimes

as an archipelago, sometimes as continuous land of greater or lesser

extent, constantly fluctuating in mid-ocean between the Canaries and

East India. But it came at last to be identified with the land

discovered by Columbus. Later, when this was found to consist of a vast

archipelago enclosing the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, _Antilia_

assumed its present plural form, _Antilles_, which was collectively

applied to the whole of this archipelago.

A distinction is made between the Greater Antilles, including Cuba,

Jamaica, Haiti, and Porto Riro; and the Lesser Antilles, covering the

remainder of the islands.

ANTILOCHUS, in Greek legend, son of Nestor, king of Pylos. One of the

suitors of Helen, he accompanied his father to the Trojan War. He was

distinguished for his beauty, swiftness of foot, and skill as a

charioteer; though the youngest among the Greek princes, he commanded

the Pylians in the war, and performed many deeds of valour. He was a

favourite of the gods, and an intimate friend of Achilles, to whom he

was commissioned to announce the death of Patroclus. When his father was

attacked by Memnon, he saved his life at the sacrifice of his own

(Pindar, _Pyth._ vi. 28), thus fulfilling an oracle which had bidden him

"beware of an Ethiopian." His death was avenged by Achilles. According

to other accounts, he was slain by Hector (Hyginus, _Fab._ 113), or by

Paris in the temple of the Thymbraean Apollo together with Achilles

(Dares Phrygius 34). His ashes, with those of Achilles and Patroclus,

were deposited in a mound on the promontory of Sigeum, where the

inhabitants of Ilium offered sacrifice to the dead heroes (_Odyssey_,

xxiv. 72; Strabo xiii. p. 596). In the _Odyssey_ (xi. 468) the three

friends are represented as united in the underworld and walking together

in the fields of asphodel; according to Pausanias (iii. 19) they dwell

together in the island of Leuke.

ANTIMACASSAR, a separate covering for the back of a chair, or the head

or cushions of a sofa, to prevent soiling of the permanent fabric. The

name is attributable to the unguent for the hair commonly used in the

early 19th century,--Byron calls it "thine incomparable oil, Macassar."

The original antimacassar was almost invariably made of white

crochet-work, very stiff, hard, and uncomfortable, but in the third

quarter of the 19th century it became simpler and less inartistic, and

was made of soft coloured stuffs, usually worked with a simple pattern

in tinted wools or silk.

ANTIMACHUS, of Colophon or Claros, Greek poet and grammarian, flourished

about 400 B.C. Scarcely anything is known of his life. His poetical

efforts were not generally appreciated, although he received

encouragement from his younger contemporary Plato (Plutarch, _Lysander_,

18). His chief works were: a long-winded epic _Thebais_, an account of

the expedition of the Seven against Thebes and the war of the Epigoni;

and an elegiac poem _Lyde_, so called from the poet's mistress, for

whose death he endeavoured to find consolation by ransacking mythology

for stories of unhappy love affairs (Plutarch, _Consol. ad Apoll._ 9;

Athenaeus xiii. 597). Antimachus was the founder of "learned" epic

poetry, and the forerunner of the Alexandrian school, whose critics

allotted him the next place to Homer. He also prepared a critical

recension of the Homeric poems.

Fragments, ed. Stoll (1845); Bergk, _Poetae Lyrici Graeci_ (1882);

Kinkel, _Fragmenta epicorum Graecorum_ (1877).

ANTI-MASONIC PARTY, an American political organization which had its

rise after the mysterious disappearance, in 1826, of William Morgan (c.

1776-c. 1826), a Freemason of Batavia, New York, who had become

dissatisfied with his Order and had planned to publish its secrets. When

his purpose became known to the Masons, Morgan was subjected to frequent

annoyances, and finally in September 1826 he was seized and

surreptitiously conveyed to Fort Niagara, whence he disappeared. Though

his ultimate fate was never known, it was generally believed at the time

that he had been foully dealt with. The event created great excitement,

and led many to believe that Masonry and good citizenship were

incompatible. Opposition to Masonry was taken up by the churches as a

sort of religious crusade, and it also became a local political issue in

western New York, where early in 1827 the citizens in many mass meetings

resolved to support no Mason for public office. In New York at this time

the National Republicans, or "Adams men," were a very feeble

organization, and shrewd political leaders at once determined to utilize

the strong anti-Masonic feeling in creating a new and vigorous party to

oppose the rising Jacksonian Democracy. In this effort they were aided

by the fact that Jackson was a high Mason and frequently spoke in praise

of the Order. In the elections of 1828 the new party proved unexpectedly

strong, and after this year it practically superseded the National

Republican party in New York. In 1829 the hand of its leaders was shown,

when, in addition to its antagonism to the Masons, it became a champion

of internal improvements and of the protective tariff. From New York the

movement spread into other middle states and into New England, and

became especially strong in Pennsylvania and Vermont. A national

organization was planned as early as 1827, when the New York leaders

attempted, unsuccessfully, to persuade Henry Clay, though a Mason, to

renounce the Order and head the movement. In September 1831 the party at

a national convention in Baltimore nominated as its candidates for the

presidency and vice-presidency William Wirt of Maryland and Amos

Ellmaker (1787-1851) of Pennsylvania; and in the election of the

following year it secured the seven electoral votes of the state of

Vermont. This was the high tide of its prosperity; in New York in 1833

the organization was moribund, and its members gradually united with

other opponents of Jacksonian Democracy in forming the Whig party. In

other states, however, the party survived somewhat longer, but by 1836

most of its members had united with the Whigs. Its last act in national

politics was to nominate William Henry Harrison for president and John

Tyler for vice-president at a convention in Philadelphia in November

1838.

The growth of the anti-Masonic movement was due to the political and

social conditions of the time rather than to the Morgan episode, which

was merely the torch that ignited the train. Under the name of

"Anti-Masons" able leaders united those who were discontented with

existing political conditions, and the fact that William Wirt, their

choice for the presidency in 1832, was not only a Mason but even

defended the Order in a speech before the convention that nominated him,

indicates that simple opposition to Masonry soon became a minor factor

in holding together the various elements of which the party was

composed.

See Charles McCarthy, _The Antimasonic Party: A Study of Political

Anti-Masonry in the United States, 1827-1840_, in the Report of the

American Historical Association for 1902 (Washington, 1903); the

_Autobiography of Thurlow Weed_ (2 vols., Boston, 1884); A.G. Mackey

and W.R. Singleton, _The History of Freemasonry_, vol. vi. (New York,

1898); and J.D. Hammond, _History of Political Parties in the State of

New York_ (2 vols., Albany, 1842).

ANTIMONY (symbol Sb, atomic weight 120.2), one of the metallic chemical

elements, included in the same natural family of the elements as

nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, and bismuth. Antimony, in the form of its

sulphide, has been known from very early times, more especially in

Eastern countries, reference to it being made in the Old Testament. The

Arabic name for the naturally occurring stibnite is "kohl"; Dioscorides

mentions it under the term [Greek: stimmi], Pliny as _stibium_; and

Geber as _antimonium_. By the German writers it is called _Speissglanz_.

Basil Valentine alludes to it in his _Triumphal Car of Antimony_ (circa

1600), and at a later date describes the preparation of the metal.

Native mineral antimony is occasionally found, and as such was first

recognized in 1748. It usually occurs as lamellar or glanular masses,

with a tin-white colour and metallic lustre, in limestone or in mineral

veins often in association with ores of silver. Distinct crystals are

rarely met with; these are rhombohedral and isomorphous with arsenic and

bismuth; they have a perfect cleavage parallel to the basal plane, c

(111), and are sometimes twinned on a rhombohedral plane, e (110).

Hardness 3-3-1/2 specific gravity 6.63-6.72. Sala in Sweden, Allemont in

Dauphine, and Sarawak in Borneo may be mentioned as some of the

localities for this mineral.

Antimony, however, occurs chiefly as the sulphide, stibnite; to a much

smaller extent it occurs in combination with other metallic sulphides in

the minerals wolfsbergite, boulangerite, bournonite, pyrargyrite, &c.

For the preparation of metallic antimony the crude stibnite is first

liquated, to free it from earthy and siliceous matter, and is then

roasted in order to convert it into oxide. After oxidation, the product

is reduced by heating with carbon, care being taken to prevent any loss

through volatilization, by covering the mass with a layer of some

protective substance such as potash, soda or glauber salt, which also

aids the refining. For rich ores the method of roasting the sulphide

with metallic iron is sometimes employed; carbon and salt or sodium

sulphate being used to slag the iron. Electrolytic methods, in which a

solution of antimony sulphide in sodium sulphide is used as the

electrolyte, have been proposed (see German Patent 67973, and also

Borcher's _Electro-Metallurgie_), but do not yet appear to have been

used on the large scale.

Antimony combines readily with many other metals to form alloys, some of

which find extensive application in the arts. Type-metal is an alloy of

lead with antimony and tin, to which occasionally a small quantity of

copper or zinc is added. The presence of the antimony in this alloy

gives to it hardness, and the property of expanding on solidification,

thus allowing a sharp cast of the letter to be taken. An alloy of tin

and antimony forms the basis of Britannia-metal, small quantities of

copper, lead, zinc or bismuth being added. It is a white metal of bluish

tint and is malleable and ductile. For the linings of brasses, various

white metals are used, these being alloys of copper, antimony and tin,

and occasionally lead.

Antimony is a silvery white, crystalline, brittle metal, and has a high

lustre. Its specific gravity varies from 6.7 to 6.86; it melts at 432

deg. C. (Dalton), and boils between 1090-1600 deg. C. (T. Carnelley), or

above 1300 deg. (V. Meyer). Its specific heat is 0.0523 (H. Kopp). The

vapour density of antimony at 1572 deg. C. is 10.74, and at 1640 deg. C.

9.78 (V. Meyer, _Berichte_, 1889, 22, p. 725), so that the antimony

molecule is less complex than the molecules of the elements phosphorus

and arsenic. An amorphous modification of antimony can be prepared by

heating the metal in a stream of nitrogen, when it condenses in the cool

part of the apparatus as a grey powder of specific gravity 6.22, melting

at 614 deg. C. and containing 98-99% of antimony (F. Herard, _Comptes

Rendus_, 1888, cvii. 420).

Another form of the metal, known as explosive antimony, was discovered

by G. Gore (_Phil. Trans._, 1858, p. 185; 1859, p. 797; 1862, p. 623),

on electrolysing a solution of antimony trichloride in hydrochloric

acid, using a positive pole of antimony and a negative pole of copper or

platinum wire. It has a specific gravity of 5.78 and always contains

some unaltered antimony trichloride (from 6 to 20%, G. Gore). It is very

unstable, a scratch causing it instantaneously to pass into the stable

form with explosive violence and the development of much heat. Similar

phenomena are exhibited in the electrolysis of solutions of antimony

tribromide and tri-iodide, the product obtained from the tribromide

having a specific gravity of 5.4, and containing 18-20% of antimony

tribromide, whilst that from the tri-iodide has a specific gravity of

5.2-5.8 and contains about 22% of hydriodic acid and antimony

tri-iodide.

The atomic weight of antimony has been determined by the analysis of the

chloride, bromide and iodide. J.P. Cooke (_Proc. Amer. Acad._, 1878,

xiii. i) and J. Bongartz (_Berichte_, 1883, 16, p. 1942) obtained the

value 120, whilst F. Pfeiffer (_Ann. Chim. et Phys._ ccix. 173) obtained

the value 121 from the electrolysis of the chloride.

Pure antimony is quite permanent in air at ordinary temperatures, but

when heated in air or oxygen it burns, forming the trioxide. It

decomposes steam at a red heat, and burns (especially when finely

powdered) in chlorine. Dilute hydrochloric acid is without action on it,

but on warming with the concentrated acid, antimony trichloride is

formed; it dissolves in warm concentrated sulphuric acid, the sulphate

Sb2(SO4)3 being formed. Nitric acid oxidizes antimony either to the

trioxide Sb4O6 or the pentoxide Sb2O5, the product obtained depending on

the temperature and concentration of the acid. It combines directly with

sulphur and phosphorus, and is readily oxidized when heated with

metallic oxides (such as litharge, mercuric oxide, manganese dioxide,

&c.). Antimony and its salts may be readily detected by the orange

precipitate of antimony sulphide which is produced when sulphuretted

hydrogen is passed through their acid solutions, and also by the Marsh

test (see ARSENIC); in this latter case the black stain produced is not

soluble in bleaching powder solution. Antimony compounds when heated on

charcoal with sodium carbonate in the reducing flame give brittle beads

of metallic antimony, and a white incrustation of the oxide. The

antimonious compounds are decomposed on addition of water, with

formation of basic salts.

Antimony may be estimated quantitatively by conversion into the

sulphide; the precipitate obtained is dried at 100 deg. C. and heated in

a current of carbon dioxide, or it may be converted into the tetroxide

by nitric acid.

Antimony, like phosphorus and arsenic, combines directly with hydrogen.

The compound formed, antimoniuretted hydrogen or stibine, SbH3, may also

be prepared by the action of hydrochloric acid on an alloy of antimony

and zinc, or by the action of nascent hydrogen on antimony compounds. As

prepared by these methods it contains a relatively large amount of

hydrogen, from which it can be freed by passing through a tube immersed

in liquid air, when it condenses to a white solid. It is a poisonous

colourless gas, with a characteristic offensive smell. In its general

behaviour it resembles arsine, burning with a violet flame and being

decomposed by heat into its constituent elements. When passed into

silver nitrate solution it gives a black precipitate of silver

antimonide, SbAg3. It is decomposed by the halogen elements and also by

sulphuretted hydrogen. All three hydrogen atoms are replaceable by

organic radicals and the resulting compounds combine with compounds of

the type RCl, RBr and RI to form stibonium compounds.

There are three known oxides of antimony, the trioxide Sb4O6 which is

capable of combining with both acids and bases to form salts, the

tetroxide Sb2O4 and the pentoxide Sb2O5. Antimony trioxide occurs as

the minerals valentinite and senarmontite, and can be artificially

prepared by burning antimony in air; by heating the metal in steam to

a bright red heat; by oxidizing melted antimony with litharge; by

decomposing antimony trichloride with an aqueous solution of sodium

carbonate, or by the action of dilute nitric acid on the metal. It is

a white powder, almost insoluble in water, and when volatilized,

condenses in two crystalline forms, either octahedral or prismatic. It

is insoluble in sulphuric and nitric acids, but is readily soluble in

hydrochloric and tartaric acids and in solutions of the caustic

alkalies. On strongly heating in air it is converted into the

tetroxide. The corresponding hydroxide, orthoantimonious acid,

Sb(OH)3, can be obtained in a somewhat impure form by precipitating

tartar emetic with dilute sulphuric acid; or better by decomposing

antimonyl tartaric acid with sulphuric acid and drying the

precipitated white powder at 100 deg. C. Antimony tetroxide is formed

by strongly heating either the trioxide or pentoxide. It is a

nonvolatile white powder, and has a specific gravity of 6.6952; it is

insoluble in water and almost so in acids--concentrated hydrochloric

acid dissolving a small quantity. It is decomposed by a hot solution

of potassium bitartrate. Antimony pentoxide is obtained by repeatedly

evaporating antimony with nitric acid and heating the resulting

antimonic acid to a temperature not above 275 deg. C.; by heating

antimony with red mercuric oxide until the mass becomes yellow (J.

Berzelius); or by evaporating antimony trichloride to dryness with

nitric acid. It is a pale yellow powder (of specific gravity 6.5),

which on being heated strongly gives up oxygen and forms the

tetroxide. It is insoluble in water, but dissolves slowly in

hydrochloric acid. It possesses a feeble acid character, giving

metantimoniates when heated with alkaline carbonates.

Orthoantimonic acid, H3SbO4, is obtained by the decomposition of its

potassium salt with nitric acid (A. Geuther); or by the addition of

water to the pentachloride, the precipitate formed being dried over

sulphuric acid (P. Conrad, _Chem. News_, 1879, xl. 198). It is a white

powder almost insoluble in water and nitric acid, and when heated, is

first converted into metantimonic acid, HSbO3, and then into the

pentoxide Sb2O5. Pyroantimonic acid, H4Sb2O7 (the metantimonic acid of

E. Fremy), is obtained by decomposing antimony pentachloride with hot

water, and drying the precipitate so obtained at 100 deg. C. It is a

white powder which is more soluble in water and acids than

orthoantimonic acid. It forms two series of salts, of the types

M2H2Sb2O7 and M4Sb2O7. Metantimonic acid, HSbO3, can be obtained by

heating orthoantimonic acid to 175 deg. C., or by long fusion of

antimony with antimony sulphide and nitre. The fused mass is extracted

with water, nitric acid is added to the solution, and the precipitate

obtained washed with water (J. Berzelius). It is a white powder almost

insoluble in water. On standing with water for some time it is slowly

converted into the ortho-acid.

Compounds of antimony with all the halogen elements are known, one

atom of the metal combining with three or five atoms of the halogen,

except in the case of bromine, where only the tribromide is known. The

majority of these halide compounds are decomposed by water, with the

formation of basic salts. Antimony trichloride ("Butter of Antimony"),

SbCl3, is obtained by burning the metal in chlorine; by distilling

antimony with excess of mercuric chloride; and by fractional

distillation of antimony tetroxide or trisulphide in hydrochloric acid

solution. It is a colourless deliquescent solid of specific gravity

3.06; it melts at 73.2 deg. C. (H. Kopp) to a colourless oil; and

boils at 223 deg. (H. Capitaine). It is soluble in alcohol and in

carbon bisulphide, and also in a small quantity of water; but with an

excess of water it gives a precipitate of various oxychlorides, known

as powder of algaroth (q.v.). These precipitated oxychlorides on

continued boiling with water lose all their chlorine and ultimately

give a residue of antimony trioxide. It combines with chlorides of the

alkali metals to form double salts, and also with barium, calcium,

strontium, and magnesium chlorides. Antimony pentachloride, SbCl5 is

prepared by heating the trichloride in a current of chlorine. It is a

nearly colourless fuming liquid of unpleasant smell, which can be

solidified to a mass of crystals melting at -6 deg.C. It dissociates

into the trichloride and chlorine when heated. It combines with water,

forming the hydrates SbCl5.H2O and SbCl5.4H2O; it also combines with

phosphorus oxychloride, hydrocyanic acid, and cyanogen chloride. In

chloroform solution it combines with anhydrous oxalic acid to form a

compound, Sb2Cl8(C2O4), which is to be considered as

tetra-chlorstibonium oxalate

COOSbCl4

|

COOSbCl4

(R. Anschutz and Evans, _Annalen_, 1887, ccxxxix. 235). Antimonyl

chloride, SbOCl, is produced by the decomposition of one part of the

trichloride with four parts of water. Prepared in this way it contains

a small quantity of the unaltered chloride, which can be removed by

ether or carbon bisulphide. It is a white powder insoluble in water,

alcohol and ether. On heating, it is converted into the oxychloride

Sb4O5Cl2 (Sb2O3.SbOCl). Antimony oxychloride, SbOCl3, is formed by

addition of the calculated quantity of water to ice-cooled antimony

pentachloride, SbCl5 + H2O = SbOCl3 + 2HCl. It forms a yellowish

crystalline precipitate which in moist air goes to a thick liquid.

Compounds of composition, SbOCl3.2SbCl5 and SbO2Cl.2SbOCl3, have also

been described (W.C. Williams, _Chem. News_. 1871, xxiv. 234).

Antimony tribromide, SbBr3, and tri-iodide, SbI3, may be prepared by

the action of antimony on solutions of bromine or iodine in carbon

bisulphide. The tribromide is a colourless crystalline mass of

specific gravity 4.148 (23 deg.), melting at 90 deg. to 94 deg. C. and

boiling at 275.4 deg. C. (H. Kopp). The tri-iodide forms red-coloured

crystals of specific gravity 4.848 (26 deg.), melting at 165 deg. to

167 deg. C. and boiling at 401 deg. C. By the action of water they

give oxybromides and oxyiodides SbOBr, Sb4O5Br2, SbOI. Antimony

penta-iodide, SbI5, is formed by heating antimony with excess of

iodine, in a sealed tube, to a temperature not above 130 deg.C. It

forms a dark brown crystalline mass, melting at 78 deg. to 79 deg. C.,

and is easily dissociated on heating. Antimony trifluoride, SbF3, is

obtained by dissolving the trioxide in aqueous hydrofluoric acid or by

distilling antimony with mercuric fluoride. By rapid evaporation of

its solution it may be obtained in small prisms. The pentafluoride

SbF5 results when metantimonic acid is dissolved in hydrofluoric acid,

and the solution is evaporated. It forms an amorphous gummy mass,

which is decomposed by heat. Oxyfluorides of composition SbOF and

SbOF3 are known.

Two sulphides of antimony are definitely known, the trisulphide Sb2S3

and the pentasulphide Sb2S5; a third, the tetrasulphide Sb2S4, has

also been described, but its existence is doubtful. Antimony

trisulphide, Sb2S3, occurs as the mineral antimonite or stibnite, from

which the commercial product is obtained by a process of liquation.

The amorphous variety may be obtained from the crystalline form by

dissolving it in caustic potash or soda or in solutions of alkaline

sulphides, and precipitating the hot solution by dilute sulphuric

acid. The precipitate is then washed with water and dried at 100 deg.

C., by which treatment it is obtained in the anhydrous form. On

precipitating antimony trichloride or tartar emetic in acid solution

with sulphuretted hydrogen, an orange-red precipitate of the hydrated

sulphide is obtained, which turns black on being heated to 200 deg. C

The trisulphide heated in a current of hydrogen is reduced to the

metallic state; it burns in air forming the tetroxide, and is soluble

in concentrated hydrochloric acid, in solutions of the caustic

alkalis, and in alkaline sulphides. By the union of antimony

trisulphide with basic sulphides, livers of antimony are obtained.

These substances are usually prepared by fusing their components

together, and are dark powders which are less soluble in water the

more antimony they contain. These thioantimonites are used in the

vulcanizing of rubber and in the preparation of matches. Antimony

pentasulphide, Sb2S5, is prepared by precipitating a solution of the

pentachloride with sulphuretted hydrogen, by decomposing "Schlippe's

salt" (q.v.) with an acid, or by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into

water containing antimonic acid. It forms a fine dark orange powder,

insoluble in water, but readily soluble in aqueous solutions of the

caustic alkalis and alkaline carbonates. On heating in absence of air,

it decomposes into the trisulphide and sulphur.

An antimony phosphide and arsenide are known, as is also a

thiophosphate, SbPS4, which is prepared by heating together antimony

trichloride and phosphorus pentasulphide.

Many organic compounds containing antimony are known. By distilling an

alloy of antimony and sodium with mythyl iodide, mixed with sand,

trimethyl stibine, Sb(CH3)3, is obtained; this combines with excess of

methyl iodide to form tetramethyl stibonium iodide, Sb(CH3)4I. From

this iodide the trimethyl stibine may be obtained by distillation with

an alloy of potassium and antimony in a current of carbon dioxide. It

is a colourless liquid, slightly soluble in water, and is

spontaneously inflammable. The stibonium iodide on treatment with

moist silver oxide gives the corresponding tetramethyl stibonium

hydroxide, Sb(CH3)4OH, which forms deliquescent crystals, of alkaline

reaction, and absorbs carbon dioxide readily. On distilling trimethyl

stibine with zinc methyl, antimony tetra-methyl and penta-methyl are

formed. Corresponding antimony compounds containing the ethyl group

are known, as is also a tri-phenyl stibine, Sb(C6H5)3, which is

prepared from antimony trichloride, sodium and monochlorbenzene. See

Chung Yu Wang, _Antimony_ (1909).

_Antimony in Medicine._--So far back as Basil Valentine and Paracelsus,

antimonial preparations were in great vogue as medicinal agents, and

came to be so much abused that a prohibition was placed upon their

employment by the Paris parlement in 1566. Metallic antimony was

utilized to make goblets in which wine was allowed to stand so as to

acquire emetic properties, and "everlasting" pills of the metal,

supposed to act by contact merely, were administered and recovered for

future use after they had fulfilled their purpose. Antimony compounds

act as irritants both externally and internally. Tartar emetic (antimony

tartrate) when swallowed, acts directly on the wall of the stomach,

producing vomiting, and after absorption continues this effect by its

action on the medulla. It is a powerful cardiac depressant, diminishing

both the force and frequency of the heart's beat. It depresses

respiration, and in large doses lowers temperature. It depresses the

nervous system, especially the spinal cord. It is excreted by all the

secretions and excretions of the body. Thus as it passes out by the

bronchial mucous membrane it increases the amount of secretion and so

acts as an expectorant. On the skin its action is that of a diaphoretic,

and being also excreted by the bile it acts slightly as a cholagogue.

Summed up, its action is that of an irritant, and a cardiac and nervous

depressant. But on account of this depressant action it is to be avoided

for women and children and rarely used for men.

_Toxicology._--Antimony is one of the "protoplasmic" poisons, directly

lethal to all living matter. In acute poisoning by it the symptoms are

almost identical with those of arsenical poisoning, which is much

commoner (See ARSENIC). The post-mortem appearances are also very

similar, but the gastro-intestinal irritation is much less marked and

inflammation of the lungs is more commonly seen. If the patient is not

already vomiting freely the treatment is to use the stomach-pump, or

give sulphate of zinc (gr. 10-30) by the mouth or apomorphine (gr.

1/20-1/10) subcutaneously. Frequent doses of a teaspoonful of tannin

dissolved in water should be administered, together with strong tea and

coffee and mucilaginous fluids. Stimulants may be given subcutaneously,

and the patient should be placed in bed between warm blankets with

hot-water bottles. Chronic poisoning by antimony is very rare, but

resembles in essentials chronic poisoning by arsenic. In its

medico-legal aspects antimonial poisoning is of little and lessening

importance.

ANTINOMIANS (Gr. [Greek: anti], against, [Greek: nomos], law), a term

apparently coined by Luther to stigmatize Johannes Agricola (q.v.) and

his following, indicating an interpretation of the antithesis between

law and gospel, recurrent from the earliest times. Christians being

released, in important particulars, from conformity to the Old Testament

polity as a whole, a real difficulty attended the settlement of the

limits and the immediate authority of the remainder, known vaguely as

the moral law. Indications are not wanting that St Paul's doctrine of

justification by faith was, in his own day, mistaken or perverted in the

interests of immoral licence. Gnostic sects approached the question in

two ways. Marcionites, named by Clement of Alexandria _Antitactae_

(revolters against the Demiurge) held the Old Testament economy to be

throughout tainted by its source; but they are not accused of

licentiousness. Manichaeans, again, holding their spiritual being to be

unaffected by the action of matter, regarded carnal sins as being, at

worst, forms of bodily disease. Kindred to this latter view was the

position of sundry sects of English fanatics during the Commonwealth,

who denied that an elect person sinned, even when committing acts in

themselves gross and evil. Different from either of these was the

Antinomianism charged by Luther against Agricola. Its starting-point was

a dispute with Melanchthon in 1527 as to the relation between repentance

and faith. Melanchthon urged that repentance must precede faith, and

that knowledge of the moral law is needed to produce repentance.

Agricola gave the initial place to faith, maintaining that repentance is

the work, not of law, but of the gospel-given knowledge of the love of

God. The resulting Antinomian controversy (the only one within the

Lutheran body in Luther's lifetime) is not remarkable for the precision

or the moderation of the combatants on either side. Agricola was

apparently satisfied in conference with Luther and Melanchthon at

Torgau, December 1527. His eighteen _Positiones_ of 1537 revived the

controversy and made it acute. Random as are some of his statements, he

was consistent in two objects: (1) in the interest of solifidian

doctrine, to place the rejection of the Catholic doctrine of good works

on a sure ground; (2) in the interest of the New Testament, to find all

needful guidance for Christian duty in its principles, if not in its

precepts. From the latter part of the 17th century charges of

Antinomianism have frequently been directed against Calvinists, on the

ground of their disparagement of "deadly doing" and of "legal

preaching." The virulent controversy between Arminian and Calvinistic

Methodists produced as its ablest outcome Fletcher's _Checks to

Antinomianism_ (1771-1775).

See G. Kawerau, in A. Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1896); Riess, in I.

Goschler's _Dict. Encyclop. de la theol. cath._ (1858); J.H. Blunt

_Dict. of Doct. and Hist. Theol._ (1872); J.C.L. Gieseler, _Ch. Hist._

(New York ed. 1868, vol. iv.).

ANTINOMY (Gr. [Greek: anti], against, [Greek: nomos], law), literally,

the mutual incompatibility, real or apparent, of two laws. The term

acquired a special significance in the philosophy of Kant, who used it

to describe the contradictory results of applying to the universe of

pure thought the categories or criteria proper to the universe of

sensible perception (phenomena). These antinomies are four--two

mathematical, two dynamical--connected with (1) the limitation of the

universe in respect of space and time, (2) the theory that the whole

consists of indivisible atoms (whereas, in fact, none such exist), (3)

the problem of freedom in relation to universal causality, (4) the

existence of a universal being--about each of which pure reason

contradicts the empirical, as thesis and antithesis. Kant claimed to

solve these contradictions by saying, that in no case is the

contradiction real, however really it has been intended by the opposing

partisans, or must appear to the mind without critical enlightenment. It

is wrong, therefore, to impute to Kant, as is often done, the view that

human reason is, on ultimate subjects, at war with itself, in the sense

of being impelled by equally strong arguments towards alternatives

contradictory of each other. The difficulty arises from a confusion

between the spheres of phenomena and noumena. In fact no rational

cosmology is possible.

See John Watson, _Selections from Kant_ (trans. Glasgow, 1897), pp.

155 foll.; W. Windelband, _History of Philosophy_ (Eng. trans. 1893);

H. Sidgwick, _Philos. of Kant_, lectures x. and xi. (Lond., 1905); F.

Paulsen, _I. Kant_ (Eng. trans. 1902), pp. 216 foll.

ANTINOUS, a beautiful youth of Claudiopolis in Bithynia, was the

favourite of the emperor Hadrian, whom he accompanied on his journeys.

He committed suicide by drowning himself in the Nile (A.D. 130), either

in a fit of melancholy or in order to prolong his patron's life by his

voluntary sacrifice. After his death, Hadrian caused the most

extravagant respect to be paid to his memory. Not only were cities

called after him, medals struck with his effigy, and statues erected to

him in all parts of the empire, but he was raised to the rank of the

gods, temples were built for his worship in Bithynia, Mantineia in

Arcadia, and Athens, festivals celebrated in his honour and oracles

delivered in his name. The city of Antinoopolis was founded on the ruins

of Besa where he died (Dio Cassius lix. 11; Spartianus, _Hadrian_). A

number of statues, busts, gems and coins represented Antinous as the

ideal type of youthful beauty, often with the attributes of some special

god. We still possess a colossal bust in the Vatican, a bust in the

Louvre, a bas-relief from the Villa Albani, a statue in the Capitoline

museum, another in Berlin, another in the Lateran, and many more.

See Levezow, _Uber den Antinous_ (1808); Dietrich, _Antinoos_ (1884);

Laban, _Der Gemutsausdruck des Antinoos_ (1891); _Antinous, A Romance

of Ancient Rome_, from the German of A. Hausrath, by M. Saftord (New

York, 1882); Ebers, _Der Kaiser_ (1881).

ANTIOCH. There were sixteen cities known to have been founded under this

name by Hellenistic monarchs; and at least twelve others were renamed

Antioch. But by far the most famous and important in the list was

[Greek: Antiocheia e epi Daphnae] (mod. _Antakia_), situated on the left

bank of the Orontes, about 20 m. from the sea and its port, Seleucia of

Pieria (_Suedia_). Founded as a Greek city in 300 B.C. by Seleucus

Nicator, as soon as he had assured his grip upon western Asia by the

victory of Ipsus (301), it was destined to rival Alexandria in Egypt as

the chief city of the nearer East, and to be the cradle of gentile

Christianity. The geographical character of the district north and

north-east of the elbow of Orontes makes it the natural centre of Syria,

so long as that country is held by a western power; and only Asiatic,

and especially Arab, dynasties have neglected it for the oasis of

Damascus. The two easiest routes from the Mediterranean, lying through

the Orontes gorge and the Beilan Pass, converge in the plain of the

Antioch Lake (_Baluk Geut_ or _El Bahr_) and are met there by (1) the

road from the Amanic Gates (Baghche Pass) and western Commagene, which

descends the valley of the Kara Su, (2) the roads from eastern Commagene

and the Euphratean crossings at Samosata (Samsat) and Apamea Zeugma

(Birejik), which descend the valleys of the Afrin and the Kuwaik, and

(3) the road from the Euphratean ford at Thapsacus, which skirts the

fringe of the Syrian steppe. Travellers by all these roads must proceed

south by the single route of the Orontes valley. Alexander is said to

have camped on the site of Antioch, and dedicated an altar to Zeus

Bottiaeus, which lay in the north-west of the future city. But the first

western sovereign practically to recognize the importance of the

district was Antigonus, who began to build a city, Antigonia, on the

Kara Su a few miles north of the situation of Antioch; but, on his

defeat, he left it to serve as a quarry for his rival Seleucus. The

latter is said to have appealed to augury to determine the exact site of

his projected foundation; but less fantastic considerations went far to

settle it. To build south of the river, and on and under the last east

spur of Casius, was to have security against invasion from the north,

and command of the abundant waters of the mountain. One torrent, the

Onopniktes ("donkey-drowner"), flowed through the new city, and many

other streams came down a few miles west into the beautiful suburb of

Daphne. The site appears not to have been found wholly uninhabited. A

settlement, _Meroe_, boasting a shrine of Anait, called by the Greeks

the "Persian Artemis," had long been located there, and was ultimately

included in the eastern suburbs of the new city; and there seems to have

been a village on the spur (Mt. Silpius), of which we hear in late

authors under the name _Io_, or _Iopolis_. This name was always adduced

as evidence by Antiochenes (e.g. Libanius) anxious to affiliate

themselves to the Attic Ionians--an anxiety which is illustrated by the

Athenian types used on the city's coins. At any rate, Io may have been a

small early colony of trading Greeks (_Javan_). John Malalas mentions

also a village, Bottia, in the plain by the river.

The original city of Seleucus was laid out in imitation of the

"gridiron" plan of Alexandria by the architect, Xenarius. Libanius

describes the first building and arrangement of this city (i. p. 300.

17). The citadel was on Mt. Silpius and the city lay mainly on the low

ground to the north, fringing the river. Two great colonnaded streets

intersected in the centre. Shortly afterwards a second quarter was laid

out, probably on the east and by Antiochus I., which, from an expression

of Strabo, appears to have been the native, as contrasted with the

Greek, town. It was enclosed by a wall of its own. In the Orontes, north

of the city, lay a large island, and on this Seleucus II. Callinicus

began a third walled "city," which was finished by Antiochus III. A

fourth and last quarter was added by Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (175-164

B.C.); and thenceforth Antioch was known as _Tetrapolis_. From west to

east the whole was about 4 m. in diameter and little less from north to

south, this area including many large gardens. Of its population in the

Greek period we know nothing. In the 4th century A.D. it was about

200,000 according to Chrysostom, who probably did not reckon slaves.

About 4 m. west and beyond the suburb, Heraclea, lay the paradise of

Daphne, a park of woods and waters, in the midst of which rose a great

temple to the Pythian Apollo, founded by Seleucus I. and enriched with a

cult-statue of the god, as Musagetes, by Bryaxis. A companion sanctuary

of Hecate was constructed underground by Diocletian. The beauty and the

lax morals of Daphne were celebrated all over the western world; and

indeed Antioch as a whole shared in both these titles to fame. Its

amenities awoke both the enthusiasm and the scorn of many writers of

antiquity.

Antioch became the capital and court-city of the western Seleucid empire

under Antiochus I., its counterpart in the east being Seleucia-on-Tigris;

but its paramount importance dates from the battle of Ancyra (240 B.C.),

which shifted the Seleucid centre of gravity from Asia Minor, and led

indirectly to the rise of Pergamum. Thenceforward the Seleucids resided

at Antioch and treated it as their capital _par excellence_. We know

little of it in the Greek period, apart from Syria (q.v.), all our

information coming from authors of the late Roman time. Among its great

Greek buildings we hear only of the theatre, of which substructures still

remain on the flank of Silpius, and of the royal palace, probably

situated on the island. It enjoyed a great reputation for letters and the

arts (Cicero _pro Archia_, 3); but the only names of distinction in these

pursuits during the Seleucid period, that have come down to us, are

Apollophanes, the Stoic, and one Phoebus, a writer on dreams. The mass of

the population seems to have been only superficially Hellenic, and to

have spoken Aramaic in non-official life. The nicknames which they gave

to their later kings were Aramaic; and, except Apollo and Daphne, the

great divinities of north Syria seem to have remained essentially native,

such as the "Persian Artemis" of Meroe and Atargatis of Hierapolis

Bambyce. We may infer, from its epithet, "Golden," that the external

appearance of Antioch was magnificent; but the city needed constant

restoration owing to the seismic disturbances to which the district has

always been peculiarly liable. The first great earthquake is said by the

native chronicler John Malalas, who tells us most that we know of the

city, to have occurred in 148 B.C., and to have done immense damage. The

inhabitants were turbulent, fickle and notoriously dissolute. In the many

dissensions of the Seleucid house they took violent part, and frequently

rose in rebellion, for example against Alexander Balas in 147 B.C., and

Demetrius II. in 129. The latter, enlisting a body of Jews, punished his

capital with fire and sword. In the last struggles of the Seleucid house,

Antioch turned definitely against its feeble rulers, invited Tigranes of

Armenia to occupy the city in 83, tried to unseat Antiochus XIII. in 65,

and petitioned Rome against his restoration in the following year. Its

wish prevailed, and it passed with Syria to the Roman Republic in 64

B.C., but remained a _civitas libera_.

The Romans both felt and expressed boundless contempt for the hybrid

Antiochenes; but their emperors favoured the city from the first, seeing

in it a more suitable capital for the eastern part of the empire than

Alexandria could ever be, thanks to the isolated position of Egypt. To a

certain extent they tried to make it an eastern Rome. Caesar visited it

in 47 B.C., and confirmed its freedom. A great temple to Jupiter

Capitolinus rose on Silpius, probably at the instance of Octavian, whose

cause the city had espoused. A forum of Roman type was laid out.

Tiberius built two long colonnades on the south towards Silpius. Agrippa

and Tiberius enlarged the theatre, and Trajan finished their work.

Antoninus Pius paved the great east to west artery with granite. A

circus, other colonnades and great numbers of baths were built, and new

aqueducts to supply them bore the names of Caesars, the finest being the

work of Hadrian. The Roman client, King Herod, erected a long _stoa_ on

the east, and Agrippa encouraged the growth of a new suburb south of

this. Under the empire we chiefly hear of the earthquakes which shook

Antioch. One, in A.D. 37, caused the emperor Caligula to send two

senators to report on the condition of the city. Another followed in the

next reign; and in 115, during Trajan's sojourn in the place with his

army of Parthia, the whole site was convulsed, the landscape altered,

and the emperor himself forced to take shelter in the circus for several

days. He and his successor restored the city; but in 526, after minor

shocks, the calamity returned in a terrible form, and thousands of lives

were lost, largely those of Christians gathered to a great church

assembly. We hear also of especially terrific earthquakes on the 29th of

November 528 and the 31st of October 588.

At Antioch Germanicus died in A.D. 19, and his body was burnt in the

forum. Titus set up the Cherubim, captured from the Jewish temple, over

one of the gates. Commodus had Olympic games celebrated at Antioch, and

in A.D. 266 the town was suddenly raided by the Persians, who slew many

in the theatre. In 387 there was a great sedition caused by a new tax

levied by order of Theodosius, and the city was punished by the loss of

its metropolitan status. Zeno, who renamed it Theopolis, restored many

of its public buildings just before the great earthquake of 526, whose

destructive work was completed by the Persian Chosroes twelve years

later. Justinian made an effort to revive it, and Procopius describes

his repairing of the walls; but its glory was past.

The chief interest of Antioch under the empire lies in its relation to

Christianity. Evangelized perhaps by Peter, according to the tradition

upon which the Antiochene patriarchate still rests its claim for primacy

(cf. Acts xi.), and certainly by Barnabas and Saul, its converts were

the first to be called "Christians." They multiplied exceedingly, and by

the time of Theodosius were reckoned by Chrysostom at about 100,000

souls. Between 252 and 300 A.D. ten assemblies of the church were held

at Antioch and it became the residence of the patriarch of Asia. When

Julian visited the place in 362 the impudent population railed at him

for his favour to Jewish and pagan rites, and to revenge itself for the

closing of its great church of Constantine, burned down the temple of

Apollo in Daphne. The emperor's rough and severe habits and his rigid

administration prompted Antiochene lampoons, to which he replied in the

curious satiric _apologia_, still extant, which he called _Misopogon_.

His successor, Valens, who endowed Antioch with a new forum having a

statue of Valentinian on a central column, reopened the great church,

which stood till the sack of Chosroes in 538. Antioch gave its name to a

certain school of Christian thought, distinguished by literal

interpretation of the Scriptures and insistence on the human limitations

of Jesus. Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia were the leaders

of this school. The principal local saint was Simeon Stylites, who

performed his penance on a hill some 40 m. east. His body was brought to

the city and buried in a building erected under the emperor Leo. In A.D.

635, during the reign of Heraclius, Antioch passed into Saracen hands,

and decayed apace for more than 300 years; but in 969 it was recovered

for Byzantium by Michael Burza and Peter the Eunuch. In 1084 the Seljuk

Turks captured it but held it only fourteen years, yielding place to the

crusaders, who besieged it for nine months, enduring frightful

sufferings. Being at last betrayed, it was given to Bohemund, prince of

Tarentum, and it remained the capital of a Latin principality for nearly

two centuries. It fell at last to the Egyptian, Bibars, in 1268, after a

great destruction and slaughter, from which it never revived. Little

remains now of the ancient city, except colossal ruins of aqueducts and

part of the Roman walls, which are used as quarries for modern Antakia;

but no scientific examination of the site has been made. A statue in the

Vatican and a silver statuette in the British Museum perpetuate the type

of its great effigy of the civic Fortune of Antioch--a majestic seated

figure, with Orontes as a youth issuing from under her feet.

ANTAKIA, the modern town, is still of considerable importance. Pop.

about 25,000, including Ansarieh, Jews, and a large body of Christians

of several denominations about 8000 strong. Though superseded by Aleppo

(q.v.) as capital of N. Syria, it is still the centre of a large

district, growing in wealth and productiveness with the draining of its

central lake, undertaken by a French company. The principal cultures are

tobacco, maize and cotton, and the mulberry for silk production.

Liquorice also is collected and exported. In 1822 (as in 1872) Antakia

suffered by earthquake, and when Ibrahim Pasha made it his headquarters

in 1835, it had only some 5000 inhabitants. Its hopes, based on a

Euphrates valley railway, which was to have started from its port of

Suedia (Seleucia), were doomed to disappointment, and it has suffered

repeatedly from visitations of cholera; but it has nevertheless grown

rapidly and will resume much of its old importance when a railway is

made down the lower Orontes valley. It is a centre of American mission

enterprise, and has a British vice-consul.

See C.O. Miiller, _Antiquitates Antiochenae_ (1839); A. Freund,

_Beitrage zur antiochenischen ... Stadtchronik_ (1882); R. Forster, in

_Jahrbuch_ of Berlin Arch. Institute, xii. (1897). Also authorities

for SYRIA. (D. G. H.)

SYNODS OF ANTIOCH. Beginning with three synods convened between 264 and

269 in the matter of Paul of Samosata, more than thirty councils were

held in Antioch in ancient times. Most of these dealt with phases of the

Arian and of the Christological controversies. The most celebrated took

place in the summer of 341 at the dedication of the golden Basilica, and

is therefore called _in encaeniis_ ([Greek: en egkainiois]), _in

dedicatione_. Nearly a hundred bishops were present, all from the

Orient, but the bishop of Rome was not represented. The emperor

Constantius attended in person. The council approved three creeds (Hahn,

SS 153-155). Whether or no the so-called "fourth formula" (Hahn, S 156)

is to be ascribed to a continuation of this synod or to a subsequent but

distinct assembly of the same year, its aim is like that of the first

three; while repudiating certain Arian formulas it avoids the Athanasian

shibboleth "homoousios." The somewhat colourless compromise doubtless

proceeded from the party of Eusebius of Nicomedia, and proved not

inacceptable to the more nearly orthodox members of the synod. The

twenty-five canons adopted regulate the so-called metropolitan

constitution of the church. Ecclesiastical power is vested chiefly in

the metropolitan (later called archbishop), and the semi-annual

provincial synod (cf. Nicaea, canon 5), which he summons and over which

he presides. Consequently the powers of country bishops (_chorepiscopi_)

are curtailed, and direct recourse to the emperor is forbidden. The

sentence of one judicatory is to be respected by other judicatories of

equal rank; re-trial may take place only before that authority to whom

appeal regularly lies (see canons 3, 4, 6). Without due invitation, a

bishop may not ordain, or in any other way interfere with affairs lying

outside his proper territory; nor may he appoint his own successor.

Penalties are set on the refusal to celebrate Easter in accordance with

the Nicene decree, as well as on leaving a church before the service of

the Eucharist is completed. The numerous objections made by eminent

scholars in past centuries to the ascription of these twenty-five canons

to the synod _in encaeniis_ have been elaborately stated and probably

refuted by Hefele. The canons formed part of the _Codex canonum_ used at

Chalcedon in 451 and passed over into the later collections of East and

West.

The canons are printed in Greek by Mansi ii. 1307 ff., Bruns i. 80

ff., Lauchert 43 ff., and translated by Hefele, _Councils_, ii. 67 ff.

and by H.R. Percival in the _Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers_, 2nd

series, xiv. 108 ff. The four dogmatic formulas are given by G. Ludwig

Hahn, _Bibliothek der Symbole_, 3rd edition (Breslau, 1897), 183 ff.;

for translations compare the _Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers_, 2nd

series, iv. 461 ff., ii. 39 ff., ix. 12, ii. 44, and Hefele, ii. 76

ff. For full titles see COUNCILS. (W. W. R.*)

ANTIOCH IN PISIDIA, an ancient city, the remains of which, including

ruins of temples, a theatre and a fine aqueduct, were found by Arundell

in 1833 close to the modern Yalovach. It was situated on the lower

southern slopes of the Sultan Dagh, in the Konia vilayet of Asia Minor,

on the right bank of a stream, the ancient Anthius, which flows into the

Hoiran Geul. It was probably founded on the site of a Phrygian

sanctuary, by Seleucus Nicator, before 280 B.C. and was made a free city

by the Romans in 189 B.C. It was a thoroughly Hellenized, Greek-speaking

city, in the midst of a Phrygian people, with a mixed population that

included many Jews. Before 6 B.C. Augustus made it a colony, with the

title Caesarea, and it became the centre of civil and military

administration in south Galatia, the romanization of which was

progressing rapidly in the time of Claudius, A.D. 41-54, when Paul

visited it (Acts xiii. 14, xiv. 21, xvi. 6, xviii. 23). In 1097 the

crusaders found rest and shelter within its walls. The ruins are

interesting, and show that Antioch was a strongly fortified city of

Hellenic and Roman type.

ANTIOCHUS, the name of thirteen kings of the Seleucid dynasty in Nearer

Asia. The most famous are Antiochus III. the Great (223-187 B.C.) who

sheltered Hannibal and waged war with Rome, and his son Antiochus IV.

Epiphanes (176-164 B.C.) who tried to suppress Judaism by persecution

(see SELEUCID DYNASTY).

The name was subsequently borne by the kings of Commagene (69 B.C.-A.D.

72), whose house was affiliated to the Seleucid.

ANTIOCHUS I. of Commagene, who without sufficient reason has been

identified with the Seleucid Antiochus XIII. Asiaticus, made peace on

advantageous terms with Pompey in 64 B.C. Subsequently he fought on

Pompey's side in the Civil War, and later still repelled an attack on

Samosata by Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony.) He died before 31 B.C. and

was succeeded by one Mithradates I. This Mithradates was succeeded by an

ANTIOCHUS II., who was executed by Augustus in 29 B.C. After another

Mithradates we know of an ANTIOCHUS III., on whose death in A.D. 17

Commagene became a Roman province. In 38 his son ANTIOCHUS IV. EPIPHANES

was made king by Caligula, who deposed him almost immediately. Restored

by Claudius in 41, he reigned until 72 as an ally of Rome against

Parthia. In that year he was deposed on suspicion of treason and retired

to Rome. Several of his coins are extant.

On all the above see "Antiochos" in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie

der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, i. part ii. (1894).

ANTIOCHUS OF ASCALON (1st century B.C.), Greek philosopher. His

philosophy consisted in an attempt to reconcile the doctrines of his

teachers Philo of Larissa and Mnesarchus the Stoic. Against the

scepticism of the former, he held that the intellect has in itself a

sufficient test of truth; against Mnesarchus, that happiness, though its

main factor is virtue, depends also on outward circumstances. This

electicism is known as the Fifth Academy (see ACADEMY, GREEK). His

writings are lost, and we are indebted for information to Cicero (_Acad.

Pr._ ii. 43), who studied under him at Athens, and Sextus Empiricus

(_Pyrrh. hyp._ i. 235). Antiochus lectured also in Rome and Alexandria.

See R. Hoyer, _De Antiocho Ascalonita_ (Bonn, 1883).

ANTIOCHUS OF SYRACUSE, Greek historian, flourished about 420 B.C.

Nothing is known of his life, but his works, of which only fragments

remain, enjoyed a high reputation. He wrote a _History of Sicily_ from

the earliest times to 424, which was used by Thucydides, and the

_Colonizing of Italy_, frequently referred to by Strabo and Dionysius of

Halicarnassus.

Muller, _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, i.; Wolfflin, _Antiochos

von Syrakus_, 1872.