_THE RELIGION OF THE MAORIES._
We meet in New Zealand with that curious system of “taboo” or “tapu” which
prevails throughout the greater part of the Polynesian Archipelago; a
system evidently conceived in the interest of the priesthood, and forming,
to a great extent, the basis of its power.
We meet also with a recognition of the two Principles of Good and Evil,
whose antagonism colours the creed of almost every race.
The Good Spirit of the Maories is called Atua; the Evil Spirit, Wairua.
All evil spirits, or all the objects representing them, are known as
Wairuas, and all the emblems or types of the Good Spirit as Atuas; but
there is one supreme Goodness, one great and overruling God, to which the
name of Atua is also applied.
According to Mr. Angas, the _Kakariki_, or green lizard, is specially
venerated as an Atua. On one occasion, during the early days of Christian
mission work in New Zealand, a missionary was examining a phial of green
lizards, and a Maori entering the room, the missionary showed it to him.
Whereupon the Maori immediately exhibited all the signs of extreme terror,
and exclaiming, “I shall die! I shall die!” proceeded to crawl away on his
hands and knees. Any novel object, any object beyond the intelligence of
the Maories, they convert into an Atua. Thus, a barometer is an Atua,
because it indicates changes of weather; a compass, because it points to
the north; a watch, because it mysteriously records the progress of time.
Not to these typical atuas, however, does the Maori render the homage of
prayer and praise; this he reserves for the supreme and unseen Atua, and
offers through the agency of his priests or tohungas. It is to be feared
that these prayers are often unintelligible to those on whose behalf they
are offered, but the Maories do not the less heartily believe in them;
and, indeed, the history of religion all over the world presents
innumerable illustrations of the fact that faith is not incompatible with
ignorance. It is the very essence and secret of Superstition. Whether they
understand the prayers of the tohungas or not, they delight in their
frequent repetition, and insist upon their use in almost every
circumstance of life. They are generally accompanied by offerings of
animal and vegetable food, which, of course, become the perquisites of the
tohungas.
The Maori priesthood is hereditary, father transmits his office to son,
after carefully educating him in its duties. Dr. Dieffenbach was present
when an aged tohunga was giving a lesson to a neophyte. The old priest, he
says, was sitting under a tree, with part of a man’s skull, filled with
water, by his side. At intervals he dipped a green branch into the water,
and sprinkled the hand of a boy, who reclined at his feet, and listened
attentively to his recital of a long string of words. Dr. Dieffenbach
doubts the common statement that the prayers are often without meaning,
while agreeing that they are unintelligible to the majority of the
worshippers. He thinks they are couched in a language now forgotten; or,
what is more probable, that among the Maories as among many of the nations
of antiquity, the religious mysteries are carefully confined to a certain
class of men, who conceal them from the _profanum vulgus_, or reveal only
such portions as they think proper. The claims of the exponents of an
artificial creed must necessarily depend in a great degree upon the amount
of mystery in which they involve it. With the common people familiarity
breeds contempt; they venerate that only which they do not understand; it
is darkness and not light which moves their wonder, and excites their awe.
Devoid as it is of elevated attributes, the religion of the Maori rises
above some of the Polynesian creeds in its acknowledgment of the
immortality of man, though on this point its teaching is very vague.
The Maori believes that, after death, his soul enters the Reinga, or abode
of departed spirits; and, with an unwonted touch of poetry, he looks upon
shooting and falling stars as souls passing swiftly to this undiscovered
bourne; the entrance to which he supposes to lie beneath a precipice at
Cape Maria Van Diemen. The spirits in falling are supposed to rest
momentarily, in order to break the descent, against an ancient tree, which
grows about half way down. The natives were wont to indicate a particular
branch as being the halting-place of the spirits; but a missionary having
cut it off, the tree has of late diminished in sanctity.
The entrance to the Reinga is not accomplished by all spirits in the same
manner. Those of the chiefs ascend in the first place to the upper
heavens, where each chief leaves his left eye, this left eye becoming a
new star. Hence the custom in Maori warfare for the victor to eat the left
eye of a chief slain in battle, in the conviction that by this process he
absorbed into his own system the skill, sagacity, and courage of the
departed.
It is humiliating, perhaps, to record these illustrations of human folly;
but they are valuable as proofs of the depths to which Humanity descends
when unaided by the elevating influence of revealed religion.
According to the Maories, the soul is not confined absolutely within the
limits of the Reinga, but may at its will revisit “the glimpses of the
moon,” and converse with its former friends and kinsmen,--of course, only
through the medium of the tohungas. The latter are sometimes favoured with
a view of the spiritual visitor, who takes the form of a sunbeam or a
shadow, and speaks with a low whistling voice, like the sound of a light
air passing through trees. This voice is occasionally heard by the
uninitiated, but the language it speaks can be comprehended by none but
the tohungas.
* * * * *
Respecting the wairuas, it is difficult to gather any satisfactory
information. The word “wairua” means either “a dream,” or “the soul,” and
Dr. Dieffenbach says it is chiefly used to signify the spirit of some
dead man or woman who is supposed to cherish a malignant feeling towards
the living. The wairuas frequent certain localities, such as
mountain-tops, which the Maori consequently takes good care not to visit.
* * * * *
It is a necessary result of the Maori belief in atuas and wairuas that
these should foster a belief in witchcraft. Individuals of bolder and
stronger minds than the majority will always claim a special relationship
to the unseen Powers, and avail themselves of this pretended relationship
to work upon the popular imagination. Convince the ignorant of the
existence of evil deities, and he will listen readily to any who tell him
that they can shield him from their malignant influence. And then it
naturally follows, “as the night the day,” that all misfortunes arising
from unseen or unintelligible causes, will be attributed to witchcraft. A
vast--an almost boundless field is thus opened up to the practice of human
unscrupulousness and the weakness of human incredulity.
Let a Maori chief lose some valued article, or suffer from an attack of
illness, and he immediately concludes that he has been bewitched. Who has
bewitched him? He fixes, as a matter of course, on the individual whom he
conceives to be his enemy, and orders him to be put to death. Or he
resorts to some potent witch, and bribes her to exercise her influence to
remove the maleficent spell under which he is labouring.
According to Dr. Dieffenbach, the particular haunt of the witches is--or
rather _was_, for Christianity has rapidly extended its blessed power over
the population of New Zealand--a place called Urewera, in the North
Island, between Hawkes Bay and Taupo. The natives of this wild and
deserted district are reported to be the greatest witches in the country;
are much feared and studiously avoided by the neighbouring tribes. When
they come down to the coast, the natives there are almost afraid to oppose
their most extravagant demands, lest they should incur their displeasure.
It is said that they use the saliva of the people they design to bewitch,
and, therefore, visitors carefully conceal it, so as to deprive them of
the opportunity of working mischief. Yet, like the witches and sorcerers
of mediæval England, they appear to be more sinned against than sinning,
and by no means to deserve the ill reputation which attaches to them.
It is a curious fact, says Dr. Dieffenbach, which has been noticed in
Tahiti, Hawaii, and the Polynesian islands generally, that the first
intercourse of their inhabitants with Europeans produces civil war and
social degradation, but that a change of ideas is rapidly effected, and
the most ancient and apparently inveterate prejudices soon become a
subject of ridicule, and are swept away. The grey priest, or tohunga,
skilled in all the mysteries of witchcraft and native medical treatment,
readily yields in his attendance on the sick to every European who
possesses, or affects to possess, a knowledge of the science of surgery or
medicine, and laughs at the former credulity of his patient. It is evident
that, while deceiving others, he never deceived himself, and was well
aware of the futility of his pretended remedies.
When a New Zealand chief or his wife fell sick, the most influential
tohunga, or some woman enjoying a special odour of sanctity, was instantly
called in, and waited night and day upon the patient, sometimes repeating
incantations over him, and sometimes sitting in front of the house, and
praying. The following is the incantation which the priests profess to be
a cure for headache. The officiant pulls out two stalks of the _Pteris
esculenta_, from which the fibres of the root must be removed, and beating
them together over the patient’s head, says this chant. It is entitled, “A
prayer for the sick man, when his head aches: to Atua this prayer is
offered, that the sick man may become well.”
On the occasion of a chiefs illness, all his kith and kin gather around
his house, and give way to the loudest lamentations, in which the invalid
is careful to join. When the weeping and wailing capacities of one village
have been exhausted he is carried to another, and the process is repeated.
But in New Zealand, as elsewhere, the common lot cannot be averted by
sorrowing humanity; the sick man dies; and then all that remains to the
survivors is to show their respect and regret by such funeral pomp as they
are able to devise. They assemble round the dead body, after it has been
equipped in its bravest attire, and indulge in the most violent
demonstrations of grief,--partly feigned, no doubt, but partly sincere.
This luxury of woe, however, is chiefly accorded to the women, who display
that extravagance of passion we are accustomed to regard as characteristic
of the Southern nations. They throw themselves upon the ground, wrap their
faces and bodies in their mantles, shriek and sob aloud, wave their arms
frantically in the air, and finally gash and scar their skin with long,
deep cuts, which they fill in with charcoal until they become indelible
records of the loss they have sustained. Funeral orations, full of the
most vehement eulogies, and interrupted by complaints and reproaches
against the dead man for his unkindness in going away from them, are
incessantly delivered. These ceremonies completed, they place the corpse
in a kind of coffin, along with various emblems of the rank of the
departed, and leave it to decay.
The process of decomposition is completed in about seven or eight months;
the ceremony of the _hahunga_ then takes place. The friends and relatives
assemble; the bones are removed from the coffin, and cleaned; a supply of
provisions is passed around; a new series of funeral panegyric is spoken;
and the _tiki_, _merai_, and other symbols of the departed chieftain’s
headship are handed over to his eldest son, who is thus invested with his
father’s power and privileges.
The place where the dead body lies while undergoing decomposition, the
waki-tapu, as it is called, is frequently distinguished by peculiar signs,
and the neighbourhood left uninhabited. Mr. Angas describes a visit which
he paid to the village of Huriwonua. Its chief had died about six weeks
before the visit, and Mr. Angas, on arriving there, found it entirely
deserted. “From the moment the chief was laid beneath the upright canoe,
on which were inscribed his name and rank, the whole village, he says,
became strictly tapu, or sacred, and not a native, on pain of death, was
permitted to trespass near the spot. The houses were all fastened up, and
on most of the doors were inscriptions denoting that the property of such
an one remained there. An utter silence pervaded the place. After
ascertaining,” says Mr. Angas, “that no natives were in the vicinity of
the forbidden spot, I landed, and trod the sacred ground; and my footsteps
were probably the first, since the desertion of the village, that had
echoed along its palisaded passages.
“On arriving at the tomb, I was struck with the contrast between the
monument of the savage and that of the civilised European. In the erection
of the latter, marble and stone and the most durable of metals are
employed, while rapidly-decaying wood, red ochre, and feathers form the
decorations of the Maori tomb. Huriwonua having been buried only six
weeks, the ornaments of the _waki-tapu_, or sacred place, as those
erections are called, were fresh and uninjured. The central upright canoe
was thickly painted with black and red, and at the top was written the
name of the chief; above which there hung in clusters bunches of _kaka_
feathers, forming a large mass at the summit of the canoe. A double fence
of high palings, also painted red, and ornamented with devices in
arabesque work, extended round the grave, and at every fastening of flax,
when the horizontal rails were attached to the upright fencing, were stuck
two feathers of the albatross, the snowy whiteness of which contrasted
beautifully with the sombre black and red of the remainder of the
monument.”
We have entered at some length into an explanation of the system of Tapu,
or Taboo, in our remarks on the religion of the Polynesians. It prevails,
as we have already stated, in New Zealand; and though its disadvantages
are many, and it is capable of great abuse, it serves nevertheless as a
substitute for law, and to a large extent protects both life and property.
For, supported and enforced as it is by the superstitious feelings of the
people, it erects an insuperable barrier between possession and
acquisition; it plays the part of a social police; it maintains the moral
standard; it shields the feeble from the oppression of the strong. A man
quits his dwelling for his day’s work: he places the tapu mark on his
door, and thenceforward his dwelling is inviolate. Or he selects a tree
which will fashion into a good canoe; he distinguishes it with the tapu
mark, and it becomes his own. Civilisation has designed no more effectual
protection.
But like all restrictive and prohibitive systems, it is easily pushed to
an inconvenient excess, and made an instrument of extortion or oppression
in the hands of the chief or priest. It is much in favour, says Mr.
Williams, among the chiefs, who adjust it so that it sits easily on
themselves, while they use it to gain influence over those who are nearly
their equals; by means of it they supply their most important wants, and
command at will all who are beneath them. If any object touch a chief’s
garment it becomes tapu; so, too, if a drop of his blood fall upon it;
and, more particularly, it consecrates his head. To mention or refer to a
chief’s head is an insult. Mr. Angas says that a friend of his, in
conversing with a Maori chief about his crops, inadvertently said: “Oh, I
have some apples in my garden as large as that little boy’s head!”
pointing at the same time to the chief’s son. This reference was felt and
resented as a deadly insult, and it was only with the greatest difficulty
that the incautious speaker obtained forgiveness. So very much _tapu_ is a
chiefs head that, should he touch it with his own fingers, he must touch
nothing else until he has applied the hand to his nostrils and smelt it,
and thus restored to the head the virtue that departed from it when first
touched. The hair is likewise sacred; it is cut by one of his wives, who
receives every particle in a cloth, and buries it in the ground. The
operation renders _her_ tapu, for a week, during which time she is not
allowed to make use of her hands.
The carved image of a chief’s head is not less sacred than the head
itself. Dr. Dieffenbach says: “In one of the houses of Te Puai, the head
chief of all the Waikato, I saw a bust, made by himself, with all the
serpentine lines of the aroko, or tattooing. I asked him to give it to me,
but it was only after much pressing that he parted with it. I had to go to
his house to fetch it myself, as none of his tribe could legally touch it,
and he licked it all over before he gave it to me; whether to take the
tapu off, or whether to make it more strictly sacred, I do not know. He
particularly engaged me not to put it into the provision-bag, nor to let
the natives see it at Rotu-rua, whither I was going, or he would certainly
die in consequence.”
* * * * *
Cannibalism is now extinct in New Zealand, having been crushed out by the
strong arm of British authority, and the ever-increasing influence of
British civilisation. But it was hard to die, and lingered down to a very
recent date. As practised by the Maories, it lost few of its repulsive
features. We must admit, however, that they did not indulge in it from a
craving after human flesh, nor in time of peace, but after battles, from a
belief that he who ate the flesh or blood, or even the left eye, of a
slain warrior assimilated in his system all his martial and manly
qualities. When the fight was at an end, the dead bodies were collected,
and with much rejoicing carried into the villages, where they were roasted
in the cook-houses, and duly eaten. But, first, the tohunga cut off a
portion of the flesh, and with certain incantations and mystic gestures,
suspended it upon a tree or pole, as an offering to the gods.
Mr. Angas describes one of the cooking-houses set apart for this horrid
orgy. It was erected by a Maori chief in the Waitahanui Pah; and when
visited by Mr. Angas, had happily ceased for some time to be used. The Pah
stands on a low swampy peninsula, which is washed on one side by the river
Waikato and on the other by the Taupo Lake. “The long façade of the Pah
presents an imposing appearance when viewed from the lake; a line of
fortifications, composed of upright poles and stakes, extending for at
least half a mile in a direction parallel to the water. On the top of many
of the posts are carved figures, much larger than life, of men in the act
of defiance, and in the most savage postures, having enormous protruding
tongues; and, like all the Maori carvings, these images, or waikapokos,
are coloured with kokowai, or red ochre.
“The entire pah is now (1863) in ruins, and has been made tapu by Te
Heuhen since its destruction. Here, then, all was forbidden ground; but I
eluded the suspicions of our natives, and rambled about all day amongst
the decaying memorials of the past, making drawings of the most striking
and peculiar objects within the pah. The cook-houses, where the father of
Te Heuhen had his original establishment, remained in a perfect state; the
only entrances to these buildings were a series of circular apertures, in
and out of which the slaves engaged in preparing the food were obliged to
crawl.
“Near to the cook-houses stood a carved patuka, which was the receptacle
of the sacred food of the chief; and nothing could exceed the richness of
the elaborate carving that adorned this storehouse.... Ruined
houses--many of them once beautifully ornamented and richly
carved--numerous _waki-tapu_, and other heathen remains with images and
carved posts, occur in various portions of this extensive pah; but in
other places the hand of Time has so effectually destroyed the buildings
as to leave them but an unintelligible mass of ruins. The situation of
this pah is admirably adapted for the security of the inmates: it commands
the lake on the one side, and the other fronts the extensive marshes of
Tukanu, where a strong palisade and a deep moat afford protection against
any sudden attack. Water is conveyed into the pah through a sluice or
canal for the supply of the besieged in times of war.
“There was an air of solitude and gloomy desolation about the whole pah,
that was heightened by the screams of the plover and the tern, as they
uttered their mournful cry through the deserted coasts. I rambled over the
scenes of many savage deeds.”
* * * * *
Cannibalism, or to use the scientific term, anthropophagy, has its origin
in different causes, and assumes different forms. Among some of the savage
peoples it is, as among the Maories, simply the expression of a sanguinary
instinct, of an atrocious sentiment of revenge. Among others it originates
in a chronic condition of misery and famine. Yet, again, it is sometimes
connected with the custom of human sacrifices, as among the Aztecs, and
those who practise it come to esteem it a sacred duty, pleasing to their
deities, or even to the _manes_ of their hapless victims.
Unknown among the simple Eskimos, and, indeed, among all the hyperborean
races, anthropophagy prevails with more or less intensity among peoples
which have attained a rudimentary civilization.
Let us take, for example, the Khonds of Orissa, who keep up a system of
human sacrifice, absolutely elaborate in its details. Its primary
condition is that the victim, or Meriah, should be _bought_. Even if taken
in war, he must be sold and purchased before the priest will accept him.
No distinction is made as to age or sex; but the efficiency of the victim
seems to depend on the sum he costs, and therefore the healthy are
preferred to the feeble, and adults to children. The number consumed in a
twelvemonth must be very considerable; as the Khonds do not believe in the
success of any undertaking, or in the promise of their fields, unless a
Meriah is first offered.
The victims are kindly treated during the period of their captivity, which
is sometimes of considerable duration. In truth, a Meriah or dedicated
maiden is sometimes allowed to marry a Khond, and to live until she has
become twice or thrice a mother. Her children as well as herself are
destined to the sacrificial altar; but must never be slain in the village
in which they are born. To overcome this difficulty, one village exchanges
its Meriah children with another.
There are various modes of accomplishing the sacrifice. In Goomten the
offering is made to the Earth-god, Tado Pumor, who is represented by the
emblem of a peacock. For a month previous to the day of doom, the people
maintain an almost continuous revel, feasting and dancing round the
Meriah, who seems to enter into the festivity with as much zest as they
do. On the last day but one he is bound to a stout pole, the top of which
carries the peacock emblem of the Tado Pumor; and around him wheel and
wheel the revellers, protesting in their wild rude songs that they do not
murder a victim, but sacrifice one who has been fairly purchased, and
that, therefore, his blood will not be upon their heads. The Meriah, being
stupefied with drink, makes no answer; and his silence is interpreted as a
willing assent to his immolation. Next day he is anointed with oil, and
carried round the village; after which he is brought back to the post, at
the bottom of which a small pit has been dug. A hog is killed, and the
blood poured into the pit, and mixed with the soil until a thick mud is
formed. Into this mud the face of the Meriah is pressed until he dies from
suffocation. It should be added that he is always unconscious from
intoxication when brought to the post.
The zani, or officiating priest, cuts off a fragment of the victim’s
flesh, and buries it near the pit; as an offering to the earth; after
which the spectators precipitate themselves upon the body, hack it to
pieces, and carry away the fragments to bury in their fields as a
propitiation to the rural deities.
In Sumatra exists a tribe, that of the Battas, which has not only a
religion and a ceremonial worship, but a literature, a kind of
constitution, and a penal code. This code condemns certain classes of
criminals to be eaten alive. After the sentence has been pronounced by the
proper tribunal, two or three days are suffered to elapse, to give the
people time to assemble. On the day appointed, the criminal is led to the
place of execution, and bound to a stake. The prosecutor advances, and
selects the choicest morsel; after which the bystanders in due order
choose such pieces as strike their fancy, and, terrible to relate! hack
and hew them from the living body. At length the chief releases the poor
wretch from his long agony by striking off his head. The flesh is eaten on
the spot, raw or cooked, according to each man’s taste.
* * * * *
We have seen that in some of the “sunny Eden-isles” of the Pacific, the
natives consider that they render a service to their aged and infirm
parents by putting them to death, and that, by eating them, they provide
the most honourable mode of sepulture. In others, as in New Zealand, the
belief prevails that a man, by devouring his enemy, gains possession of
all the virtues with which the latter may have been gifted. This
conviction is cherished by certain tribes on the river Amazon.
* * * * *
But it seems clear that in the majority of cases, anthropophagy originates
in a constant scarcity of food, and in the lack of cattle and game; though
in some it may be true that the cannibals are attracted by the delicious
savour of human flesh, which they prefer to every other. Maury asserts
that among the Cobens of the Uaupis, man is regarded as a species of game,
and that they declare war against the neighbouring tribes solely for the
purpose of procuring a supply of human flesh. When they obtain more than
they require for their present need, they dry it and smoke it, and store
it away for future use.
In Africa, Captain Richard Burton discovered, on the shores of Lake
Tangauyika, a cannibal people, named the Worabunbosi, who fed upon
carrion, vermin, larvæ, and insects, and even carried their brutality to
such an extent as to eat raw and putrid human flesh. Although you may see
on every countenance, says this enterprising traveller,[57] the expression
of chronic hunger, the poor wretched, timid, stunted, degraded, foul, seem
far more dangerous enemies to the dead than to the living.
* * * * *
We are speaking however of a barbarous custom which, from whatever cause
it may have arisen, is rapidly dying out. Owing to the constant advance of
the wave of civilisation, and to the vigorous efforts of our missionaries,
the practice of cannibalism, against which our better nature instinctively
rebels, is decaying even in the darkest and remotest regions of the globe.
In Polynesia, for instance, as in New Zealand, it is almost extinct. And
if we owed no other service to the heroic Soldiers of the Cross, this
result would of itself entitle them to our gratitude, the extermination of
Anthropophagy being the first step towards teaching man to reverence
humanity.