were some production of nature; or as if, like time, it had a power to
operate, not only independently, but in spite of man; or as if it were a
thing or a subject universally consented to. Alas! it has none of
those properties, but is the reverse of them all. It is a thing in
imagination, the property of which is more than doubted, and the
legality of which in a few years will be denied. But, to arrange this
matter in a clearer view than what general expressions can convey,
it will be necessary to state the distinct heads under which (what is
called) an hereditary crown, or, more properly speaking, an hereditary
succession to the government of a nation, can be considered; which are,
first, the right of a particular family to establish itself; secondly,
the right of a nation to establish a particular family. With respect to
the _first_ of these heads, that of a family establishing itself with
heredity powers on its own authority, and independent of the consent of
a nation, all men will concur in calling it despotism: and it would
be trespassing on their understanding to attempt to prove it. But the
_second_ head, that of a nation establishing a particular family with
_hereditary powers_, does not present itself as despotism on the first
reflection; but if men will permit a second reflection to take place,
and carry that reflection forward but one remove out of their own
persons to that of their offspring, they will then see that hereditary
succession becomes in its consequences the same despotism to others,
which they reprobated for themselves. It operates to preclude the
consent of the succeeding generations; and the preclusion of consent is
despotism. When the person who at any time shall be in possession of
a government, or those who stand in succession to him, shall say to a
nation, I hold this power in 'contempt' of you, it signifies not on what
authority he pretends to say it. It is no relief, but an aggravation to
a person in slavery, to reflect that he was sold by his parent; and as
that which heightens the criminality of an act cannot be produced to
prove the legality of it, hereditary succession cannot be established as
a legal thing.... Notwithstanding the taxes of England amount to almost
seventeen millions a year, said to be for the expenses of Government, it
is still evident that the sense of the nation is left to govern itself
by magistrates and jurors, almost at its own charge, on Republican
principles, exclusive of the expense of taxes. The salaries of the
judges are almost the only charge that is paid out of the revenue.
Considering that all the internal government is executed by the people,
the taxes of England ought to be the lightest of any nation in Europe;
instead of which they are the contrary. As this cannot be accounted for
on the score of civil government, the subject necessarily extends itself
to the monarchical part..... If a law be bad, it is one thing to oppose
the practice of it, but it is quite a different thing to expose its
errors, to reason on its defects, and show cause why it should be
repealed, or why another ought to be substituted in its place. I have
always held it an opinion (making it also my practice) that it is better
to obey a bad law, making use at the same time of every argument to show
its errors and procure its repeal, than forcibly to violate it; because
the precedent of breaking a bad law might weaken the force, and lead to
a discretionary violation, of those which are good."
As may be supposed, such a work as "The Rights of Man," aiming directly
at all oppression, regardless of party, could not be allowed to escape
the Attorney-General's _answer_. Accordingly, we find a prosecution
instituted against it. But instead of prosecuting the author, the
publishers were selected. This drew from Paine a long Letter to the
Attorney-General, suggesting the justice of _his_ answering for the book
he wrote. On the trial, Mr. (afterwards Lord) Erskine thus spoke of
the author of "The Rights of Man:"--"The defendant's whole deportment
previous to the publication has been wholly unexceptionable; he properly
desired to be given up as the author of the book, if any inquiry should
take place concerning it; and he is not affected in evidence, directly
or indirectly, with any illegal or suspicious conduct, not even with
uttering an indiscreet or taunting expression, nor with any one matter
or thing inconsistent with the best subject in England."
On the 12th of September, 1792, Mr. Achilles Audibert came expressly to
England, from the French Convention, to solicit Paine to attend and aid
them, by his advice, in their deliberations. "On his arrival at Calais
a public dinner was provided, a royal salute was fired from the battery,
the troops were drawn out, and there was a general rejoicing throughout
the town.... Paine was escorted to the house of his friend, Mr.
Audibert, the Chief Magistrate of the place, where he was visited by the
Commandant, and all the Municipal Officers in forms, who afterwards gave
him a sumptuous entertainment in the Town Hall. The same honor was also
paid him on his departure for Paris." Upon his arrival in Paris all
was confusion. There were the King's friends mortified and subdued,
the Jacobins split up into cavilling faction, some wishing a federative
government, some desiring the King's death, and the death of all the
nobility; while a portion were more discreet, wishing liberty without
licentiousness, and having a desire to redress wrongs without revenge.
These few accepted Paine as their leader, and renounced all connection
with the Jacobin Club.
Paine, on all occasions, advocated the preservation of the King's life
but his efforts were thwarted by the appointment, by Robespierre, of
Barrere to office. So anxiously was Paine sought after, that both Calais
and Versailles returned him as Deputy. To show how the author of "The
Rights of Man" opposed all physical force where reason may be used, it
is only necessary to state, that when the Letter of Dumourier reached
Paris with the threat of restoring the King, Paine wrote a letter to
the Convention, stating a plan for re-adjustment, and was taking it
personally, when he was informed "that a decree had just been passed
offering one hundred thousand crowns for Dumourier's head; and another,
making it high treason to propose anything in his favor." Whilst Deputy
for Calais, Paine was sought and admired by all classes. He dined every
Friday, for a long period, with the Earl of Lauderdale and Dr. Moore;
and so frequent were his visitors, that he set apart two mornings a
week for his _levee_ days.--He soon, however, changed his residence,
preferring less formality and a more select circle. His "History of the
French Revolution" we are deprived of by his imprisonment, which Gibbon
thought would prove a great loss. The historian often applied for the
MS., believing it to be of great worth. The opinion Paine held of the
Revolution may be gathered from the following:--
"With respect to the Revolution, it was begun by good men, on good
principles, and I have ever believed it would have gone on so, had
not the provocative interference of foreign powers distracted it into
madness, and sown jealousies among the leaders. The people of England
have now two Revolutions, the American and the French before them. Their
own wisdom will direct them what to _choose_ and what to _avoid_, and
in everything which relates to their happiness, combined with the common
good of mankind, I wish them honor and success."
His speech against the death of the King, shows how far he was removed
from party spirit or any feeling of revenge. Whilst he protested against
the King being re-enthroned, he equally protested against his death,
wishing him removed from the seat of his corruption, and placed in
a more elevating atmosphere.--Entreating for the King's safety, he
says:--"Let then the United States be the safeguard and the asylum of
Louis Capet. There, hereafter, far removed from the miseries and crimes
of royalty, he may learn, from the constant aspect of public prosperity,
that the true system of government consists in fair, equal, and
honora-able representation. In relating this circumstance, and in
submitting this proposition, I consider myself as a citizen of both
countries."
The policy pursued by Paine was not consonant with the views of
Robespierre. Consequently, he was seized in the night and imprisoned
in the Luxembourg eleven months, without any reason being assigned. The
readers are doubtless aware of the many _Providential_ escapes he had
from the death for which he was seized. While in prison he wrote part of
his "Age of Reason," (having commenced it just previous to his arrest)
not Knowing one hour but he might be executed, and once being on the
verge of death from fever. He knew the prejudice the "Age of Reason"
would create, so he left its production to the latter part of his
life, not wishing to make _that_ an impediment to the good he sought to
accomplish in the Political world.
After toiling in France to bring the Revolution to a _just_ termination,
and finding his efforts rendered abortive by that feeling which _former
oppression had created_, he resolved to return to America, a country he
saw thriving by a policy he wished to institute in France.
In 1802, Jefferson, then President of America, knowing his wish to
return, wrote him the following letter:--
"You express a wish in your letter to return to America by a national
ship. Mr. Dawson, who brings over the treaty, and who will present you
with this letter, is charged with orders to the captain of the Maryland,
to receive and accommodate you back if you can be ready to return at
such a short warning. You will in general find us returned to sentiments
worthy of former times; in these it will be your glory to have steadily
labored, and with as much effect as any man living. That you may
live long to continue your useful labors, and reap the reward in the
thankfulness of nations, is my sin cere prayer.
"Accept the assurance of my high esteem and affectionate attachment,
"Thomas Jefferson."
But circumstances prevented Paine going by the Maryland. He sailed,
however, on the 1st of September, 1802, in the London Pacquet. He
had often previously arranged to return to America, but luckily,
_Providence_ prevented him. One ship that he intended to sail by, was
searched by English frigates for Thomas Paine, and another sunk at sea,
whilst at other times British frigates were cruising off the ports from
which he was to sail, knowing him to be there.
So much religious misrepresentation has been circulated about Paine's
life and death, that it becomes a duty to restate the _facts_. The
manner of life Paine pursued may be gathered from the _reliable_
testimony of Clio Rickman. He says, "Mr. Paine's life in London was a
quiet round of philosophical leisure and enjoyment. It was occupied in
writing, in a small epistolary correspondence, in walking about with me
to visit different friends, occasionally lounging at coffeehouses and
public places, or being visited by a select few. Lord Edward Fitzgerald,
the French and American ambassadors, Mr. Sharp the engraver, Romney, the
painter, Mrs. Wolstonecraft, Joel Barlow, Mr. Hull, Mr. Christie, Dr.
Priestley, Dr. Towers, Colonel Oswald, the walking Stewart, Captain
Sampson Perry, Mr. Tuffin, Mr. William Choppin, Captain De Stark,
Mr. Home Tooke, etc., were among the number of his friends and
acquaintances." His manner of living in France and America has already
been noticed.
The perverted tales of Carver and Cheetham may be utterly disproved by
referring to Clio Rickman's "Life of Paine." As his life, so was his
death. When he became feeble and infirm (in Jan. 1809) he was often
visited by those "good people" who so often intrude upon the domestic
quiet of the afflicted. After the visit of an old woman, "come from the
Almighty," (whom Paine soon sent back again) he was troubled with the
Rev. Mr. Milledollar, and the Rev. Mr. Cunningham. The latter reverend
said, "Mr. Paine, we visit you as friends and neighbors; you have now a
full view of death, you cannot live long; and whoever does not believe
in Jesus Christ, will assuredly be damned." "Let me," said Paine,
"have none of your Popish stuff; get away with you; good morning,
good morning." Another visitor was the Rev. Mr. Hargrove, with this
statement:--"My name is Hargrove, Sir; I am minister of the new
Jerusalem church; we, Sir, explain the scripture in its true meaning;
the key has been lost these four thousand years, and we have found It."
"Then," said Paine, in his own neat way, "it must have been very rusty."
Shortly before his death, he stated to Mr. Hicks, to whom he had sent
to arrange his burial? that his sentiments in reference to the Christian
religion were precisely the same as when he wrote the "Age of Reason."
On the 8th of June, (in the words of Clio Rickman) 1809. about nine in
the morning, he placidly, and almost without a struggle, died as he had
lived, a Deist, aged seventy-two years and five months. He was interred
at New Rochelle, upon his own farm; a handsome monument being now
erected where he was buried.
It has been the object in the present sketch rather to give, in a brief
manner, an account of Paine's life and services, than an elucidation
of his writings. His works are well known, and _they_ will speak for
themselves but much wrong is done to his memory by the perversions and
misrepresentations of the religious publications. No doubt had his views
been different on "religious" subjects, he would have been held up as
a model of genius, perseverance, courage, disinterestedness of purpose,
and purity of life, by the men who now find him no better name than the
"Blasphemer." We hope that those not previously acquainted with the
facts of his life, will find in the present sketch sufficient reason to
think and speak otherwise of a man who made the world his country, and
the doing good his religion.
"As Euclid near his various writings shone,
His pen inspired by glorious truth alone,
O'er all the earth diffusing light and life,
Subduing error, ignorance, and strife;
Raised man to just pursuits, to thinking right,
And yet will free the world from woe and falsehood's night;
To this immortal man, to Paine 'twas given,
To metamorphose earth from hell to heaven."
J. W.
BAPTISTE DE MIRABAUD
Jean Baptiste de Mirabaud was born at Paris, in the year 1675. Of his
early life we can glean but very scanty information. He appears first to
have embraced the military profession, but it not being consonant with
his general character, he soon quitted the army, and devoted himself to
literature. He was, however, nearly forty-nine years of age before
he became known in the literary world. He then published a French
translation of Tasso's "Jerusalem," which brought him much fame; and
many of the contributors to the French Encyclopaedia appear to have
associated with him, and courted his friendship. He was afterwards
elected a member of the French Academy of which he became the Secretary
in 1742. Mirabaud was a constant visitor at the house of his friend, the
Baron d'Holbach, down to the period of his death. He wrote "The World:
its Origin and its Antiquity," "Opinions of the Ancients upon the Jews,"
"Sentiments of the Philosophers upon the Nature of the Soul," and other
minor works. The "System of Nature" was also for many years attributed
to Mirabaud, but it appears now to be extremely doubtful whether he ever
wrote a single line of the work. The Abbe Galiani was one of the first
who pointed out D'Holbach as the author. In the memoirs of M. Suard,
edited by M. Garat, the same hypothesis is supported with additional
firmness. Dugald Stewart seems to put much faith in the latter
authority, as fixing the authorship of the "System of Nature" upon
D'Holbach. Voltaire attributes the work to Damilaville, in a somewhat
positive manner, for which he is sharply criticised in the "Biographie
Universelle," published in 1817. The "System of Nature" is a book of
which Dugald Stewart speaks, as "the boldest, if not the ablest work of
the Parisian Atheists," and it has undoubtedly obtained great
popularity. Voltaire, who has written against the "System of Nature" in
a tone of bitter sarcasm, and who complains of its general dullness and
prolixity, yet admits that it is "often humorous, sometimes eloquent."
It certainly is not written in that lively, but rather superficial
style, which has characterized many of the French writers, but it speaks
in plain yet powerful language, evincing an extensive acquaintance with
the works of previous philosophers, and much thought in relation to the
subjects treated upon. Some of its pages exhibiting more vivacity than
the rest of the book, have been attributed to Diderot, who (it is
alleged by Marmontel and others) aided, by his pen and counsel, many of
the Freethinking works issued during his life.
The "System of Nature" was not published during the life-time of
Mirabaud, and it is therefore impossible to use any argument which might
have been based upon Mirabaud's conduct in relation to it.
Mirabaud died in Paris in 1760, at the advanced age of nearly eighty-six
years. Contemporary with him were D'Alembert, D'Holbach, Voltaire,
Diderot, Helvetius, Condorcet, Buffon, Rousseau, Frederick II. of
Prussia, Montesquieu, Grimm, Sir William Tempte, Toland, Tindel, Edmund
Halley, Hume, Gibbon, Adam Smith, Franklin, and Darwin, forming a _role_
of names, whose fame will be handed down to posterity for centuries to
come, as workers in the cause of man's redemption from mental slavery.
If (as it appears very probably) it be the fact that Mirabaud had but
little part in the authorship of "La Système de la Nature," D'Holbach,
in using the name of his deceased friend, only associated him with a
work which (judging from his other writings, the tenor of his life, and
the noble character of his associates) Mirabaud would have issued with
pride himself, had the book been really written by him.
BARON D'HOLBACH.
Paul Thyry, Baron D'Holbach, was born at Heidesheim, in the Palatinate,
in the month of January, 1723. His father appears to have been a
very wealthy man, and brought his son to Paris, for the purpose of
superintending his education, but died white he was still a child. In
his youth, D'Holbach appears to have been noted for his studious habits
and retentive faculties, and ultimately attained to some eminence in
chemistry and mineralogy. He married when very young, and he had not
been married one year when his wife died. He afterwards obtained a
dispensation from the Pope, and married his deceased wife's sister, by
whom he had four children, two sons and two daughters.
D'Holbach appeared to have spent the greater part of his life in Paris,
and for forty years he assembled around his table, every Sunday, the
_elite_ of the literary world, including nearly the whole of those who
took part in the first Encyclopedia. If that table were only in the
hands of some of our spirit friends of the present day, what brilliant
anecdotes might it not rap out--the sparkling wit of Diderot, the good
humor of out host, the hospitable and generous D'Holbach, the occasional
bitterness of Jean Jacques Rousseau, the cautious expression of opinion
by D'Alembert, the agreeable variety of Montesquieu, and the bold
enthusiasm of the youthful but hardworking Naigeon! If ever a table were
inclined to turn, this table should have been; but perhaps it may be
that tables never turn when reason is the ruler of those who sit around.
It seems more than probable that D'Holbach at first held opinions
differing widely from those entertained by him during the later periods
of his life, and it is asserted that Diderot contributed much to this
change of opinion. D'Holbach was an amiable man of the world, fond of
amusement, and without pretension; he was, notwithstanding, well versed
in Roman and Grecian literature, mathematics, chemistry, botany, and
modern languages. He was generous to every one. "I content myself," he
said, "with performing the disagreeable character of benefactor, when I
am forced to it. I do not wish to be repaid my money; but I am pleased
when I meet with some little gratitude, if it be only as proving that
the persons I have assisted were such sort of men as I desired."
Although about forty-five works are now ascribed to D'Holbach, not
one of them was published during his life-time in his own name. The
manuscripts were taken to Amsterdam by Naigeon, and there printed by
Michael Rey. D'Holbach never talked publicly of his literary productions
himself and his secrets seem to have been well kept by his friends.
Several of the works were condemned and suppressed by the government;
but D'Holbach lived unsuspected and unmolested. The expression used by
the Avocat, General Seguier, in his réquisitoire against the "System
of Nature" is worthy of notice. The Avocat General said--"The restless
spirit of Infidelity, inimical to all dependence, endeavors to overthrow
all political constitutions. Its wishes will not be satisfied until
it has destroyed the _necessary_ inequality of rank and condition, and
until it has degraded the majesty of kings, and rendered their authority
subordinate to the _caprices_ of the _mob_." Note the three words we
have italicised. For the first read unnecessary; for the second,
voice; for the third, peoples. We trust that Free-thought never will be
satisfied until it has destroyed the unnecessary inequalities of rank
and condition, and rendered it impossible for the authority of kings to
be enforced in opposition to the voice of the people.
The following description of D'Holbach is given in a little
sketch, published by Mr. Watson in 1834, as taken from Grimm's
"Correspondence:"--"D'Hol-bach's features were, taken separately,
regular, and even handsome, yet he was not a handsome man. His forehead,
large and open, like that of Diderot, indicated a vast and capacious
mind; but his forehead having fewer sinuosities, less roundness than
Diderot's, announced less warmth, less energy, and less fecundity of
ideas. A craniologist would say that in both D'Holbach and Diderot, the
philosophical organs were largely developed, but that Diderot excelled
in ideality; D'Holbach's countenance only indicated mildness, and the
habitual sincerity of his mind. He was incapable of personal hatred.
Though he detested priests and Jesuits, and all other supporters of
despotism and superstition; and though when speaking of such people, his
mildness and good temper were sometimes transformed into bitterness and
irritability; yet it is affirmed that when the Jesuits were expelled
from France, D'Holbach regarded them as objects of commiseration and of
pity, and afforded them pecuniary assistance."
The titles of D'Holbach's works may be found in Barbier's "Dictionary
of Anonymous Works," and in St. Surins's article in the "Biographie
Universelle," so in the little tract before mentioned as published by J.
Watson. D'Holbach contributed largely to the first French Encyclopaedia,
and other works of a like character. Of the "System of Nature" we have
already spoken, and shall rather leave our readers to the work itself
than take up more space in discussing its authorship.
After having lived a life of comfort, in affluent circumstances,
and always surrounded by a large circle of the best men of the day,
D'Holbach died on January the 21st, 1789, being, then sixty-six years
of age. The priests have never pictured to us any scene of horror
in relation to his dying moments. The good old man died cheered and
supported in his last struggle by those men whom he had many times
assisted in the hard fighting of the battle of life. J. A. Naigeon,
who had been his friend for thirty years; paid an eloquent tribute
to D'Holbach's memory, in an article which appeared in the "Journal de
Paris" of February the 9th, 1789, and we are not aware that any man has
ever written anything against D'Hol-bach's personal character.
EXTRACTS FROM "THE SYSTEM OF NATURE."
Although we may not attempt to express a decided opinion as to the
authorship of "Le Système de la Nature," we feel it our duty to present
some of its principal arguments to the consideration of our readers. The
author opens his work with this passage:--
"Man always deceives himself when he abandons experience to follow
imaginary systems. He is the work of nature. He exists in nature. He is
submitted to her laws. He cannot deliver himself from them. He cannot
step beyond them even in thought. It is in vain his mind would spring
forward beyond the visible world: an imperious necessity ever compels
his return--for a being formed by Nature, who is circumscribed by her
laws, there exists nothing beyond the great whole of which he forms a
part, of which be experiences the influence. The beings his imagination
pictures as above Nature, or distinguished from her, are always
chimeras formed after that which he has, already seen, but of which it
is utterly impossible he should ever form any correct idea, either as to
the place they occupy, or their manner of acting--for him there is
not, there can be nothing out of that nature which includes all beings.
Instead, therefore, of seeking out of the world he inhabits for beings
who can procure him a happiness denied by Nature, let him study this
nature, learn her laws, contemplate her energies, observe the immutable
rules by which she acts."
Speaking of the theological delusions under which many men labor, and of
the mode in which man has been surrounded by those delusions, he says:--