FIJI--_Continued_.
MANUFACTURES.
MAT MAKING -- SAILS FOR THE CANOES -- FLOOR MATS AND BEDDING -- ROPE
AND STRING -- SINNET AND ITS VARIOUS USES -- THE NETTING NEEDLE AND
MESH -- FANS AND SUNSHADES -- THE ORATOR’S FLAPPER -- BASKET WORK --
FIJIAN POTTERY, AND NATIVE ART -- POTTERY RESTRICTED TO THE WOMEN
-- THEIR SIMPLE TOOLS AND IMPERFECT MATERIALS -- MODE OF “FIRING”
THE VESSELS -- GLAZING THE WATER VESSELS -- FIJIAN FISHERMEN --
VARIOUS KINDS OF NETS, AND MODES OF USING THEM -- THE TURTLE FISHERY
-- A BOLD DIVER -- CONTRACTORS FOR TURTLE -- MODES OF CATCHING THE
REPTILE -- A “HEAD” OF TURTLE AND ITS VALUE -- DANGERS OF THE FISHERY
-- FIJIAN CANOES, AND MODE OF MANAGING THEM -- BUILDING CANOES --
INGENIOUS METHOD OF JOINING THE PLANKS -- TONGA CARPENTERS -- THE
FIJIANS INFERIOR SAILORS TO THE TONGANS -- FIJIAN TRADERS.
Mats of various kinds are made by the women, and they display as
much ingenuity in mat-making as in the manufacture of masi. Mats are
employed for many purposes. The sails of the Fijian canoes are always
made of matting, which is woven in lengths and then sewed together
afterward, just as is the case with our own canvas sails. The width of
the strips varies from two to four feet, and their length from three
to a hundred yards. On an average, however, the usual length of these
strips is twenty feet, that being the ordinary length of a sail. Sail
mats are necessarily rather coarse, and are made from the leaf of the
cocoa-nut palm.
Then there are floor-mats, which are used as carpets in the houses.
These vary in size according to the dimensions of the house, but twenty
feet by sixteen is a very ordinary measurement. They are generally
adorned with a border or pattern round the edges, this border being
about six inches wide, and often decorated with feathers and scraps of
any colored material that can be procured. Mats of a similar character,
but much finer texture, are used as bedding; the best kind, which is
called _ono_, being of a very fine texture.
The native love of ornament is in no way better displayed than in their
rope and string making. The best rope is formed from several strands of
sinnet. This is a sort of plait made from the fibre of the cocoa-nut.
The fibre is carefully removed from the nut, baked, and combed out
like wool. Cordage is made by twisting sinnet together, and some of
the Fijian cords are nearly as thick as a cable, and possessed of
extraordinary elasticity and strength. The sinnet is used in a great
variety of offices, houses being built and the planks of the canoes
tied together with this most useful material.
When made, the sinnet is made into great rolls, some of them being of
gigantic dimensions. Mr. Williams saw one which was twelve feet long,
and nearly seven feet in diameter. These rolls are differently shaped,
and each shape is known by its own name, such as the double cone, the
plain hank, the oval ball, the honeycomb ball, and the variegated
roll. These rolls are given as presents, and offered to the chiefs as
tribute, together with other property. In the large illustration on
page 937, which represents a tax-paying scene, one or two of these
rolls are shown.
Sinnet is the favorite material for net making, but as it is costly,
nets are often constructed of the hibiscus bark. Another material is a
sort of creeper named _yaka_, which is steeped in water to dissolve the
green matter, then scraped to clean the fibres, and, lastly, twisted
into strings. It is remarkable that the netting needle and mesh are
exactly similar to those which are employed by ourselves, and the same
may be said of the mesh and needle of the Esquimaux.
The same ingenuity in plaiting which is expended in the making and
rolling of sinnet asserts itself in various other manufactures, such
as basket and fan making. In the latter art the Fijian excels, and, as
the fan is almost as important to the Fijian as to the Japanese, much
play of fancy is exhibited in fan making. Dissimilar as are these fans
in shape, there is always a sort of character about them which denotes
their origin to a practised eye.
I have a specimen in my collection, which is a very good type of the
Fijian fan. It is two feet in length, and rather more than a foot broad
in the widest part. The handle is made of cocoa-nut wood, and extends
nearly to the end of the fan, so as to form a support through its
entire length. It is fastened to the fan by double bands of the finest
and most beautifully plaited sinnet. The material of which the fan is
composed is cocoa-nut leaf, divided into doubled strips about the third
of an inch in width near the base of the fan, and gradually decreasing
toward its tip. A strong band of the same material runs round the edges
of the fan, and the two ends of this band are secured to the handle by
the same sinnet as has been just mentioned.
Such a fan as this is employed rather as a sunshade or parasol than a
fan, and is held over the head when the owner happens to be seated in
the sunshine. It is very light, and is really a much more efficient
implement than its appearance intimates.
The form of the fan is exceedingly variable. Sometimes they are
triangular, with the handle projecting from one of the angles, and
sometimes they are square, but with the handle passing diagonally
across them. Various modifications of the battledoor are in much favor,
and there is one form which almost exactly resembles that of the
Japanese handscreen.
It is rather remarkable that the aborigines of tropical America, such
as the Caribs, the Accowais, and the like, make fans of precisely
similar material and structure, except that the handle is not
separately made of wood, but is formed from the ends of the leaf-strips
of which the implement is made.
There is another curious article of manufacture which is properly
Fijian, but extends through several of the Polynesian group. It is
the orator’s flapper, which the native holds in his hand while he
speaks in council. An engraving showing its form is given on the 949th
page. The handle is carved into various patterns, and mostly, though
not invariably, is terminated by a rude representation of a couple
of human figures seated back to back. Sometimes the entire handle is
covered with sinnet, plaited in the most delicate patterns, as none
but a Fijian can plait. The tuft at the end is formed of cocoa-nut
fibre, which has first been soaked in water, next rolled round a small
twig, and then dried. When it is unwound from the stick, it has a
crisp, wrinkled appearance, very like that of the Fijian’s hair, and
is probably intended to imitate it. In the specimens of my collection,
some have sinnet-covered handles, and some carved handles, while some
have the tuft black, and others sandy red, just as is the case with the
hair of the natives.
In their basket making, the Fijians are equally lavish of their
artistic powers, weaving them in patterns of such elaborate intricacy
as to put the best European makers to shame, and then, as if not
satisfied with the amount of work bestowed upon them, covering all the
edges with sinnet, braided into really artistic patterns.
Indeed, the Fijians are born artists. Their work, although sometimes
grotesque, is always artistic, because always appropriate. They carry
this feeling of art into the material whose plasticity allows the
greatest freedom of manipulation; namely, earthenware. Some of the
vessels which are intended for cooking are quite plain, while others
which are made for other purposes are of elegant shape, and covered
with ornaments. Mr. Williams suggests, with much probability, that the
cooking pots are made in imitation of the cells of a species of black
bee which inhabits the Fiji group of islands.
Several specimens of Fijian pottery are in the British Museum. As
examples of intuitive art they are far superior in outline and ornament
to the generality of decorated earthenware in civilized countries. A
conventional imitation of nature is the principle which is employed by
the Fijian potters, who find their chief patterns in flowers, leaves,
and fruits, thus obtaining the most graceful curves, joined to great
certainty and precision of outline.
Rude as is the manipulation of the potter, and coarse as is the
material, the design of the vessel is sure to be bold and vigorous,
putting to shame the feeble prettiness with which we are too familiar
in this country. Going to nature for their models, the Fijian potters
display a wonderful power, fertility, and originality of design. In
any country, an artist who really studies nature is sure to produce
works that are fresh and original; and in a country like Fiji, which
is within the tropics, and in which the magnificent vegetation of the
tropics springs up in luxuriant profusion, it is likely that an artist,
however rude he may be, who studies in such a school, will produce
works of genuine merit.
The art of pottery is confined to the women, and is practically
restricted to the wives and daughters of fishermen. The material
employed by them is a red or blue clay mixed with sand, and their
implements are merely an annular cushion, a flat stone, one or two
wooden scrapers, a round stone to hold against the inside of the
vessel, and a sharp stick. They have no wheel: and yet, in spite
of such disadvantages, they contrive to produce vessels so true in
outline, that few persons, unless they are practically acquainted with
pottery, could believe that they were merely rounded by the eye.
The shapes of nearly all the vessels are very elegant, as is likely
to be the case from the models employed by the maker. They are often
wonderfully elaborate specimens of workmanship. Permanently covered
vessels, with a hole in the lid, are very common, and Mr. Williams saw
one jar as large as a hogshead, that was furnished with four openings
for the purpose of filling and emptying it rapidly. The most remarkable
examples are the compound vessels, several being united together at
the point where they touch, and further connected by arched handles.
In some cases, even the handles are hollow, and have an opening at the
top, so that the vessels can be filled or emptied through them. This
compound form has lately been copied by Europeans.
Considering the amount of labor and artistic skill which is given to
pottery, it is a pity that the natives are not better off for material
and firing. The material is very coarse, and the very imperfect mode of
baking fails to give to the vessels the hard and almost imperishable
quality which distinguishes properly prepared earthenware.
After the vessels have been shaped, and the decorative patterns traced
on them with a sharp stick, they are placed on the ground close
together, but not touching each other, and covered with a quantity of
dried leaves, grass, reeds, and similar materials. The pile is then
lighted, and when it has burned itself out the baking is supposed to
be finished. Those pots that are to be glazed are rubbed, while still
hot, with kawri, the same resin which has already been mentioned in the
account of New Zealand.
* * * * *
As may be expected in an island population, the Fijians are expert
fishermen, and employ various means of securing their prey. Nets,
weighted at one edge with shells and floated at the other with pieces
of light wood, are much used; and so are the hook, the creel, and the
weir. In some places a very remarkable net, or rather an imitation of a
net, called the _rau_, is used. To the long, flexible stems of creepers
are fastened a quantity of split cocoa-nut leaves, so as to make a
fringe of considerable depth and very great length, one of these raus
sometimes measuring nearly ten thousand feet from one end to the other.
When completed, the rau is taken out to sea and thrown into the water,
the ends being attached to canoes, which stretch it to a straight line.
They then make for a small bay, across which the rau can be drawn, and
then capture all the fish by smaller nets or spears. Sometimes they do
not trouble themselves to return to the shore, but bring the net round
in a circle, the fish being so afraid of the leafy fringe that they
avoid it, and keep themselves in the middle of the toils.
The principal use of the net is, however, in turtle fishing, a sport
which may be almost called an art. The turtle fishers supply themselves
with sinnet nets, some ten feet in width, and one or two hundred yards
in length. While the turtle are feeding upon the shore, the fishermen
carry out the net and shoot it to seaward, so that when the turtle
returns to the sea after feeding, it is sure to be intercepted by the
net, which has large meshes, in order to entangle the flippers of the
reptile.
When the fishermen feel that the turtle is fairly caught, they proceed
to get it on board, a task of very great difficulty and some danger,
inasmuch as the turtle is in its own element, and the men are obliged
to dive and conduct their operations under water. The most active
diver tries to seize the end of one of the fore-flippers, and pulls it
violently downward, knowing that the instinctive desire to rid itself
of the inconvenience will cause the reptile to rise. Of course the
diver can only retain his hold for a limited time, but as soon as he
rises to the surface for breath another takes his place. Should the
turtle be a vicious one, as is often the case, one of the divers grasps
it across the head, fixing his finger and thumb in the sockets of the
eyes, so as to prevent the creature from doing mischief.
Finding itself thus hampered, the turtle rises to the surface, when
it is seized by the other fishermen who are in the canoe, hauled on
board, and laid on its back, in which position it is utterly helpless.
The successful fishermen then blow loud blasts of triumph on their
conch-shell trumpets, and bring their prize to land.
In consequence of the number of men who are employed in this pursuit,
the men almost invariably fish in parties, who are engaged by some
individual. Sometimes they are the servants of a chief, and fish on his
account, all the captured turtles belonging to him, but the fishermen
always receive a present of some kind when they have been successful.
Should the fishers be free men, they hire themselves, their nets, and
canoe to some one who will pay the regular price, for which they are
bound to make ten expeditions. Should they be entirely unsuccessful,
they get nothing, but each time that they bring a turtle ashore they
receive a present from the hirer, who is obliged, after the completion
of the fishing, to give the men a handsome present. Sometimes several
turtles are taken in a single day; but the business is a very
precarious one, even the best fishermen returning day after day without
catching a single turtle.
Some of the modes of catching the turtle are very ingenious. When the
men have no net, they chase the reptile as they best can, keeping the
shadow of the sail just behind it so as to frighten it, and keep it
continually on the move. They will pursue it in this way for a long
time, until the creature is so exhausted that it can be captured by a
few divers without the aid of a net. When brought home, the turtles are
kept in pens and killed as wanted.
Although the flesh of the turtle is highly esteemed, and the green
fat is appreciated nearly as much as in England, the chief value of
the turtle lies in its shell, the thirteen plates of which are called
a “head,” and sold to the traders by weight. A “head” weighing three
pounds is a fair one, a head that weighs four pounds is exceptionally
good, while one that exceeds five pounds is hardly ever seen.
The dangers that beset the turtle fishery are many. Chief among them
is the shark, which is very plentiful on these coasts, and which is
equally fond of men and turtle, so that when it sees a turtle entangled
in the net it makes an attack, and is as likely to take off the limb
of one of the divers as to seize the reptile. Another fertile source
of danger lies in the structure of the coral reefs, which form the
principal shores of these islands. They are full of hollows and
crannies, and it sometimes happens that a diver becomes entangled in
them, and is not able to extricate himself in time to save his life.
As the canoes return home after turtle fishing, the women come down to
the shore and meet them. Should the expedition be successful, the men
return with songs and shouts of triumph, as if they were bringing home
the bodies of slain foes, on which occasion, as we shall presently see,
a scene of horrid rejoicing takes place. Should they be unsuccessful,
they return in sad silence.
In the former case, the women welcome the successful fishermen with
songs and dances, and sometimes become rather rough in the exuberance
of their delight. Mr. Williams once witnessed an amusing scene, in
which the women brought a quantity of bitter oranges down to the shore,
and when the fishermen were about to land, pelted them so mercilessly
that the men were in self-defence obliged to drive their aggressors off
the beach.
As the canoe has so often been mentioned in connection with fishing,
it will be now described. In principle it resembles the form which
prevails among the great Polynesian group, though in detail it differs
from many of the ordinary vessels. All the canoes possess modifications
of the outrigger, but the best example is the double canoe, where two
boats are placed side by side in such a manner that one of them acts as
the outrigger and the other as the canoe.
If the reader will refer to illustration No. 2, on the 924th page,
he will be able to understand the general appearance of this curious
vessel. The two canoes are covered over, so as to keep out the water,
and are connected by a platform which projects over the outer edges of
both boats. Hatchways are cut through the platform, so as to enable the
sailors to pass into the interior of the canoes. In the illustration
a man is seen emerging from the hatch of the outer canoe. Upon this
platform is erected a sort of deck-house for the principal person on
board, and on the top of the deck-house is a platform, on which stands
the captain of the vessel, so that he may give his orders from this
elevated position, like the captain of a steamboat on the paddle-box
or bridge. This position also enables him to trace the course of the
turtle, if they should be engaged in the profitable chase of that
reptile.
The mode of managing the vessel is extremely ingenious. The short mast
works on a pivot at the foot, and can be slacked over to either end of
the vessel. When the canoe is about to get under way, the long yard is
drawn up to the head of the mast, and the latter inclined, so that the
mast, the yard, and the deck form a triangle. The halyards are then
made fast, and act as stays. When the vessel is wanted to go about, the
mast is slacked off to the other end, so that the stern becomes the
bow, the tack and the sheet change places, and away goes the vessel on
the other course.
It will be seen that such a canoe sails equally well in either
direction, and, therefore, that it can be steered from either end. The
rudder is a very large oar, some twenty feet in length, of which the
blade occupies eight, and is sixteen inches wide. The leverage of such
an oar is tremendous, and, in a stiff gale, several men are required
to work it. In order to relieve them in some degree, rudder-bands are
used; but even with this assistance the men have great difficulty in
keeping the canoe to her course, and are nearly sure to receive some
very sharp blows in the side from the handle of the steering oar.
Sometimes a sudden gust of wind, or a large wave, will bring round the
rudder with such violence that the handle strikes a man in the side
and kills him. With all these drawbacks, canoe sailing is a favorite
occupation with the Fijians, who are as merry as possible while on
board, singing songs to encourage the steersman, watching the waves
and giving notice of them, and adding to the joyous tumult by beating
any drum that they may happen to have on board. Even when the wind
fails, and the canoe has to be propelled by poling if she should be in
shoal water, or by sculling if she should be too far out at sea for the
poles, the crew do their work in gangs, which are relieved at regular
intervals, those who are resting singing songs and encouraging those
who are at work.
Sculling one of these large canoes is rather heavy work, the great
paddles being worked from side to side in perfect unison, the men
moving their feet in accordance with the rhythm of their comrades’
song. As many as eight sculls are sometimes employed at the same time,
should the canoe be a large one and the crew tolerably numerous. The
sculling oars pass through holes in the deck, an equal number being out
fore and aft.
The mode of building these canoes is so ingenious that I will try to
describe it, though without a plentiful use of diagrams description is
very difficult. Canoes of moderate size are cut out of single logs; and
in these there is nothing particularly worthy of remark. But when the
native ship-builder wishes to construct one of the great war canoes, he
has to exercise all the skill of his craft.
Here it must be mentioned that the canoe makers form a sort of clan of
their own, and have their own chief, who is always a man eminent for
skill in his profession. The experienced Fijians know the workmanship
of these men as well as our artists know the touch and style of a
celebrated sculptor or painter, and contemplate both the man and his
workmanship with respectful admiration.
The first process in canoe building is to lay the keel, which is made
of several pieces of wood carefully “scarfed” together; and upon it
the planking is fixed, without requiring ribs, as in our boats. The
most ingenious part of boat building is the way that the planks are
fastened, or rather tied together, without a vestige of the sinnet
appearing on the outside. Along the inside edge of each plank runs a
bold flange, through which a number of holes are bored downward at
regular distances, so that when two planks are placed together, the
holes in the flanges exactly coincide, and a cord can be run through
them.
When a plank has been made, and all the flange holes bored, the edges
are smeared with a sort of white pitch, upon which is laid a strip of
fine masi. This of course covers the holes, which are reopened by means
of a small fire-stick. The planks thus prepared are called “vonos.”
When the vono is ready, it is lifted to its place, and very carefully
adjusted, so that all the holes exactly coincide. The best and
strongest sinnet is next passed eight or ten times through the hole,
drawn as tight as possible, and then tied. It will be seen, therefore,
that all the tying is done inside the vessel. In order to tighten the
sinnet still more, a number of little wedges are inserted under it in
different directions, and are driven home with the mallet.
By this process the planks are brought so tightly together that, when
the carpenter comes to smooth off the outside of the vessel with his
adze, he often has to look very closely before he can see the line of
junction. Caulking is therefore needless, the white pitch and masi
rendering the junction of the planks completely waterproof. The vonos
are by no means equal in size, some being twenty feet in length, while
others are barely thirty inches, but all are connected in exactly the
same manner.
The gunwales, and other parts above the water mark, do not require so
much care, and are fastened without flanges, a strip of wood or “bead”
being laid upon the junction, and the sinnet bands passing over and
over it and drawn tight with wedges, and the holes carefully caulked
with fibre and pitch. When the canoe is completed, it is beautifully
finished off, the whole of the outside being first carefully trimmed
with the adze, and then polished with pumice stone, so that it looks as
if it were made of one piece of wood.
Ornament is freely used in the best canoes, especially in the two
projecting ends, which are carved in patterns, and frequently inlaid
with white shells belonging to the genus Ovulum or egg shells. This
form of canoe has gradually superseded the more clumsy forms that were
once in use in Tonga and the neighboring islands. The Tongans often
made voyages to Fiji, being better and bolder sailors, though their
canoes were inferior; and, having been struck with the superiority of
Fijian boat-building, have by degrees built their own vessels after
Fijian models. Being also remarkably good carpenters, they have taken
to boat building even in Fiji itself, and have in a great measure
ousted the native builders, being able to work better and quicker, and
for less pay.
In spite of their excellent canoes, and their skill in managing their
vessels, the Fijians are not bold sailors, and, according to Mr.
Williams, “none have yet taken their canoes beyond the boundaries
of their own group.” He knew one old man named Toalevu (Great Fowl)
who had a fancy that he could make a profitable trading expedition
westward, and who accordingly loaded his canoe with pottery and
masi, and started off. After two or three days, however, he became
frightened, and made the best of his way back again, only to become a
standing warning to rash voyagers. Yet in waters which they know the
Fijians are excellent sailors, and the women appear to be as bold and
skilful as the men, assisting in steering, managing the sail, and even
in the laborious task of sculling or poling.
Owing to their excellence in canoe building, the Fijians carry on
a brisk trade with other islands, supplying them not only with
the canoes, but with the masts, sails, sinnet, and other nautical
appliances, receiving in exchange the whales’ teeth, shells, weapons,
and other valued commodities.