GROUP E.

Family 13. CYSTIPHYLLIDAE.--Solitary corals with rudimentary septa,

and the calicle filled with vesicular endotheca.

Genera--_Cystiphyllum_, Lonsdale (Silurian and Devonian).

_Goniophyllum_, M. Edw. and H. (In this Silurian genus the calyx is

provided with a movable operculum, consisting of four paired

triangular pieces, the bases of each being attached to the sides of

the calyx, and their apices meeting in the middle when the operculum

is closed). _Calcecla_, Lam. (In this Devonian genus there is a single

semicircular operculum furnished with a stout median septum and

numerous feebly developed secondary septa. The calyx is triangular in

section, pointed below, and the operculum is attached to it by

hinge-like teeth.)

AUTHORITIES.--The following list contains only the names of the more

important and more general works on the structure and classification

of corals and on coral reefs. For a fuller bibliography the works

marked with an asterisk should be consulted: * A. Andres, _Fauna und

Flora des Golfes von Neapel_, ix. (1884); H.M. Bernard, "Catalogue of

Madreporarian Corals" in Brit. Museum, ii. (1896), iii. (1897); * G.C.

Bourne, "Anthozoa," in E. Ray Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_, vol.

ii. (London, 1900); G. Brook, "_Challenger_ Reports," _Zoology_,

xxxii. (1899) (_Antipatharia_); "Cat. Madrep. Corals," Brit. Museum,

i. (1893); D.C. Danielssen, "Report Norwegian North Atlantic Exploring

Expedition," _Zoology_, xix. (1890); J.E. Duerden, "Some Results on

the Morphology and Development of Recent and Fossil Corals," _Rep.

Brit. Association_, 1903, pp. 684-685; "The Morphology of the

Madreporaria," _Biol. Bullet_, vii. pp. 79-104; P.M. Duncan, _Journ.

Linnean Soc._ xviii. (1885); P.H. Gosse, _Actinologia britannica_

(London, 1860); O. and R. Hertwig, _Die Actinien_ (Jena, 1879); R.

Hertwig, "_Challenger_ Reports," _Zoology_, vi. (1882) and xxvi.

(1888); * C.B. Klunzinger, _Die Korallthiere des Rothen Meeres_

(Berlin, 1877); * G. von Koch, _Fauna und Flora des Golfes van

Neapel_, xv. (1887); _Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neapel_, ii. (1882) and xii.

(1897); _Palaeontographica_, xxix. (1883); (also many papers in the

_Morphol. Jahrbuch_ from 1878 to 1898); F. Koby, "Polypiers

jurassiques de la Suisse," _Mem. Soc. Palaeont. Suisse_, vii.-xvi.

(1880-1889); A. von Kolliker, "Die Pennatuliden," _Abh. d. Senck.

Naturf. Gesell_. vii.; * "_Challenger_ Reports," _Zoology_, i.

_Pennatulidae_ (1880); Koren and Danielssen, _Norske Nordhaus Exped.,

Alcyonida_ (1887); H. de Lacaze-Duthiers, _Hist. nat. du corail_

(Paris, 1864); H. Milne-Edwards and J. Haime, _Hist. nat. des

coralliaires_ (Paris, 1857); H.N. Moseley, "_Challenger_ Reports,"

_Zoology_, ii. (1881); H.A. Nicholson, _Palaeozoic Tabulate Corals_

(Edinburgh, 1879); M.M. Ogilvie, _Phil. Transactions_, clxxxvii.

(1896); E. Pratz, _Palaeontographica_, xxix. (1882); J.J. Quelch,

"_Challenger_ Reports," _Zoology_, xvi. (1886); * P.S. Wright and Th.

Studer, "_Challenger_ Reports," _Zoology_, xxxi. (1889).

(G. C. B.)

ANTHRACENE (from the Greek [Greek: anthrax], coal), C14H10, a

hydrocarbon obtained from the fraction of the coal-tar distillate

boiling between 270 deg. and 400 deg. C. This high boiling fraction is

allowed to stand for some days, when it partially solidifies. It is then

separated in a centrifugal machine, the low melting-point impurities are

removed by means of hot water, and the residue is finally hot-pressed.

The crude anthracene cake is purified by treatment with the higher

pyridine bases, the operation being carried out in large steam-jacketed

boilers. The whole mass dissolves on heating, and the anthracene

crystallizes out on cooling. The crystallized anthracene is then removed

by a centrifugal separator and the process of solution in the pyridine

bases is repeated. Finally the anthracene is purified by sublimation.

Many synthetical processes for the preparation of anthracene and its

derivatives are known. It is formed by the condensation of acetylene

tetrabromide with benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride:--

Br.CH.Br /CH\

C6H6 + | + C6H6 = 4HBr + C6H4< | >C6H4,

Br.CH.Br \CH/

and similarly from methylene dibromide and benzene, and also when benzyl

chloride is heated with aluminium chloride to 200 deg. C. By condensing

ortho-brombenzyl bromide with sodium, C.L. Jackson and J.F. White

(_Ber_., 1879, 12, p. 1965) obtained dihydro-anthracene

/CH2Br Br\ /CH2\

C6H4< + 4Na + >C6H4 = 4NaBr + C6H4< >C6H4.

\Br BrCH2/ \CH2/

Anthracene has also been obtained by heating ortho-tolylphenyl ketone

with zinc dust

/CH8 /CH \

C6H4< = H2O + C6H4< | >C6H4.

\COC6H5 \CH /

Anthracene crystallizes in colourless monoclinic tables which show a

fine blue fluorescence. It melts at 213 deg. C. and boils at 351 deg. C.

It is insoluble in water, sparingly soluble in alcohol and ether, but

readily soluble in hot benzene. It unites with picric acid to form a

picrate, C14H10.C6H2(NO2)3.OH, which crystallizes in needles, melting at

138 deg. C. On exposure to sunlight a solution of anthracene in benzene

or xylene deposits para-anthracene (C14H10)2, which melts at 244 deg. C.

and passes back into the ordinary form. Chlorine and bromine form both

addition and substitution products with anthracene; the addition

product, anthracene dichloride, C14H10Cl2, being formed when chlorine is

passed into a cold solution of anthracene in carbon bisulphide. On

treatment with potash, it forms the substitution product,

monochlor-anthracene, C14H9Cl. Nitro-anthracenes are not as yet known.

The mono-oxyanthracenes (anthrols), C14H9OH or

/CH\

C6H4< | >C6H3OH

\CH/

([alpha]) and ([beta]) resemble the phenols, whilst

/C(OH)\

C6H4< | >C6H4

\CH /

([gamma]) (anthranol) is a reduction product of anthraquinone.

[beta]-anthrol and anthranol give the corresponding amino compounds

(anthramines) when heated with ammonia.

Numerous sulphonic acids of anthracene are known, a monosulphonic acid

being obtained with dilute sulphuric acid, whilst concentrated sulphuric

acid produces mixtures of the anthracene disulphonic acids. By the

action of sodium amalgam on an alcoholic solution of anthracene, an

anthracene dihydride, C14H12, is obtained, whilst by the use of stronger

reducing agents, such as hydriodic acid and amorphous phosphorus,

hydrides of composition C14H16 and C14H24 are produced.

Methyl and phenyl anthracenes are known; phenyl anthranol (phthalidin)

being somewhat closely related to the phenolphthaleins (q.v.). Oxidizing

agents convert anthracene into anthraquinone (q.v.); the production of

this substance by oxidizing anthracene in glacial acetic acid solution,

with chromic acid, is the usual method employed for the estimation of

anthracene.

ANTHRACITE (Gr. [Greek: anthrax], coal), a term applied to those

varieties of coal which do not give off tarry or other hydrocarbon

vapours when heated below their point of ignition; or, in other words,

which burn with a smokeless and nearly non-luminous flame. Other terms

having the same meaning are, "stone coal" (not to be confounded with the

German _Steinkohle_) or "blind coal" in Scotland, and "Kilkenny coal" in

Ireland. The imperfect anthracite of north Devon, which however is only

used as a pigment, is known as _culm_, the same term being used in

geological classification to distinguish the strata in which it is

found, and similar strata in the Rhenish hill countries which are known

as the Culm Measures. In America, culm is used as an equivalent for

waste or slack in anthracite mining.

Physically, anthracite differs from ordinary bituminous coal by its

greater hardness, higher density, 1.3-1.4, and lustre, the latter being

often semi-metallic with a somewhat brownish reflection. It is also free

from included soft or fibrous notches and does not soil the fingers when

rubbed. Structurally it shows some alteration by the development of

secondary divisional planes and fissures so that the original

stratification lines are not always easily seen. The thermal

conductivity is also higher, a lump of anthracite feeling perceptibly

colder when held in the warm hand than a similar lump of bituminous coal

at the same temperature. The chemical composition of some typical

anthracites is given in the article COAL.

Anthracite may be considered to be a transition stage between ordinary

bituminous coal and graphite, produced by the more or less complete

elimination of the volatile constituents of the former; and it is found

most abundantly in areas that have been subjected to considerable

earth-movements, such as the flanks of great mountain ranges. The

largest and most important anthracite region, that of the north-eastern

portion of the Pennsylvania coal-field, is a good example of this; the

highly contorted strata of the Appalachian region produce anthracite

exclusively, while in the western portion of the same basin on the Ohio

and its tributaries, where the strata are undisturbed, free-burning and

coking coals, rich in volatile matter, prevail. In the same way the

anthracite region of South Wales is confined to the contorted portion

west of Swansea and Llanelly, the central and eastern portions

producing steam, coking and house coals.

Anthracites of newer, tertiary or cretaceous age, are found in the

Crow's Nest part of the Rocky Mountains in Canada, and at various points

in the Andes in Peru.

The principal use of anthracite is as a smokeless fuel. In the eastern

United States, it is largely employed as domestic fuel, usually in close

stoves or furnaces, as well as for steam purposes, since, unlike that

from South Wales, it does not decrepitate when heated, or at least not

to the same extent. For proper use, however, it is necessary that the

fuel should be supplied in pieces as nearly uniform in size as possible,

a condition that has led to the development of the breaker which is so

characteristic a feature in American anthracite mining (see COAL). The

large coal as raised from the mine is passed through breakers with

toothed rolls to reduce the lumps to smaller pieces, which are separated

into different sizes by a system of graduated sieves, placed in

descending order. Each size can be perfectly well burnt alone on an

appropriate grate, if kept free from larger or smaller admixtures. The

common American classification is as follows:--

Lump, steamboat, egg and stove coals, the latter in two or three sizes,

all three being above 1-1/2 in. size on round-hole screens.

Chestnut below 1-1/2 inch above 7/8 inch.

Pea " 7/8 " " 9/16 "

Buckwheat " 9/16 " " 3/8 "

Rice " 3/8 " " 3/16 "

Barley " 3/16 " " 3/32 "

From the pea size downwards the principal use is for steam purposes. In

South Wales a less elaborate classification is adopted; but great care

is exercised in hand-picking and cleaning the coal from included

particles of pyrites in the higher qualities known as best malting

coals, which are used for kiln-drying malt and hops.

Formerly, anthracite was largely used, both in America and South Wales,

as blast-furnace fuel for iron smelting, but for this purpose it has

been largely superseded by coke in the former country and entirely in

the latter. An important application has, however, been developed in the

extended use of internal combustion motors driven by the so-called

"mixed," "poor," "semi-water" or "Dowson gas" produced by the

gasification of anthracite with air and a small proportion of steam.

This is probably the most economical method of obtaining power known;

with an engine as small as 15 horse-power the expenditure of fuel is at

the rate of only 1 lb per horse-power hour, and with larger engines it

is proportionately less. Large quantities of anthracite for power

purposes are now exported from South Wales to France, Switzerland and

parts of Germany. (H. B.)

ANTHRACOTHERIUM ("coal-animal," so called from the fact of the remains

first described having been obtained from the Tertiary lignite-beds of

Europe), a genus of extinct artiodactyle ungulate mammals, characterized

by having 44 teeth, with five semi-crescentic cusps on the crowns of the

upper molars. In many respects, especially the form of the lower jaw,

_Anthracotherium_, which is of Oligocene and Miocene age in Europe, and

typifies the family _Anthracotheriidae_, is allied to the hippopotamus,

of which it is probably an ancestral form. The European _A. magnum_ was

as large as the last-mentioned animal, but there were several smaller

species and the genus also occurs in Egypt, India and North America.

(See ARTIODACTYLA.)

ANTHRAQUINONE, C14H8O2, an important derivative of anthracene, first

prepared in 1834 by A. Laurent. It is prepared commercially from

anthracene by stirring a sludge of anthracene and water in horizontal

cylinders with a mixture of sodium bichromate and caustic soda. This

suspension is then run through a conical mill in order to remove all

grit, the cones of the mill fitting so tightly that water cannot pass

through unless the mill is running; the speed of the mill when working

is about 3000 revolutions per minute. After this treatment, the mixture

is run into lead-lined vats and treated with sulphuric acid, steam is

blown through the mixture in order to bring it to the boil, and the

anthracene is rapidly oxidized to anthraquinone. When the oxidation is

complete, the anthraquinone is separated in a filter press, washed and

heated to 120 deg. C. with commercial oil of vitriol, using about 2-1/2

parts of vitriol to 1 of anthraquinone. It is then removed to lead-lined

tanks and again washed with water and dried; the product obtained

contains about 95% of anthraquinone. It may be purified by sublimation.

Various synthetic processes have been used for the preparation of

anthraquinone. A. Behr and W.A. v. Dorp (_Ber._, 1874, 7, p. 578)

obtained orthobenzoyl benzoic acid by heating phthalic anhydride with

benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride. This compound on heating

with phosphoric anhydride loses water and yields anthraquinone,

/CO\ C6H6 /CO.C6H6 /CO\

C6H4< >O -> C6H4< -> C6H4< >C6H4.

\CO/ \COOH \CO/

It may be prepared in a similar manner by heating phthalyl chloride with

benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride. Dioxy- and

tetraoxy-anthraquinones are obtained when meta-oxy- and

dimeta-dioxy-benzoic acids are heated with concentrated sulphuric acid.

Anthraquinone crystallizes in yellow needles or prisms, which melt at

277 deg. C. It is soluble in hot benzene, sublimes easily, and is very

stable towards oxidizing agents. On the other hand, it is readily

attacked by reducing agents. With zinc dust in presence of caustic soda

it yields the secondary alcohol oxan-thranol, C6H4 : CO.CHOH : C6H4,

with tin and hydrochloric acid, the phenolic compound anthranol, C6H4 :

CO.C(OH) : C6H4; and with hydriodic acid at 150 deg. C. or on

distillation with zinc dust, the hydrocarbon anthracene, C14H10. When

fused with caustic potash, it gives benzoic acid. It behaves more as a

ketone than as a quinone, since with hydroxylamine it yields an oxime,

and on reduction with zinc dust and caustic soda it yields a secondary

alcohol, whilst it cannot be reduced by means of sulphurous acid.

Various sulphonic acids of anthraquinone are known, as well as

oxy-derivatives, for the preparation and properties of which see

ALIZARIN.

ANTHRAX (the Greek for "coal," or "carbuncle," so called by the ancients

because they regarded it as burning like coal; cf. the French equivalent

_charbon_; also known as _fievre charbonneuse, Milzbrand_, splenic

fever, and malignant pustule), an acute, specific, infectious, virulent

disease, caused by the _Bacillus anthracis_, in animals, chiefly cattle,

sheep and horses, and frequently occurring in workers in the wool or

hair, as well as in those handling the hides or carcases, of beasts

which have been affected.

_Animals._--As affecting wild as well as domesticated animals and man,

anthrax has been widely diffused in one or more of its forms, over the

surface of the globe. It at times decimates the reindeer herds in

Lapland and the Polar regions, and is only too well known in the tropics

and in temperate latitudes. It has been observed and described in

Russia, Siberia, Central Asia, China, Cochin-China, Egypt, West Indies,

Peru, Paraguay, Brazil, Mexico, and other parts of North and South

America, in Australia, and on different parts of the African continent,

while for other European countries the writings which have been

published with regard to its nature, its peculiar characteristics, and

the injury it inflicts are innumerable. Countries in which are extensive

marshes, or the subsoil of which is tenacious or impermeable, are

usually those most frequently and seriously visited. Thus there have

been regions notorious for its prevalence, such as the marshes of

Sologne, Dombes and Bresse in France; certain parts of Germany, Hungary

and Poland; in Spain the half-submerged valleys and the maritime coasts

of Catalonia, as well as the Romagna and other marshy districts of

Italy; while it is epizootic, and even panzootic, in the swampy regions

of Esthonia, Livonia, Courland, and especially of Siberia, where it is

known as the _Sibirskaja jaswa_ (Siberian boil-plague). The records of

anthrax go back to a very ancient date. It is supposed to be the murrain

of Exodus. Classical writers allude to anthrax as if it were the only

cattle disease worthy of mention (see Virgil, _Georg._ iii.). It figures

largely in the history of the early and middle ages as a devastating

pestilence attacking animals, and through them mankind; the oldest

Anglo-Saxon manuscripts contain many fantastic recipes, leechdoms,

charms and incantations for the prevention or cure of the "blacan

blezene" (black blain) and the relief of the "elfshot" creatures. In the

18th and 19th centuries it sometimes spread like an epizootic over the

whole of Europe, from Siberia to France. It was in this malady that

disease-producing germs (_bacteria_) were first discovered, in 1840, by

Pollender of Wipperfurth, and, independently, by veterinary surgeon

Brauell of Dorpat, and their real character afterwards verified by C.J.

Davaine (1812-1882) of Alfort in 1863; and it was in their experiments

with this disease that Toussaint, Pasteur and J.B. Chauveau first showed

how to make the morbific poison its own antidote. (See VIVISECTION.)

The symptoms vary with the species of animal, the mode of infection, and

the seat of the primary lesion, internal or external. In all its forms

anthrax is an inoculable disease, transmission being surely and promptly

effected by this means, and it may be conveyed to nearly all animals by

inoculation of a wound of the skin or through the digestive organs.

Cattle, sheep and horses nearly always owe their infection to spores or

bacilli ingested with their food or water, and pigs usually contract the

disease by eating the flesh of animals dead of anthrax.

Internal anthrax, of cattle and sheep, exhibits no premonitory symptoms

that can be relied on. Generally the first indication of an outbreak is

the sudden death of one or more of the herd or flock. Animals which do

not die at once may be noticed to stagger and tremble; the breathing

becomes hurried and the pulse very rapid, while the heart beats

violently; the internal temperature of the body is high, 104 deg. to 106

deg. F.; blood oozes from the nose, mouth and anus, the visible mucous

membranes are dusky or almost black. The animal becomes weak and

listless, the temperature falls and death supervenes in a few hours,

being immediately preceded by delirium, convulsions or coma. While death

is usually rapid or sudden when the malady is general, constituting what

is designated splenic apoplexy, internal anthrax in cattle is not

invariably fatal. In some cases the animal rallies from a first attack

and gradually recovers.

In the external or localized form, marked by the formation of carbuncles

before general infection takes place, death may not occur for several

days. The carbuncles may appear in any part of the body, being preceded

or accompanied by fever. They are developed in the subcutaneous

connective tissue where this is loose and plentiful, in the interstices

of the muscles, lymphatic glands, in the mucous membranes of the mouth

and tongue (glossanthrax of cattle), pharynx and larynx (_anthrax

angina_ of horses and pigs), and the rectum. They begin as small

circumscribed swellings which are warm, slightly painful and oedematous.

In from two to eight hours they attain a considerable size, are cold,

painless and gangrenous, and when they are incised a quantity of a

blood-stained gelatinous exudate escapes. When the swellings have

attained certain proportions symptoms of general infection appear, and,

running their course with great rapidity, cause death in a few hours.

Anthrax of the horse usually begins as an affection of the throat or

bowel. In the former there is rapid obstructive oedema of the mucous

membrane of the pharynx and larynx with swelling of the throat and neck,

fever, salivation, difficulty in swallowing, noisy breathing, frothy

discharge from the nose and threatening suffocation. General invasion

soon ensues, and the horse may die in from four to sixteen hours. The

intestinal form is marked by high temperature, great prostration, small

thready pulse, tumultuous action of the heart, laboured breathing and

symptoms of abdominal pain with straining and diarrhoea. When moved the

horse staggers and trembles. Profuse sweating, a falling temperature and

cyanotic mucous membranes indicate the approach of a fatal termination.

In splenic fever or splenic apoplexy, the most marked alterations

observed after death are--the effects of rapid decomposition, evidenced

by the foul odour, disengagement of gas beneath the skin and in the

tissues and cavities of the body, yellow or yellowish-red gelatinous

exudation into and between the muscles, effusion of citron or

rust-coloured fluid in various cavities, extravasations of blood and

local congestions throughout the body, the blood in the vessels

generally being very dark and tar-like. The most notable feature,

however, in the majority of cases is the enormous enlargement of the

spleen, which is engorged with blood to such an extent that it often

ruptures, while its tissue is changed into a violet or black fluid mass.

The bacillus of anthrax, under certain conditions, retains its vitality

for a long time, and rapidly grows when it finds a suitable field in

which to develop, its mode of multiplication being by scission and the

formation of spores, and depending, to a great extent at least, on the

presence of oxygen. The morbid action of the bacillus is indeed said to

be due to its affinity for oxygen; by depriving the red corpuscles of

the blood of that most essential gas, it renders the vital fluid unfit

to sustain life. Albert Hoffa and others assert that the fatal lesions

are produced by the poisonous action of the toxins formed by the bacilli

and not by the blocking up of the minute blood-vessels, or the

abstraction of oxygen from the blood by the bacilli.

It was by the cultivation of this micro-organism, or attenuation of the

virus, that Pasteur was enabled to produce a prophylactic remedy for

anthrax. His discovery was first made with regard to the cholera of

fowls, a most destructive disorder which annually carries off great

numbers of poultry. Pasteur produced his inoculation material by the

cultivation of the bacilli at a temperature of 42 deg. C. in oxygen. Two

vaccines are required. The first or weak vaccine is obtained by

incubating a bouillon culture for twenty-four days at 42 deg. C., and

the second or less attenuated vaccine by incubating a bouillon culture,

at the same temperature, for twelve days. Pasteur's method of protective

inoculation comprises two inoculations with an interval of twelve days

between them. Immunity, established in about fifteen days after the

injection of the second vaccine, lasts from nine months to a year.

Toussaint had, previous to Pasteur, attenuated the virus of anthrax by

the action of heat; and Chauveau subsequently corroborated by numerous

experiments the value of Toussaint's method, demonstrating that,

according to the degree of heat to which the virus is subjected, so is

its inocuousness when transferred to a healthy creature. In outbreaks of

anthrax on farms where many animals are exposed to infection immediate

temporary protection can be conferred by the injection of anthrax serum.

_Human Beings._--For many years cases of sudden death had been observed

to occur from time to time among healthy men engaged in woollen

manufactories, particularly in the work of sorting or combing wool. In

some instances death appeared to be due to the direct inoculation of

some poisonous material into the body, for a form of malignant pustule

was observed upon the skin; but, on the other hand, in not a few cases

without any external manifestation, symptoms of blood-poisoning, often

proving rapidly fatal, suggested the probability of other channels for

the introduction of the disease. In 1880 the occurrence of several such

cases among woolsorters at Bradford, reported by Dr J.H. Bell of that

town, led to an official inquiry in England by the Local Government

Board, and an elaborate investigation into the pathology of what was

then called "woolsorters' disease" was at the same time conducted at the

Brown Institution, London, by Professor W.S. Greenfield. Among the

results of this inquiry it was ascertained: (1) that the disease

appeared to be identical with that occurring among sheep and cattle; (2)

that in the blood and tissues of the body was found in abundance, as in

the disease in animals, the _Bacillus anthracis_, and (3) that the

skins, hair, wool, &c., of animals dying of anthrax retain this

infecting organism, which, under certain conditions, finds ready access

to the bodies of the workers.

Two well-marked forms of this disease in man are recognized, "external

anthrax" and "internal anthrax." In external anthrax the infecting agent

is accidentally inoculated into some portion of skin, the seat of a

slight abrasion, often the hand, arm or face. A minute swelling soon

appears at the part, and develops into a vesicle containing serum or

bloody matter, and varying in size, but seldom larger than a shilling.

This vesicle speedily bursts and leaves an ulcerated or sloughing

surface, round about which are numerous smaller vesicles which undergo

similar changes, and the whole affected part becomes hard and tender,

while the surrounding surface participates in the inflammatory action,

and the neighbouring lymphatic glands are also inflamed. This condition,

termed "malignant pustule," is frequently accompanied with severe

constitutional disturbance, in the form of fever, delirium,

perspirations, together with great prostration and a tendency to death

from septicaemia, although on the other hand recovery is not uncommon.

It was repeatedly found that the matter taken from the vesicle during

the progress of the disease, as well as the blood in the body after

death, contained the _Bacillus anthracis_, and when inoculated into

small animals produced rapid death, with all the symptoms and

post-mortem appearances characteristic of che disease as known to affect

them.

In internal anthrax there is no visible local manifestation of the

disease, and the spores or bacilli appear to gain access to the system

from the air charged with them, as in rooms where the contaminated wool

or hair is unpacked, or again during the process of sorting. The

symptoms usually observed are those of rapid physical prostration, with

a small pulse, somewhat lowered temperature (rarely fever), and

quickened breathing. Examination of the chest reveals inflammation of

the lungs and pleura. In some cases death takes place by collapse in

less than one day, while in others the fatal issue is postponed for

three or four days, and is preceded by symptoms of blood-poisoning,

including rigors, perspirations, extreme exhaustion, &c. In some cases

of internal anthrax the symptoms are more intestinal than pulmonary, and

consist in severe exhausting diarrhoea, with vomiting and rapid sinking.

Recovery from the internal variety, although not unknown, is more rare

than from the external, and its most striking phenomena are its sudden

onset in the midst of apparent health, the rapid development of physical

prostration, and its tendency to a fatal termination despite treatment.

The post-mortem appearances in internal anthrax are such as are usually

observed in septicaemia, but in addition evidence of extensive

inflammation of the lungs, pleura and bronchial glands has in most cases

been met with. The blood and other fluids and the diseased tissues are

found loaded with the _Bacillus anthracis_.

Treatment in this disease appears to be of but little avail, except as

regards the external form, where the malignant pustule may be excised or

dealt with early by strong caustics to destroy the affected textures.

For the relief of the general constitutional symptoms, quinine,

stimulants and strong nourishment appear to be the only available means.

An anti-anthrax serum has also been tried. As preventive measures in

woollen manufactories, the disinfection of suspicious material, or the

wetting of it before handling, is recommended as lessening the risk to

the workers. (J. Mac.)

ANTHROPOID APES, or MANLIKE APES, the name given to the family of the

Simiidae, because, of all the ape-world, they most closely resemble man.

This family includes four kinds, the gibbons of S.E. Asia, the orangs of

Borneo and Sumatra, the gorillas of W. Equatorial Africa, and the

chimpanzees of W. and Central Equatorial Africa. Each of these apes

resembles man most in some one physical characteristic: the gibbons in

the formation of the teeth, the orangs in the brain-structure, the

gorillas in size, and the chimpanzees in the sigmoid flexure of the

spine. In general structure they all closely resemble human beings, as

in the absence of tails; in their semi-erect position (resting on

finger-tips or knuckles); in the shape of vertebral column, sternum and

pelvis; in the adaptation of the arms for turning the palm uppermost at

will; in the possession of a long vermiform appendix to the short caecum

of the intestine; in the size of the cerebral hemispheres and the

complexity of their convolutions. They differ in certain respects, as in

the proportion of the limbs, in the bony development of the eyebrow

ridges, and in the opposable great toe, which fits the foot to be a

climbing and grasping organ.

Man differs from them in the absence of a hairy coat; in the development

of a large lobule to the external ear; in his fully erect attitude; in

his flattened foot with the non-opposable great toe; in the straight

limb-bones; in the wider pelvis; in the marked sigmoid flexure of his

spine; in the perfection of the muscular movements of the arm; in the

delicacy of hand; in the smallness of the canine teeth and other dental

peculiarities; in the development of a chin; and in the small size of

his jaws compared to the relatively great size of the cranium. Together

with man and the baboons, the anthropoid apes form the group known to

science as Catarhini, those, that is, possessing a narrow nasal septum,

and are thus easily distinguishable from the flat-nosed monkeys or

Platyrhini. The anthropoid apes are arboreal and confined to the Old

World. They are of special interest from the important place assigned to

them in the arguments of Darwin and the Evolutionists. It is generally

admitted now that no fundamental anatomical difference can be proved to

exist between these higher apes and man, but it is equally agreed that

none probably of the Simiidae is in the direct line of human ancestry.

There is a great gap to be bridged between the highest anthropoid and

the lowest man, and much importance has been attached to the discovery

of an extinct primate, Pithecanthropus (q.v.), which has been regarded

as the "missing link."

See Huxley's _Man's Place in Nature_ (1863); Robt. Hartmann's

_Anthropoid Apes_ (1883; London, 1885); A.H. Keane's _Ethnology_

(1896); Darwin's _Descent of Man_ (1871; pop. ed., 1901); Haeckel's

_Anthropogeny_ (Leipzig, 1874, 1903; Paris, 1877; Eng. ed., 1883);

W.H. Flower and Rich. Lydekker, _Mammals Living and Extinct_ (London,

1891).

ANTHROPOLOGY (Gr. [Greek: anthropos] man, and [Greek: logos], theory or

science), the science which, in its strictest sense, has as its object

the study of man as a unit in the animal kingdom. It is distinguished

from ethnology, which is devoted to the study of man as a _racial_ unit,

and from ethnography, which deals with the _distribution_ of the races

formed by the aggregation of such units. To anthropology, however, in

its more general sense as the natural history of man, ethnology and

ethnography may both be considered to belong, being related as parts to

a whole.

Various other sciences, in conformity with the above definition, must be

regarded as subsidiary to anthropology, which yet hold their own

independent places in the field of knowledge. Thus anatomy and

physiology display the structure and functions of the human body, while

psychology investigates the operations of the human mind. Philology

deals with the general principles of language, as well as with the

relations between the languages of particular races and nations. Ethics

or moral science treats of man's duty or rules of conduct toward his

fellow-men. Sociology and the science of culture are concerned with the

origin and development of arts and sciences, opinions, beliefs, customs,

laws and institutions generally among mankind within historic time;

while beyond the historical limit the study is continued by inferences

from relics of early ages and remote districts, to interpret which is

the task of prehistoric archaeology and geology.

I. _Man's Place in Nature._--In 1843 Dr J.C. Prichard, who perhaps of

all others merits the title of founder of modern anthropology, wrote in

his _Natural History of Man_:--

"The organized world presents no contrasts and resemblances more

remarkable than those which we discover on comparing mankind with the

inferior tribes. That creatures should exist so nearly approaching to

each other in all the particulars of their physical structure, and yet

differing so immeasurably in their endowments and capabilities, would

be a fact hard to believe, if it were not manifest to our observation.

The differences are everywhere striking: the resemblances are less

obvious in the fulness of their extent, and they are never

contemplated without wonder by those who, in the study of anatomy and

physiology, are first made aware how near is man in his physical

constitution to the brutes. In all the principles of his internal

structure, in the composition and functions of his parts, man is but

an animal. The lord of the earth, who contemplates the eternal order

of the universe, and aspires to communion with its invisible Maker, is

a being composed of the same materials, and framed on the same

principles, as the creatures which he has tamed to be the servile

instruments of his will, or slays for his daily food. The points of

resemblance are innumerable; they extend to the most recondite

arrangements of that mechanism which maintains instrumentally the

physical life of the body, which brings forward its early development

and admits, after a given period, its decay, and by means of which is

prepared a succession of similar beings destined to perpetuate the

race."

The acknowledgment of man's structural similarity with the

anthropomorphous species nearest approaching him, viz.: the higher or

anthropoid apes, had long before Prichard's day been made by Linnaeus,

who in his _Systema Naturae_ (1735) grouped them together as the highest

order of Mammalia, to which he gave the name of Primates. The

_Amoenitates Academicae_ (vol. vi., Leiden, 1764), published under the

auspices of Linnaeus, contains a remarkable picture which illustrates a

discourse by his disciple Hoppius, and is here reproduced (see Plate,

fig. 1). In this picture, which shows the crudeness of the zoological

notions current in the 18th century as to both men and apes, there are

set in a row four figures: (a) a recognizable orang-utan, sitting and

holding a staff; (b) a chimpanzee, absurdly humanized as to head, hands,

and feet; (c) a hairy woman, with a tail a foot long; (d) another woman,

more completely coated with hair. The great Swedish naturalist was

possibly justified in treating the two latter creatures as quasi-human,

for they seem to be grotesque exaggerations of such tailed and hairy

human beings as really, though rarely, occur, and are apt to be

exhibited as monstrosities (see Bastian and Hartmann, _Zeitschrift fur

Ethnologie_, Index, "Geschwanzte Menschen"; Gould and Pile, _Anomalies

and Curiosities of Medicine_, 1897). To Linnaeus, however, they

represented normal anthropomorpha or man-like creatures, vouched for by

visitors to remote parts of the world. This opinion of the Swedish

naturalist seems to have been little noticed in Great Britain till it

was taken up by the learned but credulous Scottish judge, Lord Monboddo

(see his _Origin and Progress of Language_, 1774, &c.; _Antient

Metaphysics_, 1778). He had not heard of the tailed men till he met with

them in the work of Linnaeus, with whom he entered into correspondence,

with the result that he enlarged his range of mankind with races of

sub-human type. One was founded on the description by the Swedish sailor

Niklas Koping of the ferocious men with long tails inhabiting the

Nicobar Islands. Another comprised the orang-utans of Sumatra, who were

said to take men captive and set them to work as slaves. One of these

apes, it was related, served as a sailor on board a Jamaica ship, and

used to wait on the captain. These are stories which seem to carry their

own explanation. When the Nicobar Islands were taken over by the British

government two centuries later, the native warriors were still wearing

their peculiar loin-cloth hanging behind in a most tail-like manner

(E.H. Man, _Journal Anthropological Institute_, vol. xv. p. 442). As for

the story of the orang-utan cabin boy, this may even be verbally true,

it being borne in mind that in the Malay languages the term

_orang-utan_, "man of the forest," was originally used for inland forest

natives and other rude men, rather than for the _miyas_ apes to which it

has come to be generally applied by Europeans. The speculations as to

primitive man connected with these stories diverted the British public,

headed by Dr Johnson, who said that Monboddo was "as jealous of his tail

as a squirrel." Linnaeus's primarily zoological classification of man

did not, however, suit the philosophical opinion of the time, which

responded more readily to the systems represented by Buffon, and later

by Cuvier, in which the human mind and soul formed an impassable wall of

partition between him and other mammalia, so that the definition of

man's position in the animal world was treated as not belonging to

zoology, but to metaphysics and theology. It has to be borne in mind

that Linnaeus, plainly as he recognized the likeness of the higher

simian and the human types, does not seem to have entertained the

thought of accounting for this similarity by common descent. It

satisfied his mind to consider it as belonging to the system of nature,

as indeed remained the case with a greater anatomist of the following

century, Richard Owen. The present drawing, which under the authority of

Linnaeus shows an anthropomorphic series from which the normal type of

man, the _Homo sapiens_, is conspicuously absent, brings zoological

similarity into view without suggesting kinship to account for it. There

are few ideas more ingrained in ancient and low civilization than that

of relationship by descent between the lower animals and man. Savage and

barbaric religions recognize it, and the mythology of the world has

hardly a more universal theme. But in educated Europe such ideas had

long been superseded by the influence of theology and philosophy, with

which they seemed too incompatible. In the 19th century, however,

Lamarck's theory of the development of new species by habit and

circumstance led through Wallace and Darwin to the doctrines of the

hereditary transmission of acquired characters, the survival of the

fittest, and natural selection. Thenceforward it was impossible to

exclude a theory of descent of man from ancestral beings whom zoological

similarity connects also, though by lines of descent not at all clearly

defined, with ancestors of the anthropomorphic apes. In one form or

another such a theory of human descent has in our time become part of an

accepted framework of zoology, if not as a demonstrable truth, at any

rate as a working hypothesis which has no effective rival.

The new development from Linnaeus's zoological scheme which has thus

ensued appears in Huxley's diagram of simian and human skeletons (fig.

2, (a) gibbon; (b) orang; (c) chimpanzee; (d) gorilla; (e) man).

Evidently suggested by the Linnean picture, this is brought up to the

modern level of zoology, and continued on to man, forming an

introduction to his zoological history hardly to be surpassed. Some of

the main points it illustrates may be briefly stated here, the reader

being referred for further information to Huxley's _Essays_. In tracing

the osteological characters of apes and man through this series, the

general system of the skeletons, and the close correspondence in number

and arrangement of vertebrae and ribs, as well as in the teeth, go far

towards justifying the opinion of hereditary connexion. At the same

time, the comparison brings into view differences in human structure

adapted to man's pre-eminent mode of life, though hardly to be accounted

its chief causes. It may be seen how the arrangement of limbs suited for

going on all-fours belongs rather to the apes than to man, and walking

on the soles of the feet rather to man than the apes. The two modes of

progression overlap in human life, but the child's tendency when

learning is to rest on the soles of the feet and the palms of the hands,

unlike the apes, which support themselves on the sides of the feet and

the bent knuckles of the hands. With regard to climbing, the long

stretch of arm and the grasp with both hands and feet contribute to the

arboreal life of the apes, contrasting with what seem the mere remains

of the climbing habit to be found even among forest savages. On the

whole, man's locomotive limbs are not so much specialized to particular

purposes, as generalized into adaptation to many ends. As to the

mechanical conditions of the human body, the upright posture has always

been recognized as the chief. To it contributes the balance of the skull

on the cervical vertebrae, while the human form of the pelvis provides

the necessary support to the intestines in the standing attitude. The

marked curvature of the vertebral column, by breaking the shock to the

neck and head in running and leaping, likewise favours the erect

position. The lowest coccygeal vertebrae of man remain as a rudimentary

tail. While it is evident that high importance must be attached to the

adaptation of the human body to the life of diversified intelligence and

occupation he has to lead, this must not be treated as though it were

the principal element of the superiority of man, whose comparison with

all lower genera of mammals must be mainly directed to the intellectual

organ, the brain. Comparison of the brains of vertebrate animals (see

BRAIN) brings into view the immense difference between the small, smooth

brain of a fish or bird and the large and convoluted organ in man. In

man, both size and complexity contribute to the increased area of the

cortex or outer layer of the brain, which has been fully ascertained to

be the seat of the mysterious processes by which sensation furnishes the

groundwork of thought. Schafer (_Textbook of Physiology_, vol. ii. p.

697) thus defines it: "The cerebral cortex is the seat of the

intellectual functions, of intelligent sensation or consciousness, of

ideation, of volition, and of memory."

The relations between man and ape are most readily stated in comparison

with the gorilla, as on the whole the most anthropomorphous ape. In the

general proportions of the body and limbs there is a marked difference

between the gorilla and man. The gorilla's brain-case is smaller, its

trunk larger, its lower limbs shorter, its upper limbs longer in

proportion than those of man. The differences between a gorilla's skull

and a man's are truly immense. In the gorilla, the face, formed largely

by the massive jaw-bones, predominates over the brain-case or cranium;

in the man these proportions are reversed. In man the occipital foramen,

through which passes the spinal cord, is placed just behind the centre

of the base of the skull, which is thus evenly balanced in the erect

posture, whereas the gorilla, which goes habitually on all fours, and

whose skull is inclined forward, in accordance with this posture has the

foramen farther back. In man the surface of the skull is comparatively

smooth, and the brow-ridges project but little, while in the gorilla

these ridges overhang the cavernous orbits like penthouse roofs. The

absolute capacity of the cranium of the gorilla is far less than that of

man; the smallest adult human cranium hardly measuring less than 63 cub.

in., while the largest gorilla cranium measured had a content of only

34-1/2 cub. in. The largest proportional size of the facial bones, and

the great projection of the jaws, confer on the gorilla's skull its

small facial angle and brutal character, while its teeth differ from

man's in relative size and number of fangs. Comparing the lengths of the

extremities, it is seen that the gorilla's arm is of enormous length, in

fact about one-sixth longer than the spine, whereas a man's arm is

one-fifth shorter than the spine; both hand and foot are proportionally

much longer in the gorilla than in man; the leg does not so much differ.

The vertebral column of the gorilla differs from that of man in its

curvature and other characters, as also does the conformation of its

narrow pelvis. The hand of the gorilla corresponds essentially as to

bones and muscles with that of man, but is clumsier and heavier; its

thumb is "opposable" like a human thumb, that is, it can easily meet

with its extremity the extremities of the other fingers, thus possessing

a character which does much to make the human hand so admirable an

instrument; but the gorilla's thumb is proportionately shorter than

man's. The foot of the higher apes, though often spoken of as a hand, is

anatomically not such, but a prehensile foot. It has been argued by Sir

Richard Owen and others that the position of the great toe converts the

foot of the higher apes into a hand, an extremely important distinction

from man; but against this Professor T.H. Huxley maintained that it has

the characteristic structure of a foot with a very movable great toe.

The external unlikeness of the apes to man depends much on their

hairiness, but this and some other characteristics have no great

zoological value. No doubt the difference between man and the apes

depends, of all things, on the relative size and organization of the

brain. While similar as to their general arrangement to the human brain,

those of the higher apes, such as the chimpanzee, are much less complex

in their convolutions, as well as much less in both absolute and

relative weight--the weight of a gorilla's brain hardly exceeding 20

oz., and a man's brain hardly weighing less thin 32 oz., although the

gorilla is considerably the larger animal of the two.

These anatomical distinctions are undoubtedly of great moment, and it is

an interesting question whether they suffice to place man in a

zoological order by himself. It is plain that some eminent zoologists,

regarding man as absolutely differing as to mind and spirit from any

other animal, have had their discrimination of mere bodily differences

unconsciously sharpened, and have been led to give differences, such as

in the brain or even the foot of the apes and man, somewhat more

importance than if they had merely distinguished two species of apes.

Many naturalists hold the opinion that the anatomical differences which

separate the gorilla or chimpanzee from man are in some respects less

than those which separate these man-like apes from apes lower in the

scale. Yet all authorities class both the higher and lower apes in the

same order. This is Huxley's argument, some prominent points of which

are the following: As regards the proportion of limbs, the hylobates or

gibbon is as much longer in the arms than the gorilla as the gorilla is

than the man, while on the other hand, it is as much longer in the legs

than the man as the man is than the gorilla. As to the vertebral column

and pelvis, the lower apes differ from the gorilla as much as, or more

than, it differs from man. As to the capacity of the cranium, men differ

from one another so extremely that the largest known human skull holds

nearly twice the measure of the smallest, a larger proportion than that

in which man surpasses the gorilla; while, with proper allowance for

difference of size of the various species, it appears that some of the

lower apes fall nearly as much below the higher apes. The projection of

the muzzle, which gives the character of brutality to the gorilla as

distinguished from the man, is yet further exaggerated in the lemurs, as

is also the backward position of the occipital foramen. In characters of

such importance as the structure of the hand and foot, the lower apes

diverge extremely from the gorilla; thus the thumb ceases to be

opposable in the American monkeys, and in the marmosets is directed

forwards, and armed with a curved claw like the other digits, the great

toe in these latter being insignificant in proportion. The same argument

can be extended to other points of anatomical structure, and, what is of

more consequence, it appears true of the brain. A series of the apes,

arranged from lower to higher orders, shows gradations from a brain

little higher that that of a rat, to a brain like a small and imperfect

imitation of a man's; and the greatest structural break in the series

lies not between man and the man-like apes, but between the apes and

monkeys on one side, and the lemurs on the other. On these grounds

Huxley, restoring in principle the Linnean classification, desired to

include man in the order of _Primates_. This order he divided into seven

families: first, the _Anthropini_, consisting of man only; second, the

_Catarhini_ or Old World apes; third, the _Platyrhini_, all New World

apes, except the marmosets; fourth, the _Arclopithecini_, or marmosets;

fifth, the _Lemurini_, or lemurs; sixth and seventh, the _Cheiromyini_

and _Galeopithecini_.

It is in assigning to man his place in nature on psychological grounds

that the greater difficulty arises. Huxley acknowledged an immeasurable

and practically infinite divergence, ending in the present enormous

psychological gulf between ape and man. It is difficult to account for

this intellectual chasm as due to some minor structural difference. The

opinion is deeply rooted in modern as in ancient thought, that only a

distinctively human element of the highest import can account for the

severance between man and the highest animal below him. Differences in

the mechanical organs, such as the perfection of the human hand as an

instrument, or the adaptability of the human voice to the expression of

human thought, are indeed of great value. But they have not of

themselves such value, that to endow an ape with the hand and vocal

organs of a man would be likely to raise it through any large part of

the interval that now separates it from humanity. Much more is to be

said for the view that man's larger and more highly organized brain

accounts for those mental powers in which he so absolutely surpasses the

brutes.

The distinction does not seem to lie principally in the range and

delicacy of direct sensation, as may be judged from such well-known

facts as man's inferiority to the eagle in sight, or to the dog in

scent. At the same time, it seems that the human sensory organs may have

in various respects acuteness beyond those of other creatures. But,

beyond a doubt, man possesses, and in some way possesses by virtue of

his superior brain, a power of co-ordinating the impressions of his

senses, which enables him to understand the world he lives in, and by

understanding to use, resist, and even in a measure rule it. No human

art shows the nature of this human attribute more clearly than does

language. Man shares with the mammalia and birds the direct expression

of the feelings by emotional tones and interjectional cries; the

parrot's power of articulate utterance almost equals his own; and, by

association of ideas in some measure, some of the lower animals have

even learnt to recognize words he utters. But, to use words in

themselves unmeaning, as symbols by which to conduct and convey the

complex intellectual processes in which mental conceptions are

suggested, compared, combined, and even analysed, and new ones

created--this is a faculty which is scarcely to be traced in any lower

animal. The view that this, with other mental processes, is a function

of the brain, is remarkably corroborated by modern investigation of the

disease of aphasia, where the power of thinking remains, but the power

is lost of recalling the word corresponding to the thought, and this

mental defect is found to accompany a diseased state of a particular

locality of the brain (see APHASIA). This may stand among the most

perfect of the many evidences that, in Professor Bain's words, "the

brain is the principal, though not the sole organ of mind." As the

brains of the vertebrate animals form an ascending scale, more and more

approaching man's in their arrangement, the fact here finds its

explanation, that lower animals perform mental processes corresponding

in their nature to our own, though of generally less power and

complexity. The full evidence of this correspondence will be found in

such works as Brehm's _Thierleben_; and some of the salient points are

set forth by Charles Darwin, in the chapter on "Mental Powers," in his

_Descent of Man_. Such are the similar effects of terror on man and the

lower animals, causing the muscled to tremble, the heart to palpitate,

the sphincters to be relaxed, and the hair to stand on end. The

phenomena of memory, as to both persons and places, is strong in

animals, as is manifest by their recognition of their masters, and their

returning at once to habits of which, though disused for many years,

their brain has not lost the stored-up impressions. Such facts as that

dogs "hunt in dreams," make it likely that their minds are not only

sensible to actual events, present and past, but can, like our minds,

combine revived sensations into ideal scenes in which they are

actors,--that is to say, they have the faculty of imagination. As for

the reasoning powers in animals, the accounts of monkeys learning by

experience to break eggs carefully, and pick off bits of shell, so as

not to lose the contents, or of the way in which rats or martens after a

while can no longer be caught by the same kind of trap, with innumerable

similar facts, show in the plainest way that the reason of animals goes

so far as to form by new experience a new hypothesis of cause and effect

which will henceforth guide their actions. The employment of mechanical

instruments, of which instances of monkeys using sticks and stones

furnish the only rudimentary traces among the lower animals, is one of

the often-quoted distinctive powers of man. With this comes the whole

vast and ever-widening range of inventive and adaptive art, where the

uniform hereditary instinct of the cell-forming bee and the

nest-building bird is supplanted by multiform processes and

constructions, often at first rude and clumsy in comparison to those of

the lower instinct, but carried on by the faculty of improvement and new

invention into ever higher stages. "From the moment," writes A.R.

Wallace (_Natural Selection_), "when the first skin was used as a

covering, when the first rude spear was formed to assist in the chase,

when fire was first used to cook his food, when the first seed was sown

or shoot planted, a grand revolution was effected in nature, a

revolution which in all the previous ages of the earth's history had had

no parallel; for a being had arisen who was no longer necessarily

subject to change with the changing universe,--a being who was in some

degree superior to nature, inasmuch as he knew how to control and

regulate her action, and could keep himself in harmony with her, not by

a change in body, but by an advance of mind."

As to the lower instincts tending directly to self-preservation, it is

acknowledged on all hands that man has them in a less developed state

than other animals; in fact, the natural defencelessness of the human

being, and the long-continued care and teaching of the young by the

elders, are among the commonest themes of moral discourse. Parental

tenderness and care for the young are strongly marked among the lower

animals, though so inferior in scope and duration to the human

qualities; and the same may be said of the mutual forbearance and

defence which bind together in a rudimentary social bond the families

and herds of animals. Philosophy seeking knowledge for its own sake;

morality, manifested in the sense of truth, right, and virtue; and

religion, the belief in and communion with superhuman powers ruling and

pervading the universe, are human characters, of which it is instructive

to trace, if possible, the earliest symptoms in the lower animals, but

which can there show at most only faint and rudimentary signs of their

wondrous development in mankind. That the tracing of physical and even

intellectual continuity between the lower animals and our own race, does

not necessarily lead the anthropologist to lower the rank of man in the

scale of nature, may be shown by citing A.R. Wallace. Man, he considers,

is to be placed "apart, as not only the head and culminating point of

the grand series of organic nature, but as in some degree a new and

distinct order of being."

To regard the intellectual functions of the brain and nervous system as

alone to be considered in the psychological comparison of man with the

lower animals, is a view satisfactory to those thinkers who hold

materialistic views. According to this school, man is a machine, no

doubt the most complex and wonderfully adapted of all known machines,

but still neither more nor less than an instrument whose energy is

provided by force from without, and which, when set in action, performs

the various operations for which its structure fits it, namely, to live,

move, feel, and think. This view, however, always has been strongly

opposed by those who accept on theological grounds a spiritualistic

doctrine, or what is, perhaps, more usual, a theory which combines

spiritualism and materialism in the doctrine of a composite nature in

man, animal as to the body and in some measure as to the mind, spiritual

as to the soul. It may be useful, as an illustration of one opinion on

this subject, to continue here the citation of Dr Prichard's comparison

between man and the lower animals:--

"If it be inquired in what the still more remarkable difference

consists, it is by no means easy to reply. By some it will be said

that man, while similar in the organization of his body to the lower

tribes, is distinguished from them by the possession of an immaterial

soul, a principle capable of conscious feeling, of intellect and

thought. To many persons it will appear paradoxical to ascribe the

endowment of a soul to the inferior tribes in the creation, yet it is

difficult to discover a valid argument that limits the possession of

an immaterial principle to man. The phenomena of feeling, of desire

and aversion, of love and hatred, of fear and revenge, and the

perception of external relations manifested in the life of brutes,

imply, not only through the analogy which they display to the human

faculties, but likewise from all that we can learn or conjecture of

their particular nature, the superadded existence of a principle

distinct from the mere mechanism of material bodies. That such a

principle must exist in all beings capable of sensation, or of

anything analogous to human passions and feelings, will hardly be

denied by those who perceive the force of arguments which

metaphysically demonstrate the immaterial nature of the mind. There

may be no rational grounds for the ancient dogma that the souls of the

lower animals were imperishable, like the soul of man: this is,

however, a problem which we are not called upon to discuss; and we may

venture to conjecture that there may be immaterial essences of divers

kinds, and endowed with various attributes and capabilities. But the

real nature of these unseen principles eludes our research: they are

only known to us by their external manifestations. These

manifestations are the various powers and capabilities, or rather the

habitudes of action, which characterize the different orders of being,

diversified according to their several destinations."

Dr Prichard here puts forward distinctly the time-honoured doctrine

which refers the mental faculties to the operation of the soul. The view

maintained by a distinguished comparative anatomist, Professor St George

Mivart, in his _Genesis of Species_, ch. xii., may fairly follow. "Man,

according to the old scholastic definition, is 'a rational animal'

(_animal rationale_), and his animality is distinct in nature from his

rationality, though inseparably joined, during life, in one common

personality. Man's animal body must have had a different source from

that of the spiritual soul which informs it, owing to the distinctness

of the two orders to which those two existences severally belong." The

two extracts just given, however, significant in themselves, fail to

render an account of the view of the human constitution which would

probably, among the theological and scholastic leaders of public

opinion, count the largest weight of adherence. According to this view,

not only life but thought are functions of the animal system, in which

man excels all other animals as to height of organization: but beyond

this, man embodies an immaterial and immortal spiritual principle which

no lower creature possesses, and which makes the resemblance of the apes

to him but a mocking simulance. To pronounce any absolute decision on

these conflicting doctrines is foreign to our present purpose, which is

to show that all of them count among their adherents men of high rank in

science.

II. _Origin of Man._--Opinion as to the genesis of man is divided

between the theories of creation and evolution. In both schools, the

ancient doctrine of the contemporaneous appearance on earth of all

species of animals having been abandoned under the positive evidence of

geology, it is admitted that the animal kingdom, past and present,

includes a vast series of successive forms, whose appearances and

disappearances have taken place at intervals during an immense lapse of

ages. The line of inquiry has thus been directed to ascertaining what

formative relation subsists among these species and genera, the last

link of the argument reaching to the relation between man and the lower

creatures preceding him in time. On both the theories here concerned it

would be admitted, in the words of Agassiz (_Principles of Zoology_, pp.

205-206), that "there is a manifest progress in the succession of beings

on the surface of the earth. This progress consists in an increasing

similarity of the living fauna, and, among the vertebrates especially,

in their increasing resemblance to man." Agassiz continues, however, in

terms characteristic of the creationist school: "But this connexion is

not the consequence of a direct lineage between the faunas of different

ages. There is nothing like parental descent connecting them. The fishes

of the Palaeozoic age are in no respect the ancestors of the reptiles of

the Secondary age, nor does man descend from the mammals which preceded

him in the Tertiary age. The link by which they are connected is of a

higher and immaterial nature; and their connexion is to be sought in the

view of the Creator himself, whose aim in forming the earth, in allowing

it to undergo the successive changes which geology has pointed out, and

in creating successively all the different types of animals which have

passed away, was to introduce man upon the surface of our globe. Man is

the end towards which all the animal creation has tended from the first

appearance of the first Palaeozoic fishes." The evolutionist, on the

contrary (see EVOLUTION), maintains that different successive species of

animals are in fact connected by parental descent, having become

modified in the course of successive generations. The result of Charles

Darwin's application of this theory to man may be given in his own words

(_Descent of Man_, part i. ch. 6):--

"The Catarhine and Platyrhine monkeys agree in a multitude of

characters, as is shown by their unquestionably belonging to one and

the same order. The many characters which they possess in common can

hardly have been independently acquired by so many distinct species;

so that these characters must have been inherited. But an ancient form

which possessed many characters common to the Catarhine and Platyrhine

monkeys, and others in an intermediate condition, and some few perhaps

distinct from those now present in either group, would undoubtedly

have been ranked, if seen by a naturalist, as an ape or a monkey. And

as man under a genealogical point of view belongs to the Catarhine or

Old World stock, we must conclude, however much the conclusion may

revolt our pride, that our early progenitors would have been properly

thus designated. But we must not fall into the error of supposing that

the early progenitor of the whole Simian stock, including man, was

identical with, or even closely resembled, any existing ape or

monkey."

The problem of the origin of man cannot be properly discussed apart from

the full problem of the origin of species. The homologies between man

and other animals which both schools try to account for; the explanation

of the intervals, with apparent want of intermediate forms, which seem

to the creationists so absolute a separation between species; the

evidence of useless "rudimentary organs," such as in man the external

shell of the ear, and the muscle which enables some individuals to

twitch their ears, which rudimentary parts the evolutionists claim to be

only explicable as relics of an earlier specific condition,--these,

which are the main points of the argument on the origin of man, belong

to general biology. The philosophical principles which underlie the two

theories stand for the most part in strong contrast, the theory of

evolution tending toward the supposition of ordinary causes, such as

"natural selection," producing modifications in species, whether by

gradual accumulation or more sudden leaps, while the theory of creation

has recourse to acts of supernatural intervention (see the duke of

Argyll, _Reign of Law_, ch. v.). St George Mivart (_Genesis of Species_)

propounded a theory of a natural evolution of man as to his body,

combined with a supernatural creation as to his soul; but this attempt

to meet the difficulties on both sides seems to have satisfied neither.

The wide acceptance of the Darwinian theory, as applied to the descent

of man, has naturally roused anticipation that geological research,

which provides evidence of the animal life of incalculably greater

antiquity, would furnish fossil remains of some comparatively recent

being intermediate between the anthropomorphic and the anthropic types.

This expectation has hardly been fulfilled, but of late years the notion

of a variety of the human race, geologically ancient, differing from any

known in historic times, and with characters approaching the simian, has

been supported by further discoveries. To bring this to the reader's

notice, top and side views of three skulls, as placed together in the

human development series in the Oxford University Museum, are

represented in the plate, for the purpose of showing the great size of

the orbital ridges, which the reader may contrast with his own by a

touch with his fingers on his forehead. The first (fig. 3) is the famous

Neanderthal skull from near Dusseldorf, described by Schaafhausen in

Muller's _Archiv_, 1858; Huxley in Lyell, _Antiquity of Man_, p. 86, and

in _Man's Place in Nature_. The second (fig. 4) is the skull from the

cavern of Spy in Belgium (de Puydt and Lohest, _Compte rendu du Congres

de Namur_, 1886). The foreheads of these two skulls have an ape-like

form, obvious on comparison with the simian skulls of the gorilla and

other apes, and visible even in the small-scale figures in the Plate,

fig. 2. Among modern tribes of mankind the forehead of the Australian

aborigines makes the nearest approach to this type, as was pointed out

by Huxley. This brief description will serve to show the importance of a

later discovery. At Trinil, in Java, in an equatorial region where, if

anywhere, a being intermediate between the higher apes and man would

seem likely to be found, Dr Eugene Dubois in 1891-1892 excavated from a

bed, considered by him to be of Sivalik formation (Pliocene), a

thighbone which competent anatomists decide to be human, and a

remarkably depressed calvaria or skull-cap (fig. 5), bearing a certain

resemblance in its proportions to the corresponding part of the simian

skull. These remains were referred by their discoverer to an animal

intermediate between man and ape, to which he gave the name of

_Pithecanthropus erectus_ (q.v.), but the interesting discussions on the

subject have shown divergence of opinion among anatomists. At any rate,

classing the Trinil skull as human, it may be described as tending

towards the simian type more than any other known.

III. _Races of Mankind._--The classification of mankind into a number of

permanent varieties or races, rests on grounds which are within limits

not only obvious but definite. Whether from a popular or a scientific

point of view, it would be admitted that a Negro, a Chinese, and an

Australian belong to three such permanent varieties of men, all plainly

distinguishable from one another and from any European. Moreover, such a

division takes for granted the idea which is involved in the word race,

that each of these varieties is due to special ancestry, each race thus

representing an ancient breed or stock, however these breeds or stocks

may have had their origin. The anthropological classification of mankind

is thus zoological in its nature, like that of the varieties or species

of any other animal group, and the characters on which it is based are

in great measure physical, though intellectual and traditional

peculiarities, such as moral habit and language, furnish important aid.

Among the best-marked race-characters are the colour of the skin, eyes

and hair; and the structure and arrangement of the latter. Stature is by

no means a general criterion of race, and it would not, for instance, be

difficult to choose groups of Englishmen, Kaffirs, and North American

Indians, whose mean height should hardly differ. Yet in many cases it is

a valuable means of distinction, as between the tall Patagonians and the

stunted Fuegians, and even as a help in minuter problems, such as

separating the Teutonic and Celtic ancestry in the population of

England (see Beddoe, "Stature and Bulk of Man in the British Isles," in

_Mem. Anthrop. Soc. London_, vol. iii.) Proportions of the limbs,

compared in length with the trunk, have been claimed as constituting

peculiarities of African and American races; and other anatomical

points, such as the conformation of the pelvis, have speciality. But

inferences of this class have hardly attained to sufficient certainty

and generality to be set down in the form of rules. The conformation of

the skull is second only to the colour of the skin as a criterion for

the distinction of race; and the position of the jaws is recognized as

important, races being described as prognathous when the jaws project

far, as in the Australian or Negro, in contradistinction to the

orthognathous type, which is that of the ordinary well-shaped European

skull. On this distinction in great measure depends the celebrated

"facial angle," measured by Camper as a test of low and high races; but

this angle is objectionable as resulting partly from the development of

the forehead and partly from the position of the jaws. The capacity of

the cranium is estimated in cubic measure by filling it with sand, &c.,

with the general result that the civilized white man is found to have a

larger brain than the barbarian or savage. Classification of races on

cranial measurements has long been attempted by eminent anatomists, and

in certain cases great reliance may be placed on such measurements. Thus

the skulls of an Australian and a Negro would be generally distinguished

by their narrowness and the projection of the jaw from that of any

Englishman; but the Australian skull would usually differ perceptibly

from the Negroid in its upright sides and strong orbital ridges. The

relation of height to breadth may also furnish a valuable test; but it

is acknowledged by all experienced craniologists, that the shape of the

skull may vary so much within the same tribe, and even the same family,

that it must be used with extreme caution, and if possible only in

conjunction with other criteria of race. The general contour of the

face, in part dependent on the form of the skull, varies much in

different races, among whom it is loosely defined as oval,

lozenge-shaped, pentagonal, &c. Of particular features, some of the most

marked contrasts to European types are seen in the oblique Chinese eyes,

the broad-set Kamchadale cheeks, the pointed Arab chin, the snub Kirghiz

nose, the fleshy protuberant Negro lips, and the broad Kalmuck ear.

Taken altogether, the features have a typical character which popular

observation seizes with some degree of correctness, as in the

recognition of the Jewish countenance in a European city.

Were the race-characters constant in degree or even in kind, the

classification of races would be easy; but this is not so. Every

division of mankind presents in every character wide deviations from a

standard. Thus the Negro race, well marked as it may seem at the first

glance, proves on closer examination to include several shades of

complexion and features, in some districts varying far from the accepted

Negro type; while the examination of a series of native American tribes

shows that, notwithstanding their asserted uniformity of type, they

differ in stature, colour, features and proportions of skull. (See

Prichard, _Nat. Hist. of Man_; Waitz, _Anthropology_, part i. sec. 5.)

Detailed anthropological research, indeed, more and more justifies

Blumenbach's words, that "innumerable varieties of mankind run into one

another by insensible degrees." This state of things, due partly to

mixture and crossing of races, and partly to independent variation of

types, makes the attempt to arrange the whole human species within

exactly bounded divisions an apparently hopeless task. It does not

follow, however, that the attempt to distinguish special races should be

given up, for there at least exist several definable types, each of

which so far prevails in a certain population as to be taken as its

standard. L.A.J. Quetelet's plan of defining such types will probably

meet with general acceptance as the scientific method proper to this

branch of anthropology. It consists in the determination of the standard

or typical "mean man" (_homme moyen_) of a population, with reference to

any particular quality, such as stature, weight, complexion, &c. In the

case of stature, this would be done by measuring a sufficient number of

men, and counting how many of them belong to each height on the scale.

If it be thus ascertained, as it might be in an English district, that

the 5 ft. 7 in. men form the most numerous group, while the 5 ft. 6 in.

and 5 ft. 8 in. men are less in number, and the 5 ft. 5 in. and 5 ft. 9

in. still fewer, and so on until the extremely small number of extremely

short or tall individuals of 5 ft. or 7 ft. is reached, it will thus be

ascertained that the stature of the mean or typical man is to be taken

as 5 ft. 7 in. The method is thus that of selecting as the standard the

most numerous group, on both sides of which the groups decrease in

number as they vary in type. Such classification may show the existence

of two or more types, in a community, as, for instance, the population

of a Californian settlement made up of Whites and Chinese might show two

predominant groups (one of 5 ft. 8 in., the other of 5 ft. 4 in.)

corresponding to these two racial types. It need hardly be said that

this method of determining the mean type of a race, as being that of its

really existing and most numerous class, is altogether superior to the

mere calculation of an average, which may actually be represented by

comparatively few individuals, and those the exceptional ones. For

instance, the average stature of the mixed European and Chinese

population just referred to might be 5 ft. 6 in.--a worthless and indeed

misleading result. (For particulars of Quetelet's method, see his

_Physique sociale_ (1869), and _Anthropometrie_ (1871).)

Classifications of man have been numerous, and though, regarded as

systems, most of them are unsatisfactory, yet they have been of great

value in systematizing knowledge, and are all more or less based on

indisputable distinctions. J.F. Blumenbach's division, though published

as long ago as 1781, has had the greatest influence. He reckons five

races, viz. Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethiopian, American, Malay. The

ill-chosen name of Caucasian, invented by Blumenbach in allusion to a

South Caucasian skull of specially typical proportions, and applied by

him to the so-called white races, is still current; it brings into one

race peoples such as the Arabs and Swedes, although these are scarcely

less different than the Americans and Malays, who are set down as two

distinct races. Again, two of the best-marked varieties of mankind are

the Australians and the Bushmen, neither of whom, however, seems to have

a natural place in Blumenbach's series. The yet simpler classification

by Cuvier into Caucasian, Mongol and Negro corresponds in some measure

with a division by mere complexion into white, yellow and black races;

but neither this threefold division, nor the ancient classification into

Semitic, Hamitic and Japhetic nations can be regarded as separating the

human types either justly or sufficiently (see Prichard, _Natural

History of Man_, sec. 15; Waitz, _Anthropology_, vol. i. part i. sec.

5). Schemes which set up a larger number of distinct races, such as the

eleven of Pickering, the fifteen of Bory de St Vincent and the sixteen

of Desmoulins, have the advantage of finding niches for most

well-defined human varieties; but no modern naturalist would be likely

to adopt any one of these as it stands. In criticism of Pickering's

system, it is sufficient to point out that he divides the white nations

into two races, entitled the Arab and the Abyssinian (Pickering, _Races

of Man_, ch. i.). Agassiz, Nott, Crawfurd and others who have assumed a

much larger number of races or species of man, are not considered to

have satisfactorily defined a corresponding number of distinguishable

types. On the whole, Huxley's division probably approaches more nearly

than any other to such a tentative classification as may be accepted in

definition of the principal varieties of mankind, regarded from a

zoological point of view, though anthropologists may be disposed to

erect into separate races several of his widely-differing sub-races. He

distinguishes four principal types of mankind, the Australioid, Negroid,

Mongoloid and Xanthochroic ("fair whites"), adding a fifth variety, the

Melanochroic ("dark whites").