THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.
GOVERNMENT--CUSTOMS.
GENERAL NOTICE OF THE TRIBES -- THEIR COLOR AND FEATURES -- CATLIN’S
DESCRIPTION OF A CROW CHIEF -- LONG HAIR OF THE MEN -- SILVER HAIR OF
THE MANDAN TRIBE -- GOVERNMENT OF THE TRIBES -- THE HEREDITARY AND
ELECTED CHIEFS -- THEIR LIMITED POWERS -- THEIR DISTINCTIVE DRESS --
COSTUME THE RECORD OF DEEDS -- THE SCALP-LOCKS, PAINTED ROBES, AND
CLAW COLLAR -- PRESERVATION OF SKINS -- THE FEATHER PLUMES -- THE
HORNS, AND THEIR SIGNIFICATION -- INDIAN DANDIES -- ESTIMATION IN
WHICH THEY ARE HELD -- THE PORTRAIT PAINTER BAFFLED -- DRESS OF THE
WOMEN -- BISON SKIN ROBES -- WAMPUM, AND ITS SIGNIFICATION.
It has already been mentioned that, with the exception of the shore
districts, America is inhabited from the extreme south to extreme north
by the same race.
The various tribes into which that race is divided are naturally varied
according to the locality and climate of the spot which they inhabit.
Those, for example, who live in the perpetual snow and ice of either
the extreme north or south are naturally different in manners and
customs from those who inhabit the tropical centre of America. Then,
even in similar climate, there is very definite modification according
to locality. The inhabitants of the mountains, for example, differ
materially from the dwellers of the plain, while those tribes who live
in the forests differ from both.
Yet they are all members of one and the same great race, and whether
in the Esquimaux of the north, the Amazonian of the tropics, or
the Patagonian of the extreme south, all display the same race
characteristics.
The color of the skin is deep copper red, the cheek-bones are
prominent, the nose mostly aquiline, the forehead rather receding, and
the eyes apparently small, this latter characteristic being due to the
continual exposure to the sun, and to the smoky atmosphere of the huts.
The beard is very deficient, and even those few hairs that make their
appearance are carefully eradicated with tweezers. Sometimes an old man
who is careless about his personal appearance allows his beard to grow,
but in that case it is very scanty, thin, and never reaches any great
length.
The hair of the head contrasts strongly with that of the face,
being very long and fine, in some of the tribes attaining an almost
incredible length. The Crow tribe are remarkable for the extraordinary
development of their hair, which in some of the warriors actually
trails on the ground as they walk. They pride themselves so much on
this peculiarity, that in 1833 their chief received both his name of
Longhair and his office from his wonderful tresses. The hair of this
man was carefully measured by some white travellers, who had lived
in his lodge for months together, and was found to be ten feet seven
inches in length.
He did not allow it to hang at its full length except on occasions of
ceremony, but kept it carefully wound with a broad leather strap, and
made up into a bundle weighing several pounds. Usually this bundle
was carried under his arm or in the bosom of his robe, but on great
occasions the hair was let down to its full length, and carefully
smoothed with bear’s grease, and allowed to trail on the ground several
feet behind the owner as he proudly stalked along.
Several other tribes, such as the Blackfeet (so called from the dark
moccasins which they wear), have very long hair, of which they are
exceedingly proud, and those individuals whose locks do not reach the
standard of beauty are in the habit of splicing false hair to their own
tresses.
The Mandans, of whom we shall hear much in the course of this
narrative, the Sioux, and the Minatarees, are all distinguished by this
peculiarity, though none of them possess it so abundantly as the Crows.
When Mr. Catlin was staying among the Minatarees, a party of Crows
came to visit them, and excited the admiration of their hosts by their
magnificent hair. One of them possessed so picturesque an appearance
that the artist traveller transferred him at once to canvas, and the
engraver has reproduced the sketch for the reader on the 1284th page.
The following is Mr. Catlin’s account of this splendid specimen of the
North American Indian:--
“I think I have said that no part of the human race could present a
more picturesque and thrilling appearance on horseback than a party of
Crows rigged out in all their plumes and trappings--galloping about and
yelling in what they call a war parade, _i. e._ in a sort of tournament
or sham fight, passing rapidly through the evolutions of battle, and
vaunting forth the wonderful character of their military exploits.
This is an amusement of which they are excessively fond; and great
preparations are invariably made for these occasional shows.
“No tribe of Indians on the continent are better able to produce a
pleasing and thrilling effect in these scenes, not any more vain,
and consequently better prepared to draw pleasure and satisfaction
from them, than the Crows. They may be justly said to be the most
beautifully clad of all the Indians in these regions, and, bringing
from the base of the Rocky Mountains a fine and spirited breed of the
wild horses, have been able to create a great sensation among the
Minatarees, who have been paying them all attention and all honors for
some days past.
“From amongst these showy fellows who have been entertaining us, and
pleasing themselves with their extraordinary feats of horsemanship, I
have selected one of the most conspicuous, and transferred him and his
horse, with arms and trappings, as faithfully as I could to the canvas,
for the information of the world, who will learn vastly more from lines
and colors than they could from oral or written delineations.
“I have painted him as he sat for me, balanced on his leaping wild
horse, with his shield and quiver slung on his back, and his long
lance, decorated with the eagle’s quills, trained in his right hand.
His shirt and his leggings, and moccasins were of the mountain-goat
skins, beautifully dressed; and their seams everywhere fringed with a
profusion of scalp-locks taken from the heads of his enemies slain in
battle. His long hair, which reached almost to the ground while he was
standing on his feet, was now lifted in the air, and floating in black
waves over the hips of his leaping charger. On his head, and over his
shining black locks, he wore a magnificent crest, or headdress, made
of the quills of the war eagle and ermine skins, and on his horse’s
head was another of equal beauty, and precisely the same in pattern and
material.
“Added to these ornaments there were yet many others which contributed
to his picturesque appearance, and amongst them a beautiful netting of
various colors, that completely covered and almost obscured the horse’s
head and neck, and extended over its back and its hips, terminating in
a most extravagant and magnificent crupper, embossed and fringed with
rows of beautiful shells and porcupine quills of various colors.
“With all these picturesque ornaments and trappings upon and about
him, with a noble figure, and the bold stamp of a wild _gentleman_
on his face, added to the rage and spirit of his wild horse, in time
with whose leaps he issued his startling though smothered yelps, as
he gracefully leaned to and fro, leaving his plume and his plumage,
his long locks and his fringes, to float in the wind, he galloped
about; and felt exceeding pleasure in displaying the extraordinary
skill which a lifetime of practice and experiment had furnished him
in the beautiful art of riding and managing his horse, as well as in
displaying to advantage his weapons and ornaments of dress, by giving
them the grace of motion, as they were brandished in the air and
floating in the wind.”
Although the hair is generally black, it sometimes takes various
colors, the Mandan tribe being the most remarkable for this
peculiarity. Some of them, even though quite young, have the hair of a
bright silver gray, or even white. The men dislike this kind of hair
in their own sex, and when it occurs try to disguise it by a plentiful
use of red or black earth mixed with glue. The women, on the contrary,
are very proud of such hair, and take every opportunity of displaying
its beauties. Generally a woman wears the hair in two plaits, which are
allowed to fall down the back over on each side of the head; but when
they wish to appear to the best advantage, they rapidly unplait it,
pass their fingers through it in the manner of a comb, and spread it
as widely as possible over the shoulders. They always part it in the
middle and fill the line of parting with red paint.
The silver gray hair is remarkable for its coarseness, in which respect
it seems like a horse’s mane, while the dark colored hair is quite
soft. Among the Mandans almost every shade of hair is found between
white, brown, and black, but there is never the least tinge of red in
it.
The Mandan men have a curious habit of dividing their long hair into
flat tresses, two inches or so in width, and filling each tress at
intervals of an inch with vermilion and glue, so as to keep them
separate. These patches of glue and earth become very hard, and are
never removed. The hair thus treated is drawn tightly over the top of
the head, and allowed to fall down the back in parallel tresses, which
mostly reach to the knee, and in some cases to the ground.
* * * * *
The government of these tribes is of a similar character throughout.
Each tribe has at its head a chief, whose office is usually, but not
always, hereditary. Provided the eldest son of a chief be tolerably
well qualified for the post, he is suffered to assume the leadership
when his father dies, or becomes too old for work. Should the tribe be
dissatisfied with him, they elect a leader from among the sub-chiefs.
There is often a double system of government, two chiefs of equal power
being appointed, one of whom manages all matters of war, and the other
effects the administration of domestic policy.
It often happens that, although the head chief of the tribe is
nominally the ruler, and holds the first place, the real power lies in
the second or third chief, who pays to his superior every deference
which is due to his position, but is practically the leader and
commander of the tribe. This was the case among the Mandans when Mr.
Catlin visited them. The head chief, though a man of abilities and
courage, and therefore respected and feared by the people, was by
no means loved by them, on account of his haughty and overbearing
demeanor. The real leader of the tribe was the second chief, named
Mah-to-toh-pa, _i. e._ the Four Bears, a name which he got from an
exclamation of the enemy, who said that he came at them “like four
bears.” Some of the adventures of this extraordinary man will be
mentioned in the course of the following pages.
Great as is the power of the chief, it is much more limited than that
which is enjoyed by the chiefs of the African tribes. The American
chief has no control over life, or limb, or liberty. He takes the lead
in council, and if an offender be cited before the councillors, his
voice carries great weight with it, but nothing more. Should he be
the war chief, he cannot compel a single man to follow him to battle,
nor can he punish one of his followers for deserting him. Any of the
warriors, even the very youngest, may follow or desert his chief as
he pleases, the principal check against desertion being the contempt
with which a warrior is sure to be regarded if he leaves a chief who is
worthy of his office.
The chiefs have, as a rule, no advantage over the other members of the
tribe in point of wealth. A chief would soon lose the popularity on
which his influence depends if he were to amass wealth for himself. By
virtue of his office, he has a larger house or tent than the rest of
the tribe, and he generally possesses a few more wives. But he is often
actually poorer than most of the warriors, thinking himself bound in
honor to distribute among the tribe the spoils that he takes in war.
Many chiefs even dress worse than the warriors under their command, so
as not to excite envy, and only assume their splendid dress of office
on great occasions.
The question of dress is really an important one. Varying as it does
among the different tribes, there is a general character which runs
through the whole.
Every man without distinction wears a scanty dress much like the
“cheripa” which has already been described, but is very much smaller.
In battle or hunting, and in all cases in which exertion is required,
he contents himself with this single garment; but when he is enjoying
himself at home, he assumes his full costume. He wears a pair of
leggings reaching to the hips, and falling as low as the ankles,
sometimes spreading well over them. These leggings are mostly adorned
with little bells, bits of fur, or similar decorations; and if the
wearer be a successful warrior, he fringes them along the sides with
tufts of hair taken from the head of a slain enemy.
He has also a loose coat descending to the knees, and ornamented in a
similar manner with feathers or scalp-locks, and, when the owner has
performed any conspicuous feat of valor, he makes a rude painting of
the event. This answers the same purpose as the Victoria Cross among
ourselves. Although it is conferred by the man himself, it is equally
valuable. No man would dare to depict on his robe any deed of valor
which he had not performed, as he would be challenged by the other
warriors to prove his right to the decoration, and, if he failed to
do so, would be utterly scorned by them. The chief Mah-to-toh-pa
represented on his robe a series of events in which he had killed no
less than fourteen of the enemy with his own hand. Sometimes, when
the tribe uses skin huts or wigwams, the warriors also paint their
adventures upon the walls of their dwellings.
From a similar spirit the scars and wounds received in war are kept
covered with scarlet paint, and when a man has succeeded in killing
a grizzly bear he is entitled to wear its skin, claws, and teeth.
The usual mode of so doing is to string the claws into necklaces and
bracelets, and to make the skin into robes. Sometimes they dress the
skin without removing the claws, and wear it in such a fashion that the
claws are conspicuously seen. Owing to the extreme ferocity, strength,
and cunning of the bear, to kill one of these animals is considered
equivalent to killing a warrior, and the claw necklace is as honorable
an ornament as the much prized scalp. Some of the most valiant hunters
have killed several of these animals, and it is a point of honor with
them to appear on great occasions with all their spoils, so that they
have to exercise considerable ingenuity, and display some forty huge
claws about their persons in a sufficiently conspicuous manner.
All the dress of a North American Indian is made of skin, mostly that
of the deer, and in dressing it the natives are unrivalled, contriving
to make a leather which is as soft as silk, is nearly white, and which
may be wetted and dried any number of times without becoming harsh.
The skin is first washed in strong lye, made of wood-ashes and water,
so as to loosen the hair, which is then scraped off. The hide is next
stretched tightly upon the ground upon a frame, or by means of a number
of wooden pegs driven firmly into the ground. In this position it
remains for several days, the brains of the animal being spread thickly
upon it, and rubbed into it. The next process is to scrape it carefully
with a blunt knife made of the shoulder-blade of the bison, the native
tanner pressing heavily upon it, and scraping every portion of the hide.
The process by which it is made capable of resisting the effects of
water has yet to be undergone. A hole is made in the ground, and a
quantity of rotten wood is piled in it, so that when lighted it will
continue to smoulder for a long time, and produce smoke, but no flame.
Around the hole are stuck a number of sticks, which are then tied
together at the top, so as to make the framework of a sort of tent. The
wood is then set on fire, the hides are placed within the tent, and
over the sticks are wrapped other hides carefully fastened together,
so as to prevent the smoke from escaping. For several days the hides
are left in the smoke, and at the expiration of that time they have
assumed the peculiar quality which has been described. The whole of
the processes are conducted by women, manual labor being beneath the
dignity of a man and a warrior.
The headdress of a North American Indian deserves some attention.
Variable as are the modes of dressing the hair, no warrior ever wears
his hair short. By so doing he would be taking an unfair advantage of
an adversary. When a warrior is killed, or even totally disabled, the
successful adversary has a right to take his scalp, in which he would
be much impeded if the hair was short. Moreover, he would lose the
honorable trophy with which he is entitled to fringe his garments. So
for a warrior to wear his hair short would be a tacit acknowledgment
that he was afraid of losing his scalp, and all the men therefore
always leave at least one lock of hair attached to the crown of the
head.
The process of scalping will be presently described, when we treat of
war.
A great chief always wears, in addition to the ordinary headdress
of the warrior, a plume of eagle feathers, by which he is made as
conspicuous as possible, so that the enemy shall have no difficulty in
recognising him. The form of plume varies according to the different
tribes. That of the Crows may be seen in an illustration on page 1284.
That of the Mandans is represented on the following page. It is made
of a long strip of ermine, to which are fastened the quill feathers of
the war eagle, so as to form a crest beginning at the back of the head
and descending to the feet. These quills are so valuable that a perfect
tail of the war eagle is considered to be worth a first-rate horse.
In the present instance two horns may be seen projecting from the
headdress. This is a decoration very rarely seen, and only conferred by
the chief and council upon the most distinguished warriors. Even the
head chief will not be able to assume them unless by the general vote
of the council, and in the case of the Mandans the second chief wore
them, while the head chief was not privileged to do so.
Even a brave may wear them, though he be below the rank of chief.
They are made from the horns of the bison bull, divided longitudinally,
scraped nearly as thin as paper, and highly polished. They are loosely
attached at the base, so that they can be flung backward or forward by
the movement of the head, and give a wonderful animation to the action
of the wearer when he is speaking.
This elaborate headdress is very seldom worn, and is only assumed on
occasions of special state, such as public festivals, war parades, or
the visits of other chiefs. In battle the wearer always assumes the
headdress by way of challenge to the enemy. There is good reason for
not always wearing this dress. I have worn the dress formerly used by
Mah-to-toh-pa, and found it to be hot, heavy, and inconvenient.
As a contrast to the dress of a noted warrior, we may take that of a
mere dandy, a few of whom are sure to be found in every tribe. They
are always remarkable for elegance of person and effeminacy of nature,
having the greatest horror of exposing themselves to danger, and
avoiding equally the bear, the bison, and the armed enemy. Consequently
they may not deck themselves with the plumage of the war eagle, every
feather of which signifies a warrior slain by the warrior’s own hand.
Neither may they adorn their necks with the claws of the grizzly bear,
their robes with scalp-locks and paintings, nor their bodies with the
scarlet streaks that tell of honorable wounds received in battle.
[Illustration: THE MANDAN CHIEF MAH-TO-TOH-PA AND WIFE. (See pages
1276, 1286, 1287.)]
Such ornaments would at once be torn from them by the indignant
warriors of the tribe, and they are forced to content themselves with
mountain goat, doe, and ermine skins, swans’ down, porcupine quills,
and similar articles--all more beautiful than the sombre eagle quills,
bears’ claws, and scalp-locks that mark the brave.
They spend their whole lives in idleness, and do not even join the
athletic games of which the Americans are exceedingly fond, but devote
their whole energies to the adornment of their persons. They will
occupy four of five hours in making their toilets, being fastidious as
to the arrangement of every hair of their eyebrows, and trying by the
mirror the effect of various expressions of countenance.
Having spent the whole morning in this occupation, they sally out on
their horses, seated on white and soft saddles, beautifully ornamented
with porcupine quills and ermine, and lounge about the village for an
hour or two, displaying their handsome persons to the best advantage.
They then saunter, still on horseback, to the place where the young
warriors are practising athletic exercises, and watch them for an hour
or two, plying all the while their turkey-tail fans. Fatigued with the
effort, they lounge home again, turn their horses loose, take some
refreshment, smoke a pipe, and fan themselves to sleep.
These men are utterly despised by the warriors, as Mr. Catlin found. He
was anxious to procure a portrait of one of these men:--
“Whilst I have been painting, day by day, there have been two or three
of these fops continually strutting and taking their attitudes in front
of my door, decked out in all their finery, without receiving other
information than such as they could discover through the seams and
cracks of my cabin. The chiefs, I observed, passed them without notice,
and, of course, without inviting them in; and they seemed to figure
about my door from day to day in their best dresses and best attitudes,
as if in hopes that I would select them as models for my canvas. It was
natural that I should do so, for their costume and personal appearance
were entirely more beautiful than anything else to be seen in the
village.
“My plans were laid, and one day, when I had got through with all of
the head men who were willing to sit to be painted, and there were two
or three of the chiefs lounging in my room, I stepped to the door,
and tapped one of these fellows on the shoulder, who took the hint,
evidently well pleased and delighted with the signal and honorable
notice I had at length taken of him and his beautiful dress. Readers,
you cannot imagine what was the expression of gratitude which beamed
forth in this poor fellow’s face, and how high his heart beat with joy
and pride at the idea of my selecting him to be immortal alongside
of the chiefs and worthies whose portraits he saw ranged around the
room; and by which honor he undoubtedly considered himself well paid
for two or three weeks of regular painting, and greasing, and dressing,
and standing alternately on one leg and the other at the door of my
premises.
“Well, I placed him before me, and a canvas on my easel, and chalked
him out at full length. He was truly a beautiful subject for the brush,
and I was filled with enthusiasm.
“His dress from head to foot was made of the skins of the mountain
goat, dressed so neatly that they were almost as soft and white as
Canton crape. Around the bottom and the sides it was trimmed with
ermine, and porcupine quills of beautiful dyes garnished it in a
hundred parts. His hair, which was long and spread over his back and
shoulders, extending nearly to the ground, was all combed back, and
parted on his forehead like that of a woman. He was a tall and fine
figure, with ease and grace in his movements that were worthy of better
caste. In his left hand he held a beautiful pipe, in his right hand he
plied his fan, and on his wrist was attached his whip of elk-horn and
his fly-brush, made of the buffalo’s tail. There was nought about him
of the terrible, and nought to shock the finest and chastest intellect.”
Unfortunately, the portrait was never taken, for the chiefs were so
exceedingly offended that so contemptible a being should be put on
the same level as themselves by being painted, that they left the
hut in angry silence, and sent a message to the effect that, if Mr.
Catlin painted the portrait of so worthless a man, he must destroy all
the portraits of the chiefs and warriors. The message was also given
to the obnoxious individual, who at once yielded the point, walked
consequentially out of the hut, and took up his old station at the door
as if nothing had happened to disturb his equanimity.
On their feet the American Indians wear moccasins, _i. e._ shoes made
of soft leather, the sole of which is no thicker than the upper part.
To an European walking in moccasins is at first very fatiguing, on
account of the habit of turning out the toes. When, however, the white
man learns to walk as the natives do, with his toes rather turned in,
he soon finds that the moccasin is a better preservative of the feet
than the European shoe, with its thick and almost inflexible sole.
The dress of the women is made of the same materials as that of the
men, and differs chiefly in its greater length, reaching nearly to the
ankle. It is generally embroidered in various patterns with colored
porcupine quills, as are the leggings and moccasins. The women are fond
of tattooing themselves, and produce blue and red patterns by the use
of charcoal and vermilion rubbed into the punctures. Both sexes are
furnished with large robes made of bison skins, and the inner side of
these robes is often painted in curious patterns. One of these robes
in Mr. Catlin’s collection, had a most elaborate figure of the sun in
the centre, around which were figures of men and animals, showing the
prowess of the owner both in war and hunting.
Beads and such like ornaments, obtained from the white men, are much in
fashion; but, long before a glass or porcelain bead was introduced into
America, the natives had an ornament of their own manufacture. This is
the celebrated wampum, an article which is now almost extinct. It is
made of fresh water shells, which are found on the borders of the lakes
and streams. The thick part of the shell is cut into cylinders an inch
or so in length, and then bored longitudinally, like the “bugles” that
are worn by European ladies. Indeed, when the shell is, as is mostly
the case, a white one, the piece of wampum looks almost exactly like a
fragment of clay tobacco-pipe stem.
The wampum is either strung like beads and worn round the neck, or is
formed into war belts for the waist. It answers several purposes. In
the first place, it acts, like the cowries of Africa, as a substitute
for money, a certain number of hand breadths being the fixed value of a
horse, a gun, or a robe. It is also the emblem of peace when presented
by one chief to another, and, when war has ceased between two hostile
tribes, a wampum belt is presented as a token that the two tribes are
at peace.
There is no particular beauty about the wampum. If the reader will
break a tobacco-pipe stem into pieces an inch in length and string
them on a thread, he will produce a very good imitation of a wampum
necklace. Its only value lies in the labor represented by it; and,
as the white men have introduced tons of imitation wampum made of
porcelain, which looks rather better than the real article, and is
scarcely one-hundredth part of the value, the veritable wampum is so
completely extinct among many of the tribes that, if one of the natives
should wish to see a string of wampum, he must go to a museum for that
purpose.