Theon. "But would not the doctrine be dangerous that should establish
our inability to help our belief; and might we not stretch the
principle, until we asserted our inability to help our actions?"
"We might, and with reason. But we will not now traverse the ethical
_pons asinorum_ of necessity--the most simple and evident of mortal
truths, and the most darkened, tortured, and belabored by moral
teachers. You inquire if the doctrine we have essayed to establish, be
not dangerous. I reply--not, if it be true.--Nothing is so dangerous
as error--nothing so safe as truth. A dangerous truth would be a
contradiction in terms, and an anomaly in things."
"But what is a truth?" said Theon.
"It is pertinently asked. A truth I consider to be an ascertained fact;
which truth would be changed to an error, the moment the fact, on which
it rested, was disproved."
"I see, then, no fixed basis for truth."
"It surely has the most fixed of all--the nature of things. And it
is only an imperfect insight into that nature which occasions all our
erroneous conclusions, whether in physics or morals."
"But where, if we discard the Gods and their will, as engraven on our
hearts, are our guides in the search after truth?"
"Our senses and our faculties as developed in and by the exercise of our
senses, are the only guides with which I am acquainted. And I do not
see why, even admitting a belief in the Gods, and in a superintending
Providence, the senses should not be viewed as the guides provided by
them, for our direction and instruction. But here is the evil attendant
on an ungrounded belief, whatever be its nature. The moment we take one
thing for granted, we take other things for granted; we are started in
a wrong road, and it is seldom that we gain the right one, until we have
trodden back our steps to the starting place. I know but of one thing
that a philosopher should take for granted; and that only because he
is forced to it by an irresistible impulse of his nature; and because,
without doing so, neither truth nor falsehood could exist for him. He
must take for granted the evidence of his senses; in other words, he
must believe in the existence of things, as they exist to his senses. I
_know_ of no other existence, and can therefore _believe_ in no other:
although, reasoning from analogy, I may _imagine_ other existences to
be.--This, for instance, I do as respects the Gods. I see around me, in
the world I inhabit, an infinite variety in the arrangement of matter--a
multitude of sentient beings, possessing different kinds and varying
grades of power and intelligence--from the worm that crawls in the dust,
to the eagle that soars to the sun, and man who marks to the sun its
course. It is possible, it is moreover probable, that, in the worlds
which I see not--in the boundless infinitude and eternal duration of
matter, beings may exist, of every countless variety, and varying grades
of intelligence, inferior and superior to our own, until we descend to
a minimum and rise to a maximum, to which the range of our observation
affords no parallel, and of which our senses are inadequate to the
conception. Thus far, my young friend, 1 believe in the Gods, or in what
you will of existences removed from the sphere of my knowledge. That you
should believe, with positiveness, in one unseen existence or another,
appears to me no crime, although it may appear to me unreasonable; and
so, my doubt of the same should appear to you no moral offence, although
you might account it erroneous. I fear to fatigue your attention, and
will, therefore, dismiss, for the present, these abstruse subjects."
"But we shall both be amply repaid for their discussion, if this truth
remain with you--that an opinion, right or wrong, can never constitute a
moral offence, nor be in itself a moral obligation. It may be mistaken;
it may involve an absurdity, or a contradiction.--It is a truth; or it
is an error: it can never be a crime or a virtue."--[Chapter xiv.]
Miss Wright was a poetess, as well as a politician and writer on ethics.
In her "Fourth of July" address, delivered in the New Harmony Hall, in
1828, in commemoration of the American Independence, is the following:--
"Is there a thought can fill the human mind
More pure, more vast, more generous, more refined
Than that which guides the enlightened patriot's toil?
Not he whose view is bounded by his soil--
Not he whose narrow heart can only shrine
The land, the people that he calleth mine--
Not he who, to set up that land on high,
Will make whole nations bleed, whole nations die--
Not he who, calling that land's rights his pride,
Trampleth the rights of all the earth beside.
No! He it is, the just, the generous soul,
Who owneth brotherhood with either pole,
Stretches from realm to realm his spacious mind,
And guards the weal of all the human kind--
Holds freedom's banner o'er the earth unfurl'd,
And stands the guardian patriot of a world!"
J. W.
EPICURUS
Epicurean.--One who holds the principles of Epicurus--
Luxurious, contributing to luxury.
Epicurism--The principles of Epicurus--Luxury, sensual
enjoyment, gross pleasure.
The words with which this page is headed may be found in the current and
established dictionaries of the present day; and it shall be our task to
show that never was slander more foul, calumny more base, or libel more
cowardly, than when it associated the words luxury and sensuality with
the memory of the Athenian Epicurus. The much-worn anecdote of the brief
endorsed "The Defendant has no case, abuse the Plaintiffs Solicitor,"
will well apply here. The religionists had no case, the Epicurean
Philosophy was impregnable as far as theological attacks were concerned,
and the theologians have, therefore, constantly and vehemently abused
its founder; so that, at last, children have caught the cry as though it
were the enunciation of a tact, and have grown into men believing that
Epicurus was a sort of discriminating hog, who wallowed in the filth
which some have miscalled pleasure.
Epicurus was born in the early part of the year 344, B. C, the third
year of the 109th Olympiad, at Gargettus, in the neighborhood of Athens.
His father, Neocles, was of the Ægean tribe. Some allege that Epicurus
was born in the island of Samos; but, according to others, he was taken
there when very young by his parents, who formed a portion of a colony
of Athenian citizens, sent to colonize Samos after its subjugation
by Pericles. The father and mother of Epicurus were in very humble
circumstances; his father was a schoolmaster, and his mother,
Chærestrata, acted as a kind of priestess, curing diseases, exorcising
ghosts, and exercising other fabulous powers. Epicurus has been charged
with sorcery, because he wrote several songs for his mother's solemn
rites. Until eighteen, he remained at Samos and the neighboring isle of
Teos; from whence he removed to Athens, where he resided until the death
of Alexander, when, disturbances arising, he fled to Colophon. This
place, Mitylene, and Lampsacus, formed the philosopher's residence until
he was thirty-six years of age; at which time he founded a school in the
neighborhood of Athens. He purchased a pleasant garden, where he taught
his disciples until the time of his death.
We are told by Laertius, "That those disciples who were regularly
admitted into the school of Epicurus, lived together, not in the manner
of the Pythagoreans, who cast their possessions into a common stock; for
this, in his opinion, implied mutual distrust rather than friendship;
but upon such a footing of friendly attachment, that each individual
cheerfully supplied the necessities of his brother."
The habits of the philosopher and his followers were temperate and
exceedingly frugal, and formed a strong contrast to the luxurious,
although refined, manners of the Athenians. At the entrance of the
garden, the visitor of Epicurus found the following inscription:--"The
hospitable keeper of this mansion, where you will find pleasure the
highest good, will present you with barley cakes and water from the
spring. These gardens will not provoke your appetite by artificial
dainties, but satisfy it with natural supplies. Will you not, then, be
well entertained?" And yet the owner of the garden, over the gate
of which these words were placed, has been called "a glutton" and "a
stomach worshipper!"
From the age of thirty-six until his decease, he does not seem to have
quitted Athens, except temporarily. When Demetrius besieged Athens, the
Epicureans were driven into great difficulties for want of food; and it
is said that Epicurus and his friends subsisted on a small quantity of
beans which he possessed, and which he shared equally with them.
The better to prosecute his studies, Epicurus lived a life of celibacy.
Temperate and continent himself, he taught his followers to be so
likewise, both by example and precept. He died 273 B. C, in the
seventy-third year of his age; and, at that time, his warmest opponents
seem to have paid the highest compliments to his personal character;
and, on reading his life, and the detailed accounts of his teachings, it
seems difficult to imagine what has induced the calumny which has been
heaped upon his memory.
We "cannot quote from his own works, in his own words, because, although
he wrote very much, only a summary of his writings has come to us
uninjured; but his doctrines have been so fully investigated and treated
on, both by his opponents and his disciples, that there is no difficulty
or doubt as to the principles inculcated in the school of Epicurus.
"The sum of his doctrine concerning philosophy, in general, is
this:--Philosophy is the exercise of reason in the pursuit and
attainment of a happy life; whence it follows, that those studies which
conduce neither to the acquisition nor the enjoyment of happiness are to
be dismissed as of no value. The end of all speculation ought to be, to
enable men to judge with certainty what is to be chosen, and what to be
avoided, to preserve themselves free from pain, and to secure health of
body, and tranquillity of mind. True philosophy is so useful to every
man, that the young should apply to it without delay, and the old should
never be weary of the pursuit; for no man is either too young or too
old to correct and improve his mind, and to study the art of happiness.
Happy are they who possess by nature a free and vigorous intellect,
and who are born in a country where they can prosecute their inquiries
without restraint: for it is philosophy alone which raises a man above
vain fears and base passions, and gives him the perfect command of
himself. As nothing ought to be dearer to a philosopher than truth, he
should, pursue it by the most direct means, devising no actions himself,
nor suffering himself to be imposed upon by the fictions of others,
neither poets, orators, nor logicians, making no other use of the
rules of rhetoric or grammar, than to enable him to speak or write with
accuracy and perspicuity, and always preferring a plain and simple to an
ornamented style. Whilst some doubt of everything, and others profess
to acknowledge everything, a wise man will embrace such tenets, and
only such as are built upon experience, or upon certain and indisputable
axioms."
The following is a summary of his Moral Philosophy:--
"The end of living, or the ultimate good, which is to be sought for its
own sake, according to the universal opinion of mankind, is happiness;
yet men, for the most part, fail in the pursuit of this end, either
because they do not form a right idea of the nature of happiness, or
because they do not make use of proper means to attain it. Since it is
every man's interest to be happy through the whole of life, it is the
wisdom of every one to employ philosophy in the search of felicity
without delay; and there cannot be a greater folly, than to be always
beginning to live.
"The happiness which belongs to man, is that state in which he enjoys
as many of the good things, and suffers as few of the evils incident
to human nature as possible; passing his days in a smooth course of
permanent tranquillity. A wise man, though deprived of sight or hearing,
may experience happiness in the enjoyment of the good things which
yet remain; and when suffering torture, or laboring under some painful
disease, can mitigate the anguish by patience, and can enjoy, in
bis afflictions, the consciousness of bis own constancy. But it is
impossible that perfect happiness can be possessed without the pleasure
which attends freedom from pain, and the enjoyment of the good things of
life. Pleasure is in its nature good, as pain is in its nature evil; the
one is, therefore, to be pursued, and the other to be avoided, for its
own sake.--Pleasure, or pain, is not only good, or evil, in itself,
but the measure of what is good or evil, in every object of desire or
aversion; for the ultimate reason why we pursue one thing, and avoid
another, is because we expect pleasure from the former, and apprehend
pain from the latter. If we sometimes decline a present pleasure, it is
not because we are averse to pleasure itself, but because we conceive,
that in the present instance, it will be necessarily connected with a
greater pain. In like manner, if we sometimes voluntarily submit to a
present pain, it is because we judge that it is necessarily connected
with a greater pleasure.--Although all pleasure is essentially good, and
all pain essentially evil, it doth not thence necessarily follow, that
in every single instance the one ought to be pursued, and the other to
be avoided; but reason is to be employed in distinguishing and comparing
the nature and degrees of each, that the result may be a wise choice of
that which shall appear to be, upon the whole, good. That pleasure is
the first good, appears from the inclination which every animal, from
its first birth, discovers to pursue pleasure, and avoid pain; and is
confirmed by the universal experience of mankind, who are incited
to action by no other principle than the desire of avoiding pain, or
obtaining pleasure. There are two kinds of pleasure: one consisting in
a state of rest, in which both body and mind are undisturbed by any kind
of pain; the other arising from an agreeable agitation of the senses,
producing a correspondent emotion in the soul. It is upon the former
of these that the enjoyment of life chiefly depends. Happiness may
therefore be said to consist in bodily ease, and mental tranquillity,
When pleasure is asserted to be the end of living, we are not then to
understand that violent kind of delight or joy which arises from the
gratification of the senses and passions, but merely that placid state
of mind, which results from the absence of every cause of pain or
uneasiness. Those pleasures, which arise from agitation, are not to be
pursued as in themselves the end of living, but as means of arriving at
that stable tranquillity, in which true happiness consists. It is the
office of reason to confine the pursuit of pleasure within the limits
of nature, in order to the attainment of that happy state, in which
the body is free from every kind of pain, and the mind from all
perturbation. This state must not, however, be conceived to be perfect
in proportion as it is inactive and torpid, but in proportion as all
the functions of life are quietly and pleasantly performed. A happy life
neither resembles a rapid torrent, nor a standing pool, but is like a
gentle stream, that glides smoothly and silently along.
"This happy state can only be obtained by a prudent care of the body,
and a steady government of the mind. The diseases of the body are to be
prevented by temperance, or cured by medicine, or rendered tolerable
by patience. Against the diseases of the mind, philosophy provides
sufficient antidotes. The instruments which it employs for this purpose
are the virtues; the root of which, whence all the rest proceed, is
prudence. This virtue comprehends the whole art of living discreetly,
justly, and honorably, and is, in fact, the same thing with wisdom. It
instructs men to free their understandings from the clouds of prejudice;
to exercise temperance and fortitude in the government of themselves:
and to practice justice towards others. Although pleasure, or happiness,
which is the end of living, be superior to virtue, which is only the
means, it is every one's interest to practice all the virtues; for in a
happy life, pleasure can never be separated from virtue.
"A prudent man, in order to secure his tranquillity, will consult his
natural disposition in the choice of his plan of life. If, for example,
he be persuaded that he should be happier in a state of marriage than in
celibacy, he ought to marry; but if he be convinced that matrimony would
be an impediment to his happiness, he ought to remain single. In like
manner, such persons as are naturally active, enterprising, and
ambitious, or such as by the condition of their birth are placed in the
way of civil offices, should accommodate themselves to their nature and
situation, by engaging in public affairs; while such as are, from
natural temper, fond of leisure and retirement, or, from experience or
observation, are convinced that a life of public business would be
inconsistent with their happiness, are unquestionably at liberty, except
where particular circumstances call them to the service of their
country, to pass their lives in obscure repose.
"Temperance is that discreet regulation of the desires and passions, by
which we are enabled to enjoy pleasures without suffering any consequent
inconvenience. They who maintain such a constant self-command, as never
to be enticed by the prospect of present indulgence, to do that which
will be productive of evil, obtain the truest pleasure by declining
pleasure. Since, of desires some are natural and necessary; others
natural, but not necessary; and others neither natural nor necessary,
but the offspring of false judgment; it must be the office of temperance
to gratify the first class, as far as nature requires: to restrain the
second within the bounds of moderation; and, as to the third, resolutely
to oppose, and, if possible, entirely repress them.
"Sobriety, as opposed to inebriety and gluttony, is of admirable use in
teaching men that nature is satisfied with a little, and enabling them
to content themselves with simple and frugal fare. Such a manner of
living is conducive to the preservation of health: renders a man alert
and active in all the offices of life; affords him an exquisite relish
of the occasional varieties of a plentiful board, and prepares him to
meet every reverse of fortune without the fear of want.
"Continence is a branch of temperance, which prevents the diseases,
infamy, remorse, and punishment, to which those are exposed, who
indulge themselves in unlawful amours. Music and poetry, which are often
employed as incentives to licentious pleasure are to be cautiously and
sparingly used.
"Gentleness, as opposed to an irrascible temper, greatly contributes
to the tranquillity and happiness of life, by preserving the mind from
perturbation, and arming it against the assaults of calumny and malice.
A wise man, who puts himself under the government of reason, will be
able to receive an injury with calmnese, and to treat the person who
committed it with lenity; for he will rank injuries among the casual
events of life, and will prudently reflect that he can no more stop the
natural current of human passions, than he can curb the stormy winds.
Refractory servants in a family should be chastised, and disorderly
members of a state punished without wrath.
"Moderation, in the pursuit of honors or riches, is the only security
against disappointment and vexation. A wise man, therefore, will prefer
the simplicity of rustic life to the magnificence of courts. Future
events a wise man will consider as uncertain, and will, therefore,
neither suffer himself to be elated with confident expectation, nor to
be depressed by doubt and despair: for both are equally destructive of
tranquillity. It will contribute to the enjoyment of life, to consider
death as the perfect termination of a happy life, which it becomes us to
close like satisfied guests, neither regretting the past, nor anxious for
the future.
"Fortitude, the virtue which enables us to endure pain, and to banish
fear, is of great use in producing tranquillity. Philosophy instructs us
to pay homage to the gods, not through hope or fear, but from veneration
of their superior nature. It moreover enables us to conquer the fear
of death, by teaching us that it is no proper object of terror; since,
whilst we are, death is not, and when death arrives, we are not: so
that it neither concerns the living nor the dead. The only evils to
be apprehended are bodily pain, and distress of mind. Bodily pain it
becomes a wise man to endure with patience and firmness; because, if it
be slight, it may easily be borne; and if it be intense, it cannot
last long. Mental distress commonly arises not from nature, but from
opinion; a wise man will therefore arm himself against this kind of
suffering, by reflecting that the gifts of fortune, the loss of which
he may be inclined to deplore, were never his own, but depended upon
circumstances which he could not command. If, therefore, they happen
to leave him, he will endeavor, as soon as possible, to obliterate the
remembrance of them, by occupying his mind in pleasant contemplation,
and engaging in agreeable avocations.
"Justice respects man as living in society, and is the common bond
without which no society can subsist. This virtue, like the rest,
derives its value from its tendency to promote the happiness of
life. Not only is it never injurious to the man who practices it, but
nourishes-in his mind calm reflections and pleasant hopes; whereas it is
impossible that the mind in which injustice dwells, should not be full
of disquietude.--Since it is impossible that iniquitous actions should
promote the enjoyment of life, as much as remorse of conscience, legal
penalties, and public disgrace, must increase its troubles, every one
who follows the dictates of sound reason, will practice the virtues of
justice, equity, and fidelity. In society, the necessity of the mutual
exercise of justice, in order to the common enjoyment of the gifts of
nature, is the ground of those laws by which it is prescribed. It is
the interest of every individual in a state to conform to the laws of
justice; for by injuring no one, and rendering to every man his due, he
contributes his part towards the preservation of that society, upon the
perpetuity of which his own safety depends. Nor ought any one to think
that he is at liberty to violate the rights of his fellow citizens,
provided he can do it securely; for he who has committed an unjust
action can never be certain that it will not be discovered; and however
successfully he may conceal it from others, this will avail him little,
since he cannot conceal it from himself. In different communities,
different laws may be instituted, according to the circumstances of
the people who compose them. Whatever is thus prescribed is to be
considered as a rule of justice, so long as the society shall judge the
observance of it to be for the benefit of the whole. But whenever any
rule of conduct is found upon experience not to be conducive to the
public good, being no longer useful, it should no longer be prescribed.