ANJAR ANTIGONUS GONATAS
ANJOU ANTIGONUS OF CARYSTUS
ANKERITE ANTIGUA
ANKLAM ANTILEGOMENA
ANKLE ANTILIA
ANKOBER ANTILLES
ANKYLOSIS ANTILOCHUS
ANKYLOSTOMIASIS ANTIMACASSAR
ANNA, BALDASARRE ANTIMACHUS
ANNA (Indian penny) ANTI-MASONIC PARTY
ANNA AMALIA ANTIMONY
ANNABERG ANTINOMIANS
ANNABERGITE ANTINOMY
ANNA COMNENA ANTINOUS
ANNA LEOPOLDOVNA ANTIOCH
ANNALISTS ANTIOCH IN PISIDIA
ANNALS ANTIOCHUS
ANNAM ANTIOCHUS OF ASCALON
ANNAN ANTIOCHUS OF SYRACUSE
ANNA PERENNA ANTIOPE
ANNAPOLIS (Maryland, U.S.A.) ANTIOQUIA
ANNAPOLIS (Nova Scotia) ANTIPAROS
ANN ARBOR ANTIPATER
ANNATES ANTIPHANES
ANNE (queen of Great Britain) ANTIPHILUS
ANNE (empress of Russia) ANTIPHON
ANNE OF BRITTANY ANTIPHONY
ANNE OF CLEVES ANTIPODES
ANNE OF DENMARK ANTIPYRINE
ANNE OF FRANCE ANTIQUARY
ANNEALING AND TEMPERING ANTIQUE
ANNECY ANTI-SEMITISM
ANNELIDA ANTISEPTICS
ANNET, PETER ANTISTHENES
ANNEXATION ANTISTROPHE
ANNICERIS ANTITHESIS
ANNING, MARY ANTITYPE
ANNISTON ANTIUM
ANNO, SAINT ANTIVARI
ANNOBON ANT-LION
ANNONA ANTOFAGASTA
ANNONAY ANTOINE, ANDRE
ANNOY ANTONELLI, GIACOMO
ANNUITY ANTONELLO DA MESSINA
ANNULAR, ANNULATE ANTONINI ITINERARIUM
ANNUNCIATION ANTONINUS, SAINT
ANNUNZIO, GABRIELE D' ANTONINUS LIBERALIS
ANOA ANTONINUS PIUS
ANODYNE ANTONIO
ANOINTING ANTONIO, NICOLAS
ANOMALY ANTONIO DE LEBRIJA
ANORTHITE ANTONIUS
ANQUETIL, LOUIS PIERRE ANTONOMASIA
ANQUETIL, DUPERRON, ABRAHAM ANTRAIGUES, EMMANUEL HENRI LOUIS
ANSA ANTRIM, RANDAL MACDONNELL
ANSBACH ANTRIM, RANDAL MACDONNELL
ANSDELL, RICHARD ANTRIM (county of Ireland)
ANSELM (archbishop) ANTRIM (town of Ireland)
ANSELM (French theologian) ANTRUSTION
ANSELME ANTWERP (province of Belgium)
ANSON, GEORGE ANSON ANTWERP (city of Belgium)
ANSON, SIR WILLIAM REYNELL ANU
ANSONIA ANUBIS
ANSTED, DAVID THOMAS ANURADHAPURA
ANSTEY, CHRISTOPHER ANVIL
ANSTRUTHER ANVILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE BOURGUIGNON D'
ANSWER ANWARI
ANT ANWEILER
ANTAE ANZENGRUBER, LUDWIG
ANTAEUS ANZIN
ANTALCIDAS AONIA
ANTANANARIVO AORIST
'ANTARA IBN SHADDAD AOSTA
ANTARCTIC APACHE
ANTEATER APALACHEE
ANTE-CHAPEL APALACHICOLA
ANTE-CHOIR APAMEA
ANTE-FIXAE APARRI
ANTELOPE APATITE
ANTEMNAE APATURIA
ANTENOR (Athenian sculptor) APE
ANTENOR (Trojan elder) APELDOORN
ANTEQUERA APELLA
ANTEROS APELLES
ANTHELION APELLICON
ANTHEM APENNINES
ANTHEMION APENRADE
ANTHEMIUS APERTURE
ANTHESTERIA APEX
ANTHIM THE IBERIAN APHANITE
ANTHOLOGY APHASIA
ANTHON, CHARLES APHELION
ANTHONY, SAINT APHEMIA
ANTHONY OF PADUA, SAINT APHIDES
ANTHONY, SUSAN BROWNELL APHORISM
ANTHOZOA APHRAATES
ANTHRACENE APHRODITE
ANTHRACITE APHTHONIUS
ANTHRACOTHERIUM APHTHONIUS, AELIUS FESTUS
ANTHRAQUINONE APICIUS
ANTHRAX APICULTURE
ANTHROPOID APES APION
ANTHROPOLOGY APIS
ANTHROPOMETRY APLITE
ANTHROPOMORPHISM APNOEA
ANTI APOCALYPSE
ANTIBES APOCALYPSE, KNIGHTS OF THE
ANTICHRIST APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE
ANTICLIMAX APOCATASTASIS
ANTICOSTI APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE
ANTICYCLONE APODICTIC
ANTICYRA APOLDA
ANTIETAM APOLLINARIS
ANTI-FEDERALISTS APOLLINARIS, SULPICIUS
ANTIGO APOLLINARIS SIDONIUS, CAIUS SOLLIUS
ANTIGONE APOLLO
ANTIGONUS CYCLOPS
ANJAR, a fortified town of India, and the capital of a district of the
same name in the native state of Cutch, in the presidency of Bombay. The
country is dry and sandy, and entirely depends on well irrigation for
its water supply. The town is situated nearly 10 miles from the Gulf of
Cutch. It suffered severely from an earthquake in 1819, which destroyed
a large number of houses, and occasioned the loss of several lives. In
1901 the population was 18,014. The town and district of Anjar were both
ceded to the British in 1816, but in 1822 they were again transferred to
the Cutch government in consideration of an annual money payment.
Subsequently it was discovered that this obligation pressed heavily upon
the resources of the native state, and in 1832 the pecuniary equivalent
for Anjar, both prospectively and inclusive of the arrears which had
accrued to that date, was wholly remitted by the British government.
ANJOU, the old name of a French territory, the political origin of which
is traced to the ancient Gallic state of the _Andes_, on the lines of
which was organized, after the conquest by Julius Caesar, the Roman
_civitas_ of the _Andecavi_. This was afterwards preserved as an
administrative district under the Franks with the name first of _pagus_,
then of _comitatus_, or countship of Anjou. This countship, the extent
of which seems to have been practically identical with that of the
ecclesiastical diocese of Angers, occupied the greater part of what is
now the department of Maine-et-Loire, further embracing, to the north,
Craon, Bazouges (Chateau-Gontier), Le Lude, and to the east,
Chateau-la-Valliere and Bourgueil, while to the south, on the other
hand, it included neither the present town of Montreuil-Bellay, nor
Vihiers, Cholet, Beaupreau, nor the whole district lying to the west of
the Ironne and Thouet, on the left bank of the Loire, which formed the
territory of the Mauges. It was bounded on the north by the countship of
Maine, on the east by that of Touraine, on the south by that of Poitiers
and by the Mauges, on the west by the countship of Nantes.
From the outset of the reign of Charles the Bald, the integrity of Anjou
was seriously menaced by a two-fold danger: from Brittany and from
Normandy. Lambert, a former count of Nantes, after devastating Anjou in
concert with Nominoe, duke of Brittany, had by the end of the year 851
succeeded in occupying all the western part as far as the Mayenne. The
principality, which he thus carved out for himself, was occupied, on his
death, by Erispoe, duke of Brittany; by him it was handed down to his
successors, in whose hands it remained till the beginning of the 10th
century. All this time the Normans had not ceased ravaging the country;
a brave man was needed to defend it, and finally towards 861, Charles
the Bald entrusted it to Robert the Strong (q.v.), but he unfortunately
met with his death in 866 in a battle against the Normans at Brissarthe.
Hugh the Abbot succeeded him in the countship of Anjou as in most of his
other duties, and on his death (886) it passed to Odo (q.v.), the eldest
son of Robert the Strong, who, on his accession to the throne of France
(888), probably handed it over to his brother Robert. In any case,
during the last years of the 9th century, in Anjou as elsewhere the
power was delegated to a viscount, Fulk the Red (mentioned under this
title after 898), son of a certain Ingelgerius.
In the second quarter of the 10th century Fulk the Red had already
usurped the title of count, which his descendants kept for three
centuries. He was succeeded first by his son Fulk II. the Good (941 or
942-c. 960), and then by the son of the latter, Geoffrey I.
_Grisegonelle_ (Greytunic) (c. 960-21st of July 987), who inaugurated a
policy of expansion, having as its objects the extension of the
boundaries of the ancient countship and the reconquest of those parts of
it which had been annexed by the neighbouring states; for, though
western Anjou had been recovered from the dukes of Brittany since the
beginning of the 10th century, in the east all the district of Saumur
had already by that time fallen into the hands of the counts of Blois
and Tours. Geoffrey Greytunic succeeded in making the count of Nantes
his vassal, and in obtaining from the duke of Aquitaine the concession
in fief of the district of Loudun. Moreover, in the wars of king
Lothaire against the Normans and against the emperor Otto II. he
distinguished himself by feats of arms which the epic poets were quick
to celebrate. His son Fulk III. Nerra (q.v.) (21st of July 987-21st of
June 1040) found himself confronted on his accession with a coalition of
Odo I., count of Blois, and Conan I., count of Rennes. The latter having
seized upon Nantes, of which the counts of Anjou held themselves to be
suzerains, Fulk Nerra came and laid siege to it, routing Conan's army at
Conquereuil (27th of June 992) and re-establishing Nantes under his own
suzerainty. Then turning his attention to the count of Blois, he
proceeded to establish a fortress at Langeais, a few miles from Tours,
from which, thanks to the intervention of the king Hugh Capet, Odo
failed to oust him. On the death of Odo I., Fulk seized Tours (996); but
King Robert the Pious turned against him and took the town again (997).
In 1016 a fresh struggle arose between Fulk and Odo II., the new count
of Blois. Odo II. was utterly defeated at Pontlevoy (6th of July 1016),
and a few years later, while Odo was besieging Montboyau, Fulk surprised
and took Saumur (1026). Finally, the victory gained by Geoffrey Martel
(q.v.) (21st of June 1040-14th of November 1060), the son and successor
of Fulk, over Theobald III., count of Blois, at Nouy (21st of August
1044), assured to the Angevins the possession of the countship of
Touraine. At the same time, continuing in this quarter also the work of
his father (who in 1025 took prisoner Herbert Wake-Dog and only set him
free on condition of his doing him homage), Geoffrey succeeded in
reducing the countship of Maine to complete dependence on himself.
During his father's life-time he had been beaten by Gervais, bishop of
Le Mans (1038), but now (1047 or 1048) succeeded in taking the latter
prisoner, for which he was excommunicated by Pope Leo IX. at the council
of Reims (October 1049). In spite, however, of the concerted attacks of
William the Bastard (the Conqueror), duke of Normandy, and Henry I.,
king of France, he was able in 1051 to force Maine to recognize his
authority, though failing to revenge himself on William.
On the death of Geoffrey Martel (14th of November 1060) there was a
dispute as to the succession. Geoffrey Martel, having no children, had
bequeathed the countship to his eldest nephew, Geoffrey III. the
Bearded, son of Geoffrey, count of Gatinais, and of Ermengarde, daughter
of Fulk Nerra. But Fulk le Rechin (the Cross-looking), brother of
Geoffrey the Bearded, who had at first been contented with an appanage
consisting of Saintonge and the _chatellenie_ of Vihiers, having allowed
Saintonge to be taken in 1062 by the duke of Aquitaine, took advantage
of the general discontent aroused in the countship by the unskilful
policy of Geoffrey to make himself master of Saumur (25th of February
1067) and Angers (4th of April), and cast Geoffrey into prison at Sable.
Compelled by the papal authority to release him after a short interval
and to restore the countship to him, he soon renewed the struggle, beat
Geoffrey near Brissac and shut him up in the castle of Chinon (1068). In
order, however, to obtain his recognition as count, Fulk IV. Rechin
(1068-14th of April 1109) had to carry on a long struggle with his
barons, to cede Gatinais to King Philip I., and to do homage to the
count of Blois for Touraine. On the other hand, he was successful on the
whole in pursuing the policy of Geoffrey Martel in Maine: after
destroying La Fleche, by the peace of Blanchelande (1081), he received
the homage of Robert "Courteheuse" ("Curthose"), son of William the
Conqueror, for Maine. Later, he upheld Elias, lord of La Fleche, against
William Rufus, king of England, and on the recognition of Elias as count
of Maine in 1100, obtained for Fulk the Young, his son by Bertrade de
Montfort, the hand of Eremburge, Elias's daughter and sole heiress.
Fulk V. the Young (14th of April 1109-1129) succeeded to the countship
of Maine on the death of Elias (11th of July 1110); but this increase of
Angevin territory came into such direct collision with the interests of
Henry I., king of England, who was also duke of Normandy, that a
struggle between the two powers became inevitable. In 1112 it broke out,
and Fulk, being unable to prevent Henry I. from taking Alencon and
making Robert, lord of Belleme, prisoner, was forced, at the treaty of
Pierre Pecoulee, near Alencon (23rd of February 1113), to do homage to
Henry for Maine. In revenge for this, while Louis VI. was overrunning
the Vexin in 1118, he routed Henry's army at Alencon (November), and in
May 1119 Henry demanded a peace, which was sealed in June by the
marriage of his eldest son, William the Aetheling, with Matilda, Fulk's
daughter. William the Aetheling having perished in the wreck of the
"White Ship" (25th of November 1120), Fulk, on his return from a
pilgrimage to the Holy Land (1120-1121), married his second daughter
Sibyl, at the instigation of Louis VI., to William Clito, son of Robert
Courteheuse, and a claimant to the duchy of Normandy, giving her Maine
for a dowry (1122 or 1123). Henry I. managed to have the marriage
annulled, on the plea of kinship between the parties (1123 or 1124). But
in 1127 a new alliance was made, and on the 22nd of May at Rouen, Henry
I. betrothed his daughter Matilda, widow of the emperor Henry V., to
Geoffrey the Handsome, son of Fulk, the marriage being celebrated at Le
Mans on the 2nd of June 1129. Shortly after, on the invitation of
Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem, Fulk departed to the Holy Land for good,
married Melisinda, Baldwin's daughter and heiress, and succeeded to the
throne of Jerusalem (14th of September 1131). His eldest son, Geoffrey
IV. the Handsome or "Plantagenet," succeeded him as count of Anjou
(1129-7th of September 1151). From the first he tried to profit by his
marriage, and after the death of Henry I. (1st of December 1135), laid
the foundation of the conquest of Normandy by a series of campaigns:
about the end of 1135 or the beginning of 1136 he entered that country
and rejoined his wife, the countess Matilda, who had received the
submission of Argentan, Domfront and Exmes. Having been abruptly
recalled into Anjou by a revolt of his barons, he returned to the charge
in September 1136 with a strong army, including in its ranks William,
duke of Aquitaine, Geoffrey, count of Vendome, and William Talvas, count
of Ponthieu, but after a few successes was wounded in the foot at the
siege of Le Sap (October 1) and had to fall back. In May 1137 began a
fresh campaign in which he devastated the district of Hiemois (round
Exmes) and burnt Bazoches. In June 1138, with the aid of Robert of
Gloucester, Geoffrey obtained the submission of Bayeux and Caen; in
October he devastated the neighbourhood of Falaise; finally, in March
1141, on hearing of his wife's success in England, he again entered
Normandy, when he made a triumphal procession through the country. Town
after town surrendered: in 1141, Verneuil, Nonancourt, Lisieux, Falaise;
in 1142, Mortain, Saint-Hilaire, Pontorson; in 1143, Avranches,
Saint-Lo, Cerences, Coutances, Cherbourg; in the beginning of 1144 he
entered Rouen, and on the 19th of January received the ducal crown in
its cathedral. Finally, in 1149, after crushing a last attempt at
revolt, he handed over the duchy to his son Henry "Curtmantel," who
received the investiture at the hands of the king of France.
All the while that Fulk the Young and Geoffrey the Handsome were
carrying on the work of extending the countship of Anjou, they did not
neglect to strengthen their authority at home, to which the unruliness
of the barons was a menace. As regards Fulk the Young we know only a few
isolated facts and dates: about 1109 Doue and L'Ile Bouchard were taken;
in 1112 Brissac was besieged, and about the same time Eschivard of
Preuilly subdued; in 1114 there was a general war against the barons who
were in revolt, and in 1118 a fresh rising, which was put down after the
siege of Montbazon: in 1123 the lord of Doue revolted, and in 1124
Montreuil-Bellay was taken after a siege of nine weeks. Geoffrey the
Handsome, with his indefatigable energy, was eminently fitted to
suppress the coalitions of his vassals, the most formidable of which was
formed in 1129. Among those who revolted were Guy of Laval, Giraud of
Montreuil-Bellay, the viscount of Thouars, the lords of Mirebeau,
Amboise, Partbenay and Sable. Geoffrey succeeded in beating them one
after another, razed the keep of Thouars and occupied Mirebeau. Another
rising was crushed in 1134 by the destruction of Cand and the taking of
L'Ile Bouchard. In 1136, while the count was in Normandy, Robert of
Sable put himself at the head of the movement, to which Geoffrey
responded by destroying Briollay and occupying La Suze, and Robert of
Sable himself was forced to beg humbly for pardon through the
intercession of the bishop of Angers. In 1139 Geoffrey took Mirebeau,
and in 1142 Champtoceaux, but in 1145 a new revolt broke out, this time
under the leadership of Elias, the count's own brother, who, again with
the assistance of Robert of Sable, laid claim to the countship of Maine.
Geoffrey took Elias prisoner, forced Robert of Sable to beat a retreat,
and reduced the other barons to reason. In 1147 he destroyed Doue and
Blaison. Finally in 1150 he was checked by the revolt of Giraud, lord of
Montreuil-Bellay: for a year he besieged the place till it had to
surrender: he then took Giraud prisoner and only released him on the
mediation of the king of France.
Thus, on the death of Geoffrey the Handsome (7th of September 1151), his
son Henry found himself heir to a great empire, strong and consolidated,
to which his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine (May 1152) further added
Aquitaine.
At length on the death of King Stephen, Henry was recognised as king of
England (19th of December 1154). But then his brother Geoffrey, who had
received as appanage the three fortresses of Chinon, Loudun and
Mirebeau, tried to seize upon Anjou, on the pretext that, by the will of
their father, Geoffrey the Handsome, all the paternal inheritance ought
to descend to him, if Henry succeeded in obtaining possession of the
maternal inheritance. On hearing of this, Henry, although he had sworn
to observe this will, had himself released from his oath by the pope,
and hurriedly marched against his brother, from whom in the beginning of
1156 he succeeded in taking Chinon and Mirebeau; and in July he forced
Geoffrey to give up even his three fortresses in return for an annual
pension. Henceforward Henry succeeded in keeping the countship of Anjou
all his life; for though he granted it in 1168 to his son Henry "of the
Short Mantle," when the latter became old enough to govern it, he
absolutely refused to allow him to enjoy his power. After Henry II.'s
death in 1189 the countship, together with the rest of his dominions,
passed to his son Richard I. of England, but on the death of the latter
in 1199, Arthur of Brittany (born in 1187) laid claim to the
inheritance, which ought, according to him, to have fallen to his father
Geoffrey, fourth son of Henry II., in accordance with the custom by
which "the son of the eldest brother should succeed to his father's
patrimony." He therefore set himself up in rivalry with John Lackland,
youngest son of Henry II., and supported by Philip Augustus of France,
and aided by William des Roches, seneschal of Anjou, he managed to enter
Angers (18th of April 1199) and there have himself recognized as count
of the three countships of Anjou, Maine and Touraine, for which he did
homage to the king of France. King John soon regained the upper hand,
for Philip Augustus having deserted Arthur by the treaty of Le Goulet
(22nd of May 1200), John made his way into Anjou; and on the 18th of
June 1200 was recognized as count at Angers. In 1202 he refused to do
homage to Philip Augustus, who, in consequence, confiscated all his
continental possessions, including Anjou, which was allotted by the king
of France to Arthur. The defeat of the latter, who was taken prisoner at
Mirebeau on the ist of August 1202, seemed to ensure John's success, but
he was abandoned by William des Roches, who in 1203 assisted Philip
Augustus in subduing the whole of Anjou. A last effort on the part of
John to possess himself of it, in 1214, led to the taking of Angers
(17th of June), but broke down lamentably at the battle of La
Roche-aux-Moines (2nd of July), and the countship was attached to the
crown of France.
Shortly afterwards it was separated from it again, when in August 1246
King Louis IX. gave it as an appanage to his son Charles, count of
Provence, soon to become king of Naples and Sicily (see NAPLES). Charles
I. of Anjou, engrossed with his other dominions, gave little thought to
Anjou, nor did his son Charles II. the Lame, who succeeded him on the
7th of January 1285. On the 16th of August 1290, the latter married his
daughter Margaret to Charles of Valois, son of Philip III. the Bold,
giving her Anjou and Maine for dowry, in exchange for the kingdoms of
Aragon and Valentia and the countship of Barcelona given up by Charles.
Charles of Valois at once entered into possession of the countship of
Anjou, to which Philip IV. the Fair, in September 1297, attached a
peerage of France. On the 16th of December 1325, Charles died, leaving
Anjou to his eldest son Philip of Valois, on whose recognition as king
of France (Philip VI.) on the 1st of April 1328, the countship of Anjou
was again united to the crown. On the 17th of February 1332, Philip VI.
bestowed it on his son John the Good, who, when he became king in turn
(22nd of August 1350), gave the countship to his second son Louis I.,
raising it to a duchy in the peerage of France by letters patent of the
25th of October 1360. Louis I., who became in time count of Provence and
king of Naples (see Louis I., king of Naples,) died in 1384, and was
succeeded by his son Louis II., who devoted most of his energies to his
kingdom of Naples, and left the administration of Anjou almost entirely
in the hands of his wife, Yolande of Aragon. On his death (29th of April
1417) she took upon herself the guardianship of their young son Louis
III., and in her capacity of regent defended the duchy against the
English. Louis III., who also succeeded his father as king of Naples,
died on the 15th of November 1434, leaving no children. The duchy of
Anjou then passed to his cousin Rene, second son of Louis II. and
Yolande of Aragon, and king of Naples and Sicily (see NAPLES).
Unlike his predecessors, who had rarely stayed long in Anjou, Rene from
1443 onwards paid long visits to it, and his court at Angers became one
of the most brilliant in the kingdom of France. But after the sudden
death of his son John in December 1470, Rene, for reasons which are not
altogether clear, decided to move his residence to Provence and leave
Anjou for good. After making an inventory of all his possessions, he
left the duchy in October 1471, taking with him the most valuable of his
treasures. On the 22nd of July 1474 he drew up a will by which he
divided the succession between his grandson Rene II. of Lorraine and his
nephew Charles II., count of Maine. On hearing this, King Louis XI., who
was the son of one of King Rene's sisters, seeing that his expectations
were thus completely frustrated, seized the duchy of Anjou. He did not
keep it very long, but became reconciled to Rene in 1476 and restored it
to him, on condition, probably, that Rene should bequeath it to him.
However that may be, on the death of the latter (10th of July 1480) he
again added Anjou to the royal domain.
Later, King Francis I. again gave the duchy as an appanage to his
mother, Louise of Savoy, by letters patent of the 4th of February 1515.
On her death, in September 1531, the duchy returned into the king's
possession. In 1552 it was given as an appanage by Henry II. to his son
Henry of Valois, who, on becoming king in 1574, with the title of Henry
III., conceded it to his brother Francis, duke of Alencon, at the treaty
of Beaulieu near Loches (6th of May 1576). Francis died on the 10th of
June 1584, and the vacant appanage definitively became part of the royal
domain.
At first Anjou was included in the _gouvernement_ (or military command)
of Orleanais, but in the 17th century was made into a separate one.
Saumur, however, and the Saumurois, for which King Henry IV. had in 1589
created an independent military governor-generalship in favour of
Duplessis-Mornay, continued till the Revolution to form a separate
_gouvernement_, which included, besides Anjou, portions of Poitou and
Mirebalais. Attached to the _generalite_ (administrative circumscription)
of Tours, Anjou on the eve of the Revolution comprised five _elections_
(judicial districts):--Angers, Beauge, Saumur, Chateau-Gontier,
Montreuil-Bellay and part of the _elections_ of La Fleche and Richelieu.
Financially it formed part of the so-called _pays de grande gabelle_ (see
GABELLE), and comprised sixteen special tribunals, or _greniers a sel_
(salt warehouses):--Angers, Beauge, Beaufort, Bourgueil, Cande,
Chateau-Gontier, Cholet, Craon, La Fleche, Saint-Florent-le-Vieil,
Ingrandes, Le Lude, Pouance, Saint-Remy-la-Varenne, Richelieu, Saumur.
From the point of view of purely judicial administration, Anjou was
subject to the parlement of Paris; Angers was the seat of a presidial
court, of which the jurisdiction comprised the _senechaussees_ of Angers,
Saumur, Beauge, Beaufort and the duchy of Richelieu; there were besides
presidial courts at Chateau-Gontier and La Fleche. When the Constituent
Assembly, on the 26th of February 1790, decreed the division of France
into departments, Anjou and the Saumurois, with the exception of certain
territories, formed the department of Maine-et-Loire, as at present
constituted.
AUTHORITIES.--(1) _Principal Sources_: The history of Anjou may be
told partly with the aid of the chroniclers of the neighbouring
provinces, especially those of Normandy (William of Poitiers, William
of Jumieges, Ordericus Vitalis) and of Maine (especially _Actus
pontificum Cenomannis in urbe degentium_). For the 10th, 11th and 12th
centuries especially, there are some important texts dealing entirely
with Anjou. The most important is the chronicle called _Gesta consulum
Andegavorum_, of which only a poor edition exists (_Chroniques des
comtes d'Anjou_, published by Marchegay and Salmon, with an
introduction by E. Mabille, Paris, 1856-1871, collection of the
_Societe de l'histoire de France_). See also with reference to this
text Louis Halphen, _Etude sur les chroniques des comtes d'Anjou et
des seigneurs d'Amboise_ (Paris, 1906). The above may be supplemented
by some valuable annals published by Louis Halphen, _Recueil d'annales
angevines et vendomoises_ (Paris, 1903), (in the series _Collection de
textes pour servir a l'etude et a l'enseignement de l'histoire_). For
further details see Auguste Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de
France_ (Paris, 1902), ii. 1276-1310, and the book of Louis Halphen
mentioned below.
(2) _Works_: The _Art de verifier les dates_ contains a history of
Anjou which is very much out of date, but has not been treated
elsewhere as a whole. The 11th century only has been treated in detail
by Louis Halphen, in _Le Comte d'Anjou au XI^e siecle_ (Paris, 1906),
which has a preface with bibliography and an introduction dealing with
the history of Anjou in the 10th century. For the 10th, 11th and 12th
centuries, a good summary will be found in Kate Norgate, _England
under the Angevin Kings_ (2 vols., London, 1887). On Rene of Anjou,
there is a book by A. Lecoy de la Marche, _Le Roi Rene_ (2 vols.,
Paris, 1875). Lastly, the work of Celestin Port, _Dictionnaire
historique, geographique et biographique de Maine-et-Loire_ (3 vols.,
Paris and Angers, 1874-1878), and its small volume of _Preliminaires_
(including a summary of the history of Anjou), contain, in addition to
the biographies of the chief counts of Anjou, a mass of information
concerning everything connected with Angevin history. (L. H.*)
ANKERITE, a member of the mineral group of rhombohedral carbonates. In
composition it is closely related to dolomite, but differs from this in
having magnesia replaced by varying amounts of ferrous and manganous
oxides, the general formula being Ca(Mg, Fe, Mn)(CO3)2. Normal ankerite
is Ca2MgFe(CO3)4. The crystallographic and physical characters resemble
those of dolomite and chalybite. The angle between the perfect
rhombohedral cleavages is 73 deg. 48', the hardness 3-1/2 to 4, and the
specific gravity 2.9 to 3.1; but these will vary slightly with the
chemical composition. The colour is white, grey or reddish.
Ankerite occurs with chalybite in deposits of iron-ore. It is one of the
minerals of the dolomite-chalybite series, to which the terms
brown-spar, pearl-spar and bitter-spar are loosely applied. It was first
recognized as a distinct species by W. von Haidinger in 1825, and named
by him after M.J. Anker of Styria. (L. J. S.)
ANKLAM, or ANCLAM, a town of Germany in the Prussian province of
Pomerania, on the Peene, 5 m. from its mouth in the Kleines Haff, and 53
m. N.W. of Stettin, by the railway to Stralsund. Pop. (1900) 14,602. The
fortifications of Anklam were dismantled in 1762 and have not since been
restored, although the old walls are still standing; formerly, however,
it was a town of considerable military importance, which suffered
severely during the Thirty Years' and the Seven Years' Wars; and this
fact, together with the repeated ravages of fire and of the plague, has
made its history more eventful than is usually the case with towns of
the same size. It does not possess any remarkable buildings, although it
contains several, private as well as public, that are of a quaint and
picturesque style of architecture. The church of St Mary (12th century)
has a modern tower, 335 ft. high. The industries consist of
iron-foundries and factories for sugar and soap; and there is a military
school. The Peene is navigable up to the town, which has a considerable
trade in its own manufactures, as well as in the produce of the
surrounding country, while some shipbuilding is carried on in wharves on
the river.
Anklam, formerly Tanglim, was originally a Slav fortress; it obtained
civic rights in 1244 and joined the Hanseatic league. In 1648 it passed
to Sweden, but in 1676 was retaken by Frederick William I. of
Brandenburg, and after being plundered by the Russians in 1713 was ceded
to Prussia by the peace of Stockholm in 1720.
ANKLE, or ANCLE (a word common, in various forms, to Teutonic languages,
probably connected in origin with the Lat. _angulus_, or Gr. [Greek:
ankulos], bent), the joint which connects the foot with the leg (see
JOINTS).
ANKOBER, a town in, and at one time capital of, the kingdom of Shoa,
Abyssinia, 90 m. N.E. of Adis Ababa, in 9 deg. 34' N., 39 deg. 54' E.,
on a mountain about 8500 ft. above the sea. Ankober was made (c. 1890)
by Menelek II. the place of detention of political prisoners. Pop. about
2000.
ANKYLOSIS, or ANCHYLOSIS (from Gr. [Greek: ankulos], bent, crooked), a
stiffness of a joint, the result of injury or disease. The rigidity may
be complete or partial and may be due to inflammation of the tendinous
or muscular structures outside the joint or of the tissues of the joint
itself. When the structures outside the joint are affected, the term
"false" ankylosis has been used in contradistinction to "true"
ankylosis, in which the disease is within the joint. When inflammation
has caused the joint-ends of the bones to be fused together the
ankylosis is termed _osseous_ or complete. Excision of a completely
ankylosed shoulder or elbow may restore free mobility and usefulness to
the limb. "Ankylosis" is also used as an anatomical term, bones being
said to ankylose (or anchylose) when, from being originally distinct,
they coalesce, or become so joined together that no motion can take
place between them.
ANKYLOSTOMIASIS, or ANCHYLOSTOMIASIS (also called helminthiasis,
"miners' anaemia," and in Germany _Wurmkrankheit_), a disease to which
in recent years much attention has been paid, from its prevalence in the
mining industry in England, France, Germany, Belgium, North Queensland
and elsewhere. This disease (apparently known in Egypt even in very
ancient times) caused a great mortality among the negroes in the West
Indies towards the end of the 18th century; and through descriptions
sent from Brazil and various other tropical and sub-tropical regions, it
was subsequently identified, chiefly through the labours of Bilharz and
Griesinger in Egypt (1854), as being due to the presence in the
intestine of nematoid worms (_Ankylostoma duodenalis_) from one-third to
half an inch long. The symptoms, as first observed among the negroes,
were pain in the stomach, capricious appetite, pica (or dirt-eating),
obstinate constipation followed by diarrhoea, palpitations, small and
unsteady pulse, coldness of the skin, pallor of the skin and mucous
membranes, diminution of the secretions, loss of strength and, in cases
running a fatal course, dysentery, haemorrhages and dropsies. The
parasites, which cling to the intestinal mucous membrane, draw their
nourishment from the blood-vessels of their host, and as they are found
in hundreds in the body after death, the disorders of digestion, the
increasing anaemia and the consequent dropsies and other cachectic
symptoms are easily explained. The disease was first known in Europe
among the Italian workmen employed on the St Gotthard tunnel. In 1896,
though previously unreported in Germany, 107 cases were registered
there, and the number rose to 295 in 1900, and 1030 in 1901. In England
an outbreak at the Dolcoath mine, Cornwall, in 1902, led to an
investigation for the home office by Dr Haldane F.R.S. (see especially
the Parliamentary Paper, numbered Cd. 1843), and since then discussions
and inquiries have been frequent. A committee of the British Association
in 1904 issued a valuable report on the subject. After the
Spanish-American War American physicians had also given it their
attention, with valuable results; see Stiles (_Hygienic Laboratory
Bulletin_, No. 10, Washington, 1903). The American parasite described by
Stiles, and called _Uncinaria americana_ (whence the name Uncinariasis
for this disease) differs slightly from the Ankylostoma. The parasites
thrive in an environment of dirt, and the main lines of precaution are
those dictated by sanitary science. Malefern, santonine, thymol and
other anthelmintic remedies are prescribed.
ANNA, BALDASARRE, a painter who flourished during part of the 16th and
17th centuries. He was born at Venice, probably about 1560, and is said
to have been of Flemish descent. The date of his death is uncertain, but
he seems to have been alive in 1639. For a number of years he studied
under Leonardo Corona, and on the death of that painter completed
several works left unfinished by him. His own activity seems to have
been confined to the production of pieces for several of the churches
and a few private houses in Venice, and the old guide-books and
descriptions of the city notice a considerable number of paintings by
him. Scarcely any of these, however, have survived.
ANNA (Hindustani _ana_), an Indian penny, the sixteenth part of a rupee.
The term belongs to the Mahommedan monetary system (see RUPEE). There is
no coin of one anna, but there are half-annas of copper and two-anna
pieces of silver. The term anna is frequently used to express a
fraction. Thus an Anglo-Indian speaks of two annas of dark blood (an
octoroon), a four-anna (quarter) crop, an eight-anna (half) gallop.
ANNA AMALIA (1739-1807), duchess of Saxe-Weimar, daughter of Charles I.,
duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, was born at Wolfenbuttel on the 24th of
October 1739, and married Ernest, duke of Saxe-Weimar, 1756. Her husband
died in 1758, leaving her regent for their infant son, Charles Augustus.
During the protracted minority she administered the affairs of the duchy
with the greatest prudence, strengthening its resources and improving
its position in spite of the troubles of the Seven Years' War. She was a
patroness of art and literature, and attracted to Weimar many of the
most eminent men in Germany. Wieland was appointed tutor to her son; and
the names of Herder, Goethe and Schiller shed an undying lustre on her
court. In 1775 she retired into private life, her son having attained
his majority. In 1788 she set out on a lengthened tour through Italy,
accompanied by Goethe. She died on the 10th of April 1807. A memorial of
the duchess is included in Goethe's works under the title _Zum Andenken
der Furstin Anna-Amalia._
See F. Bornhak, _Anna Amalia Herzogin von Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach_
(Berlin. 1892).
ANNABERG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, in the
Erzgebirge, 1894 ft. above the sea, 6 m. from the Bohemian frontier,
18-1/2 m. S. by E. from Chemnitz by rail. Pop. (1905) 16,811. It has
three Evangelical churches, among them that of St Anne, built 1499-1525,
a Roman Catholic church, several public monuments, among them those of
Luther, of the famous arithmetician Adam Riese, and of Barbara Uttmann.
Annaberg, together with the neighbouring suburb, Buchholz, is the chief
seat of the braid and lace-making industry in Germany, introduced here
by Barbara Uttmann in 1561, and further developed by Belgian refugees,
who, driven from their country by the duke of Alva, settled here in
1590. The mining industry, for which the town was formerly also famous
and which embraced tin, silver and cobalt, has now ceased. Annaberg has
technical schools for lace-making, commerce and agriculture, in addition
to high grade public schools for boys and girls.
ANNABERGITE, a mineral consisting of a hydrous nickel arsenate,
Ni3(AsO4)2 + 8H2O, crystallizing in the monoclinic system and
isomorphous with vivianite and erythrite. Crystals are minute and
capillary and rarely met with, the mineral occurring usually as soft
earthy masses and encrustations. A fine apple-green colour is its
characteristic feature. It was long known (since 1758) under the name
nickel-ochre; the name annabergite was proposed by H.J. Brooke and W.H.
Miller in 1852, from Annaberg in Saxony, one of the localities of the
mineral. It occurs with ores of nickel, of which it is a product of
alteration. A variety, from Creetown in Kirkcudbrightshire, in which a
portion of the nickel is replaced by calcium, has been called
dudgeonite, after P. Dudgeon, who found it. (L. J. S.)
ANNA COMNENA, daughter of the emperor Alexius I. Comnenus, the first
woman historian, was born on the 1st of December 1083. She was her
father's favourite and was carefully trained in the study of poetry,
science and Greek philosophy. But, though learned and studious, she was
intriguing and ambitious, and ready to go to any lengths to gratify her
longing for power. Having married an accomplished young nobleman,
Nicephorus Bryennius, she united with the empress Irene in a vain
attempt to prevail upon her father during his last illness to disinherit
his son and give the crown to her husband. Still undeterred, she entered
into a conspiracy to depose her brother after his accession; and when
her husband refused to join in the enterprise, she exclaimed that
"nature had mistaken their sexes, for he ought to have been the woman."
The plot being discovered, Anna forfeited her property and fortune,
though, by the clemency of her brother, she escaped with her life.
Shortly afterwards, she retired into a convent and employed her leisure
in writing the _Alexiad_--a history, in Greek, of her father's life and
reign (1081-1118), supplementing the historical work of her husband. It
is rather a family panegyric than a scientific history, in which the
affection of the daughter and the vanity of the author stand out
prominently. Trifling acts of her father are described at length in
exaggerated terms, while little notice is taken of important
constitutional matters. A determined opponent of the Latin church and an
enthusiastic admirer of the Byzantine empire, Anna Comnena regards the
Crusades as a danger both political and religious. Her models are
Thucydides, Polybius and Xenophon, and her style exhibits the striving
after Atticism characteristic of the period, with the result that the
language is highly artificial. Her chronology especially is defective.
Editions in Bonn _Corpus Scriptorum Hist. Byz._, by J. Schopen and A.
Reifferscheid (1839-1878), with Du Cange's valuable commentary; and
Teubner series, by A. Reifferscheid (1884). See also C. Krumbacher,
_Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur_ (2nd ed. 1897); C. Neumann,
_Griechische Geschichtschreiber im 12 Jahrhunderte_ (1888); E. Oster,
_Anna Komnena_ (Rastatt, 1868-1871); Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, ch.
48; Finlay, _Hist, of Greece_, iii. pp. 53, 128 (1877); P. Adam,
_Princesses byzantines_ (1893); Sir Walter Scott, _Count Robert of
Paris_; L. du Sommerard, _Anne Comnene ... Agnes de France_ (1907); C.
Diehl, _Figures byzantines_ (1906).
ANNA LEOPOLDOVNA, sometimes called ANNA CARLOVNA (1718-1746), regent of
Russia for a few months during the minority of her son Ivan, was the
daughter of Catherine, sister of the empress Anne, and Charles Leopold,
duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. In 1739 she married Anton Ulrich (d.
1775), son of Ferdinand Albert, duke of Brunswick, and their son Ivan
was adopted in 1740 by the empress and proclaimed heir to the Russian
throne. A few days after this proclamation the empress died, leaving
directions regarding the succession, and appointing her favourite Ernest
Biren, duke of Courland, as regent. Biren, however, had made himself an
object of detestation to the Russian people, and Anna had little
difficulty in overthrowing his power. She then assumed the regency, and
took the title of grand-duchess, but she knew little of the character of
the people with whom she had to deal, was utterly ignorant of the
approved Russian mode of government, and speedily quarrelled with her
principal supporters. In December 1741, Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the
Great, who, from her habits, was a favourite with the soldiers, excited
the guards to revolt, overcame the slight opposition that was offered,
and was proclaimed empress. Ivan was thrown into prison, where he soon
afterwards perished. Anna and her husband were banished to a small
island in the river Dvina, where on the 18th of March 1746 she died in
childbed.
ANNALISTS (from Lat. _annus_, year; hence _annales_, sc. _libri_, annual
records), the name given to a class of writers on Roman history, the
period of whose literary activity lasted from the time of the Second
Punic War to that of Sulla. They wrote the history of Rome from the
earliest times (in most cases) down to their own days, the events of
which were treated in much greater detail. For the earlier period their
authorities were state and family records--above all, the _annales
maximi_ (or _annales pontificum_), the official chronicle of Rome, in
which the notable occurrences of each year from the foundation of the
city were set down by the pontifex maximus. Although these annals were
no doubt destroyed at the time of the burning of Rome by the Gauls, they
were restored as far as possible and continued until the pontificate of
P. Mucius Scaevola, by whom they were finally published in eighty books.
Two generations of these annalists have been distinguished--an older and
a younger. The older, which extends to 150 B.C., set forth, in bald,
unattractive language, without any pretensions to style, but with a
certain amount of trustworthiness, the most important events of each
successive year. Cicero (_De Oratore_, ii. 12. 53), comparing these
writers with the old Ionic logographers, says that they paid no
attention to ornament, and considered the only merits of a writer to be
intelligibility and conciseness. Their annals were a mere compilation of
facts. The younger generation, in view of the requirements and criticism
of a reading public, cultivated the art of composition and rhetorical
embellishment. As a general rule the annalists wrote in a spirit of
uncritical patriotism, which led them to minimize or gloss over such
disasters as the conquest of Rome by Porsena and the compulsory payment
of ransom to the Gauls, and to flatter the people by exaggerated
accounts of Roman prowess, dressed up in fanciful language. At first
they wrote in Greek, partly because a national style was not yet formed,
and partly because Greek was the fashionable language amongst the
educated, although Latin versions were probably published as well. The
first of the annalists, the father of Roman history, as he has been
called, was Q. FABIUS PICTOR (see FABIUS PICTOR); contemporary with him
was L. CINCIUS ALIMENTUS, who flourished during the Hannibalic war.[1]
Like Fabius Pictor, he wrote in Greek. He was taken prisoner by Hannibal
(Livy xxi. 38), who is said to have given him details of the crossing of
the Alps. His work embraced the history of Rome from its foundation down
to his own days. With M. PORCIUS CATO (q.v.) historical composition in
Latin began, and a livelier interest was awakened in the history of
Rome. Among the principal writers of this class who succeeded Cato, the
following may be mentioned. L. CASSIUS HEMINA (about 146), in the fourth
book of his Annals, wrote on the Second Punic War. His researches went
back to very early times; Pliny (_Nat. Hist_. xiii. 13 [27]) calls him
_vetustissimus auctor annalium_. L. CALPUFNIUS Piso, surnamed _Frugi_
(see under PISO), wrote seven books of annals, relating the history of
the city from its foundation down to his own times. Livy regards him as
a less trustworthy authority than Fabius Pictor, and Niebuhr considers
him the first to introduce systematic forgeries into Roman history. Q.
CLAUDIUS QUADRIGARIUS (about 80 B.C.) wrote a history, in at least
twenty-three books, which began with the conquest of Rome by the Gauls
and went down to the death of Sulla or perhaps later. He was freely used
by Livy in part of his work (from the sixth book onwards). A long
fragment is preserved in Aulus Gellius (ix. 13), giving an account of
the single combat between Manlius Torquatus and the Gaul. His language
was antiquated and his style dry, but his work was considered important.
VALERIUS ANTIAS, a younger contemporary of Quadrigarius, wrote the
history of Rome from the earliest times, in a voluminous work consisting
of seventy-five books. He is notorious for his wilful exaggeration, both
in narrative and numerical statements. For instance, he asserts the
number of the Sabine virgins to have been exactly 527; again, in a
certain year when no Greek or Latin writers mention any important
campaign, Antias speaks of a big battle with enormous casualties.
Nevertheless, Livy at first made use of him as one of his chief
authorities, until he became convinced of his untrustworthiness. C.
LICINIUS MACER (died 66), who has been called the last of the annalists,
wrote a voluminous work, which, although he paid great attention to the
study of his authorities, was too rhetorical, and exaggerated the
achievements of his own family. Having been convicted of extortion, he
committed suicide (Cicero, _De Legibus_, i. 2, _Brutus_, 67; Plutarch,
_Cicero_, 9).
The writers mentioned dealt with Roman history as a whole; some of the
annalists, however, confined themselves to shorter periods. Thus, L.
CAELIUS ANTIPATER (about 120) limited himself to the Second Punic War.
His work was overloaded with rhetorical embellishment, which he was the
first to introduce into Roman history. He was regarded as the most
careful writer on the war with Hannibal, and one who did not allow
himself to be blinded by partiality in considering the evidence of other
writers (Cicero, _De Oratore_, ii. 12). Livy made great use of him in
his third decade. SEMPRONIUS ASELLIO (about 100 B.C.), military tribune
of Scipio Africanus at the siege of Numantia, composed _Rerum Gestanim
Libri_ in at least fourteen books. As he himself took part in the events
he describes, his work was a kind of memoirs. He was the first of his
class who endeavoured to trace the causes of events, instead of
contenting himself with a bare statement of facts. L. CORNELIUS SISENNA
(119-67), legate of Pompey in the war against the pirates, lost his life
in an expedition against Crete. He wrote twenty-three books on the
period between the Social War and the dictatorship of Sulla. His work
was commended by Sallust (_Jugurtha_, 95), who, however, blames him for
not speaking out sufficiently. Cicero remarks upon his fondness for
archaisms (_Brutus_, 74. 259). Sisenna also translated the tales of
Aristides of Miletus, and is supposed by some to have written a
ccmmentary on Plautus. The autobiography of Sulla may also be mentioned.
See C.W. Nitzsch, _Die romische Annalistik_ (1873); H. Peter, _Zur
Kritik der Quellen der dlteren romischen Geschichte_ (1879); L.O.
Brocker, _Moderne Quellenforscher und antike Geschichtschreiber_
(1882); fragments in H. Peter, _Historicorum Romanorum Reliquiae_
(1870, 1906), and _Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta_ (1883); also
articles ROME, _History_ (ancient) _ad fin_., section "Authorities,'"
and LIVY, where the use made of the annalists by the historian is
discussed; Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencydopadie_, art. "Annales"; the
histories of Roman Literature by M. Schanz and Teuffel-Schwabe;
Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_ (Eng. tr.), bk. ii. ch. 9, bk. iii. ch. 14,
bk. iv. ch. 13, bk. v. ch. 12; C. Wachsmuth, _Einleitung in das
Studium der alien Geschichte_ (1895); H. Peter, bibliography of the
subject in Bursian's _Jahresbericht_, cxxvi. (1906). (J. H. F.)