AGRICULTURE.—COTTON.
THIS most valuable plant has now become of more importance to
Pernambuco even than the sugar-cane, owing to the great demand for the
cotton of that province, and of those adjoining to it, in the British
markets. New establishments are forming yearly for the cultivation
of the cotton plant, notwithstanding the great inconveniences which
must often be experienced in accomplishing this object. The districts
which are chosen for the purpose, and universally allowed to be the
best adapted to its growth, are far removed from the sea coast, arid
and oftentimes very scantily supplied with fresh water. Absolute
distress is felt from a want of water in some of these situations, at
the time that other parts of the country are enjoying perfect ease in
this respect. The opinion is very general that the cotton plant will
not thrive in the neighbourhood of the coast[167], and that frequent
changes of weather are injurrious to it. The dry and wet seasons are
doubtless more regularly marked at a distance from the sea, and if any
variation is felt in such situations, it is from a want of rain, and
not from a superabundance of it. The cotton plant requires that a great
portion of the year should be dry; for if much rain falls when the pod
is open, the wool is lost; it becomes yellow, decays, and is rendered
completely unfit for use. The soil which is preferred for its culture
is a deep red earth, with veins of yellow occasionally running through
it; this becomes extremely hard, after a long interval without rain.
The cotton plantations are yearly receding farther into the interior,
where-ever the Sertam plains do not prevent this recession. The
plantations of this description which were formerly established nearer
to the coast, are now employed in the rearing of other plants. The
constant supply of new lands which the cotton plant requires, for it
is judged necessary to allow the land to rest for several years before
it undergoes cultivation a second time, may in some degree account for
this. Perhaps too, the rapid increase of the population upon the coast
may have had some effect in forcing back those who plant an article of
trade, to give place to others who cultivate the necessary food for the
inhabitants of the country. The cotton is often sold by the planter in
_caroço_, that is, before it has been separated from the seed, to other
persons whose livelihood is obtained in preparing it for the export
market; but as the labour of conveyance is, of course, considerably
increased whilst it is in this state, the dealers establish themselves
near to the plantations; they recede as the planters recede. Some years
ago a number of the machines for separating the cotton from the seed
were to be seen within two leagues of Recife; a few years after they
were removed to Goiana, and now the principal resorts of the dealers
are Limoeiro and Bom Jardim; places, as will have been seen, which are
several leagues distant from the coast.
The lands are cleared for planting cotton in the usual manner,—by
cutting down the trees and burning them; and the holes for the seeds
are dug in quadrangular form at the distance of six feet from each
other. Three seeds are usually put into each hole; in the British
colonies, it is found necessary to make use of eight or ten seeds.
The time for planting is in January, after the _primeiras aguas_ or
first waters; or at any rate as soon in the year as any rain has
fallen. Maize is usually planted among the cotton shrubs. Three crops
and sometimes four are obtained from the same plants; but the second
crop is that which generally produces the finest wool. The shrub
has a pleasing appearance whilst it is in full leaf, and is covered
with its most beautiful yellow blossoms; but when the pods begin to
open and the leaves to wither, its thin and straggling branches are
left uncovered, and the plant much resembles a large black currant
bush, that has been left unpruned for a length of time. The cotton is
gathered in nine or ten months. The machine for detaching it from the
seed is simple, and might be rendered still more so. Two small rollers
are placed horizontally in a frame, and nearly touching each other.
At each end of these rollers there are grooves through which a cord
runs, which is connected at the distance of a few yards with a large
wheel, to which handles are fixed, and this is turned by two persons.
The rollers are so formed as to turn in opposite directions, so that as
the cotton is thrust against them with the hand, it is carried to the
other side, but the seeds remain, for the opening between the rollers
is not sufficiently broad to allow them to pass[168]. The machine which
is used in the British colonies seems to be of the same construction in
the main, but it is still more simple, for the rollers are made to turn
by means of the feet of the person who holds the cotton to them[169].
After it has undergone the above process, some particles of seeds which
have been accidentally broken still remain, and of other substances
which must be removed. For this purpose a heap of cotton is made, and
is beaten with large sticks; this is a most injurious operation, by
which the fibre is broken; but as the value of the commodity to the
manufacturer chiefly depends upon the length of the fibre, no trouble
ought to be grudged to avoid this practice.
The seeds adhere “firmly to each other in the pod.” Mr. Edwards speaks
of this species in the British colonies, and gives to it the name of
kidney cotton, saying that he believes it to be “the true cotton of
Brazil[170].” The yellow or nankeen cotton is likewise to be found
at Pernambuco; but it does not form an article of cultivation, being
regarded rather as a curiosity. I have seen some species of wild
cotton, of which however as I have neither note nor specimen, I cannot
pretend to give a description.
The profits which are obtained in favourable years by the planters of
cotton, are enormous; but frequently disappointments are experienced.
Oftentimes a whole crop is totally lost, and instead of large returns,
the year proves entirely unproductive; or after a fair promise, the
grub, the caterpillar, the rain or the excessive drought destroys
all hope until the following season. The other great agricultural
object,—the sugar-cane, is not subject to these numerous and ruinous
reverses; for even if the year is unfavourable, at least enough to pay
the expences may be expected. I have heard it urged that the market is
very little affected by the supposed failure of a crop; but it must
be remembered that in a country of such vast extent, one quarter may
escape all mishap, whilst another is unfortunate.[171]
The quality of the cotton which is produced in South America, either to
the north or south of Pernambuco, is inferior to that of the province
of which I am treating. The cotton of Seara is not so good, and the
cotton of Maranham is still coarser. Cotton is the staple commodity of
both these ports. Proceeding from Pernambuco to the south, the cotton
of Bahia is not so fine, and the small quantity which is produced at
Rio de Janeiro is not so good as that of Bahia.
In treating of sugar and cotton, I have stated the chief points in
which the planters in the Columbian islands and those of Brazil
principally differ. Those of my readers to whom this subject is
particularly interesting may be referred to the well known work which I
have consulted.[172]
THE MANDIOC PLANTS.
THE mandioc requires good land, and the same spot will not produce two
crops successively; it must be allowed to rest for one or two years
or more. The operation of planting it is simple, and differs in no
respect from that which was practised formerly by the Indians[173].
The flour which is made from this root is called _farinha de pao_, or
stick flour[174]. There are several species of the mandioc plant,
of which some are adapted to high lands, and others to low and moist
situations; but when the plant is cultivated upon the latter, hillocks
must be raised, else the root would decay. Cattle are fed upon the root
and stalk: these are first prepared by being cut into small pieces and
exposed to the sun for several hours; if this was not done, the food
would be injurious to them. I have however seen some of the draught
oxen that have become so habituated to it as to eat the root quite
fresh, without receiving any apparent injury;—in the manner that the
human body becomes callous to the most violent medicines by long custom.
I had in my possession, whilst I resided at Jaguaribe, one of these
animals, who generally once in the course of every week at least
contrived to get out of the inclosure, and pass part of the night in
some neighbouring mandioc ground. He was so dexterous in tearing up the
stalk with the root attached to it, that the marks of his footsteps
alone made us quite confident of the nature of the thief. Whilst I
was at Itamaraca, I lost a sheep, which had drank of the juice of the
mandioc. The negroes and other persons were making _farinha_, and a
trough stood under the press for the purpose of receiving the juice.
The sheep were attempting to come under the shed for the purpose of
reaching some of the roots, of which they are extremely fond; one
of them approached the trough, which was filled with the juice, and
although it was almost immediately perceived and driven away, still the
effect of the small quantity which had been taken began to shew itself
in a very few minutes;—the animal tottered and fell, rising again,
and again falling. Oil was poured down its throat in considerable
quantities, but to no purpose. The body swelled to an enormous size,
and the animal was dead in about ten minutes after it had drank of the
juice.[175]
The insect which is mentioned by Piso (quoted by Mr. Southey) under
the name of _tapuru_, and is said to be generated by the juice of the
mandioc, after it has become putrid, I have often seen. It is still
known under the same name, which however is not peculiar to this worm,
but it is likewise applied to maggots of every kind. The juice is not
kept for any purpose, but it remains in the trough occasionally for
some days, owing to the carelessness of the person under whose care
these things are placed[176]. Of the deadly nature of this worm I never
heard any mention. The species of mandioc which is called _manipeba_ is
prohibited, owing to the greater activity of its poisonous juice, and
it is now almost extirpated; it had the advantage of greater durability
under ground. Those kinds which are usually planted decay if the stalk
is broken off, but the stalks of the _manipeba_ may be cut away, and
the root will still continue sound until, on the following year a new
stalk springs up. I have heard it said, that in the dry soils of the
Mata a few of the other varieties of this plant will allow of the
same treatment. Although the mandioc plant requires a dry situation,
still when the rains fail in January the crops fall short, for it is
in this month, immediately after the first waters, that the principal
plantations of it are made. The Brazilians have a peculiar name for
each part of this plant; the root is called _mandioca_, the stalk
_maniva_, the leaves _manisoba_, and the juice _manipueira_. There is
one species of the plant, of which the juice is harmless; it bears the
name of _macaxeira_. Its root never grows to a great size, and it is
therefore rather planted as an article of luxury than as regular food.
From this species less juice is extracted than from the roots of equal
dimensions of any of the other kinds of mandioc[177]. The rind of those
species of mandioc which are in general use is of a dark brown colour,
but there is one kind of which the rind is white.
The most expensive part of the process of making the flour of the
mandioc, consists in disengaging the rind from the root; this is done
with difficulty, by means of a piece of a broken blunt knife, a sharp
pebble, or a small shell, with one of which each person is supplied; in
this work a considerable number of persons must be occupied, to furnish
employment to the wheel which grinds the root. This wheel is placed
in a frame, and a handle is fixed to it on each side, by which it may
be turned by two men, one of them working at each of the handles. A
trough stands under the wheel, and the wheel is cased in copper, which
is made rough by means of holes punched in it, the sides of the holes
are not filed smooth. The mandioc is thrust against the wheel whilst it
is turned with great velocity, and being by this means ground it falls
into the trough underneath. From hence the ground pulp is put into a
press, that the juice may be extracted; and after it has undergone
sufficient pressure this pulp or paste (_maça_) is removed on to a hot
hearth, upon which a person is employed to keep it in continual motion,
that it may not be burnt; when quite crisp it is taken off the hearth,
and on being suffered to cool is in a state to be made use of.[178]
There is another mode of preparing the mandioc for food; it is put
into water in a pannier or closed basket, and is allowed to remain
there for some days, until the root becomes soft, from which the
mandioc, when in this state, is called _mandioca molle_. It is prepared
in this manner for the purpose of making cakes, &c. but not generally,
for food. I tried to introduce the _farinha_, made from steeped
mandioc, among the slaves whilst I resided at Jaguaribe; the flour
which was made from it, was much finer than that which is obtained in
the usual manner, but the negroes did not like it so well, and I did
not think it wholesome for them on consideration, and therefore the old
way was continued. The mandioc must have made a certain advance towards
putrefaction before it becomes sufficiently soft to be bruised, and
this cannot fail I should suppose to be injurious. The smell from the
_mandioca molle_ is extremely offensive, and is one of the annoyances
in walking the streets of Recife, in which it is sold. The smell is
however entirely removed after the _farinha_ has been for some minutes
upon the oven.[179]
THE COCO-TREE.
THE sandy soils of the coast in which this plant seems to delight
would, if they were not cultivated with it, remain almost useless; but
from the produce which the coco-tree yields, they are rendered very
valuable. The lands which are occupied by this plant alone yield a
settled income to the owners of them without much labour; whilst the
cultivation of any other requires considerable toil; however the long
period, of from five to seven years, which the tree requires before
it bears fruit, cannot fail to be considered as a drawback upon the
profits which it ultimately affords, and upon the great age to which
it arrives. However perhaps there are few trees of equal size that
yield fruit in so short a period. It is a most valuable production, of
which every part is appropriated to some useful purpose. The Brazilians
say, that it affords to them both food and shelter; of the trunk and
of the leaves their huts are built; of its fibrous roots baskets are
made, and cordage of the outward husk. Its fruit renders to them meat
and drink, and an excellent oil is likewise to be obtained by skimming
the juice which may be pressed from the pulp. The coco is in general
use in cookery among all ranks of people, and it forms one of the
chief articles of internal trade[180]. When a plantation of this tree
is about to be established, the ripe cocos from which the plants are
to be reared, are placed in the ground, about twelve inches below
the surface, in long and almost united rows, for the convenience of
being watered. They are frequently placed in this manner, under the
eaves of houses, which saves much trouble, for by the accumulation
of water from the house top, each shower of rain produces sufficient
moisture, and the owner is relieved from any farther trouble in this
respect. At the expiration of five months the shoots begin to make
their appearance above ground, and at the end of twelve months from
the time that the cocos were first put into the earth, the young
plants may be removed[181]. They are then placed at the distance of
eight or ten yards from each other, upon the land that has been cleared
for the purpose of receiving them. As soon as they have once taken
root, and by far the major part of them fail not so to do, very little
care is necessary. They must however be preserved tolerably free from
brushwood, at least during the first years; and indeed at all times the
fruitfulness of the tree will be increased, if it is allowed its due
space.[182]
THE CARRAPATO OR CASTOR TREE.
THIS plant may be, as well as the coco, reared in sandy soils, but it
will flourish with more luxuriance, upon those that are of a richer
kind. The oil, which is extracted from the seed, is in general use
for lamps and other purposes, but neither is it eaten, nor known as
a medicine; but it is administered as an outward application. It is
given to animals that have drank the juice of the mandioc, and is
sometimes successful in forcing the poison back from the stomach. The
plant is much cultivated, but it is frequently to be seen growing
spontaneously.[183]
BRAZIL WOOD.
THE wood from which is extracted the beautiful red dye, which is so
much esteemed in Europe, is, I believe, generally supposed to be
peculiar[184] to the country to which it has given a name[185]. It
is often called in Pernambuco (from whence, I imagine, that it is
exclusively exported) _pao da Rainha_ or Queen’s wood, owing to the
circumstance of the trade in it being a government monopoly; and
it is exported to Europe on account of the Crown. No care has been
taken to prevent a scarcity of the wood, and indeed its ultimate
extirpation; it is cut down unmercifully wherever it is met with by
the officers who are appointed for this purpose, without any regard
being paid to the size of the tree. No plantations have been formed of
it, and consequently it is now rarely to be seen, within many leagues
of the coast. The labour which is required in obtaining it is now
considerable, for the weight of the wood renders its conveyance very
difficult upon the backs of horses, and this is the only manner in
which it can be carried. The pay which is given by the government to
the carriers is below the usual rate for work equally laborious, and
therefore a wide source of oppression is afforded. The carrier receives
with his load a slip of paper, declaring the weight of the wood which
he is conveying; this is to be presented by him at the _Intendencia
da Marinha_, or dock-yard at Recife, and he must wait until the wood
is again weighed and the paper countersigned, before he can return
home. These men are delayed sometimes for several days, before they
are permitted to return; and they find that it is their interest to
make many presents to the inferior officers, that they may be quickly
dispatched. Here the old system of indifference to what is just, still
most glaringly continues. This account of the treatment of the men who
convey the wood, I received from several who had been employed in the
business.
If the trade in the wood was to be laid open, it would only tend to
its scarcity still more speedily than under the existing system; but
as soon as it became scarce it would be rendered an object worthy of
cultivation: however, as long as it is to be obtained in its wild
state, and enormous profits can be made, the government will probably
continue to supply the market on their own account. Every sugar
plantation might cultivate a great number of these trees, without
any additional land being required to be cleared for the purpose of
planting them. The fences of the _Cercados_, or fields, might be
strengthened by the addition of the Brazil inserted at intervals;
instead of other trees being used in this way.
I never saw the plant, but I have heard it described in the following
manner. It is not a lofty tree; and at a short distance from the
ground, innumerable branches spring forth and extend in every
direction in a straggling, irregular, and unpleasing manner. Practice
is requisite to obtain a knowledge of the tree, for the valuable
portion of it is the heart, and the outward coat of wood has not
any peculiarity. The leaves are small, and never cover the branches
luxuriantly.[186]
THE TATAJUBA, or FUSTIC.—This is a species of wood producing a yellow
dye, which is well known in England. It is of spontaneous growth.
A demand has lately been made for it, and destruction has followed
wherever the plant can be met with.
THE FEIJAM or KIDNEY BEAN is planted in April and May with the mandioc.
It is much used in the neighbourhood of the coast by the free part of
the population, but is not produced in sufficient quantities to form a
common food for the negroes. When it is cooked with the juice of the
pulp of the coco-nut it makes a most excellent dish. In the cotton
districts it forms one of the chief articles of the negroes’ food.
MILHO, or MAIZE, is planted with mandioc, and sometimes in the cane
fields; but as the best crop is obtained by planting it with the
mandioc in January, few persons sow it at any other time. In the inland
districts it is sown with the cotton, and in such situations yields
more plentifully than in the lands which border upon the coast. Boiled
maize is a common breakfast for the slaves in the cotton districts; the
dish resembles thick peas’ soup, and is far from being unpalatable if
sugar or treacle is added. The people call it _angu de milho_.
THE BANANA PLANT is too well known to take up much space here. There
are in Pernambuco three species of it; the _banana curta_ or short
banana; this is a small fruit, not exceeding two inches in length;—the
_banana comprida_ or long banana, which is the plantain;—and lately
the third species has been introduced, and has obtained the strange
name of the _banana de quatro vintems_ or four _vintems_ banana,
because the clusters of the fruit are so large that each cluster may be
sold for four _vintems_,—rather more than 5_d._ I do not think that as
much utility is derived from the plant as it is capable of affording;
it is not so generally used as a food by the negroes, as it ought to
be. The _banana curta_, with dry _farinha_, is a common breakfast among
people of colour.[187]
THE BATATAS.—Of these there are several species; but that which I
had the most opportunities of seeing was the _batata roxa_ or purple
potatoe, which is so called from the purple tinge of the pulp after it
has been boiled; this is the best of the tribe. The taste is pleasant,
and would be still more so if it was not rather sweet. The _batata_
is a creeping plant, and is re-produced from the roots, or from the
sprouts of the branches. If the branches of roots that have been pulled
up remain upon the ground, and a shower of rain falls soon after they
have been broken off, their vegetation will recommence. The _batatas_
are at present planted more as a luxury for the planter’s house than
as food for the negroes; but I do not think that there is any plant
which is more capable, or even so capable, of affording assistance
to the mandioc as this; and perhaps it might supply its place. The
mandioc should be supplanted, if any thing else could be discovered to
answer the purpose of a staple article of food; for it is uncertain in
yielding its crops, and requires the best land. To neither of these
disadvantages would, I rather think, the _batata_ be found subject. The
European potatoe has been planted, in several instances, at Pernambuco;
the first crop is as well tasted as the roots from which it was
produced, but the potatoes were small; a second crop, being obtained
from the same family of roots, has been sweetish, and on advancing, the
potatoes become still more similar to the _batata_ of the country[188].
Yet the plants appear to be totally different from each other, for the
Brazil _batata_ or potatoe is produced from a creeper.
TOBACCO is planted upon almost all the sugar-plantations, and by
a majority of persons of the lower classes, for their own use. A
considerable quantity is imported from the southern provinces of Brazil
into Pernambuco. The ants do not molest the plant, but in the parts of
the country which are much infested by these insects, the peasants mix
the seed of the tobacco with wood ashes before they strew with it the
ground which they are about to sow. The ants have an antipathy to the
ashes, and thus the seed is preserved.
RICE is very little cultivated in Pernambuco; but at Maranham it
forms the second object of trade. The use of it in Pernambuco is
inconsiderable, from the idea that it is unwholesome for the negroes;
and indeed I never met with any of the Africans who preferred it to
other kinds of food.
COFFEE and CACAO are yet planted as experiments, for their introduction
into Pernambuco is recent.[189]
IPECACUANHA.—Although this is at present only to be found in a wild
state, I have inserted it here, for it must shortly take its place
among cultivated plants. The small quantity exported is procured by the
Indians and other persons of the same rank and habits of life, in the
thickest woods. It thrives most in the shade. The plant is destroyed
also by many of the larger kinds of game, to which it serves as food.
There are two species of it which are distinguished by the names of
white and black Ipecacuanha; the latter is that which is used for
medicinal purposes in Europe[190]. The white is used by the Brazilians
in colds and coughs, and is taken to purify the blood after a fever.
GINGER is indigenous, but is now rarely to be found in a wild
state[191]. The white ginger is that which is in general use.
MALAGUETA PEPPER is a small shrub which is to be seen under the eaves
of almost every cottage. The pods are of a bright scarlet colour, of
about one inch in length, and one quarter in breadth. It is a hardy
plant; for although it droops under excessive drought, it is seldom
destroyed by it. Often are to be seen at the same time, and upon the
same bush, the blossoms, and the green and the ripe scarlet pods.
Wherever this shrub springs up care is taken of it; for the people of
all ranks are from habit almost unable to eat their food without the
_malagueta_. The pods are bruised when about to be used, and either
form an ingredient in every dish, or they are served up in all the
sauces[192]. The _pimenta de cheiro_, or scented pepper, is likewise
common, but it requires more care in rearing, and is a smaller shrub
than the _malagueta_. The pods are of a bright red in general, but
sometimes they are, naturally, of a pale yellow colour; they are round,
and about the size of a crab apple.
TEA is stated to be indigenous in Brazil[193]. A priest of
considerable reputation as a botanist, told me that he had discovered
this plant in the neighbourhood of Olinda; but afterwards again he
informed me that he was afraid he had been too sanguine.[194]
HORTICULTURE has of late years been rapidly improving, and the markets
of Recife are now well supplied with vegetables and roots. The
gardeners are chiefly Portugueze, from the provinces of the mother
country, or from the Azores. Peas[195], cabbages, and several other
kinds of European vegetables and roots are to be purchased, besides
others which are peculiar to the country, such as _mandubims_ and yams.
The European onion produces a small root of an oblong form[196], which
is known in Pernambuco under the name of _cebolinho_, as the diminutive
of _cebola_, an onion. The vine is to be seen in many of the gardens
in the neighbourhood of Recife and of Olinda; and formerly there were
a great many at Conception upon the island of Itamaraca, but few now
remain. No wine is made. The fruit trees are some of those which are
common to the southern parts of Europe, such as the orange[197], the
fig, and others, but no olives; besides these, there are the manga,
the jack, and a numerous list, some of which have been mentioned
incidentally in the course of this volume; but I have tarried already
too long upon this branch of my subject, and must now proceed to
something else.
[Illustration: _A Planter and his Wife on a Journey._]