THE LANDS OF UTAH
PHYSICAL FEATURES.
A zone of mountains and high plateaus extends from the northern nearly
to the southern boundary of Utah Territory. The Wasatch Mountains
constitute the northern portion of this zone, the High Plateaus the
southern. This central zone has a general altitude above the sea
of from nine to eleven thousand feet. Many peaks are higher, a few
reaching an altitude of about twelve thousand feet. On the other hand
many cañons and valleys have been excavated by the running waters far
below the general level thus indicated.
The Uinta Mountains stretch eastward from the midst of the Wasatch.
This region is a lofty table land carrying many elevated peaks whose
summits are from twelve to nearly fourteen thousand feet above the
level of the sea. This is the highest portion of Utah, and among its
peaks are the culminating points.
South from the Uinta Region, and from the southern extremity of the
Wasatch Mountains, another elevated district extends east-southeast
beyond the borders of Utah. This table land is cut in twain by two
great gorges of the Green River--the Cañon of Desolation and Gray
Cañon. The eastern portion is called East Tavaputs Plateau, the western
West Tavaputs Plateau.
Between the Uinta Mountains and the Tavaputs table land is the
Uinta-White Basin, a low synclinal valley, drained by the Uinta and its
ramifications on the west, and the lower portion of the White River on
the east.
The district of country lying south of the Tavaputs table land, and
east and south of the High Plateaus, is traversed by many deep cañons.
This is the Cañon Land of Utah. In its midst the Green and Grand unite
to form the Colorado. The Price and San Rafael are tributary to the
Green. The Fremont, Escalante, Paria, Kanab, and Virgin are directly
tributary to the Colorado from the north and west. From the east the
San Juan flows to the Colorado, but its drainage area is not included
in our present discussion.
West of the lofty zone lie low, arid valleys, interrupted by short
and abrupt ranges of mountains whose naked cliffs and desolate peaks
overlook the still more desolate valleys. These short longitudinal
ranges are but a part of the Basin Ranges, a mountain system extending
through Nevada and northward into Idaho and Oregon. That portion of
the Basin Range System which lies in Utah, and which we now have under
consideration, is naturally divided into two parts, the northern
embracing the drainage area of Great Salt Lake, the southern embracing
the drainage area of Sevier Lake, giving the Great Salt Lake District
and the Sevier Lake District.
To recapitulate, the grand districts into which Utah is naturally
divided are as follows: The Wasatch Mountains and the High Plateaus,
constituting the lofty zone above mentioned; the Uinta Mountains, the
Tavaputs table lands, the Uinta-White Basin, the Cañon Lands, the
Sevier Lake Basin, and the Great Salt Lake Basin, the two latter being
fragments of the great Basin Range Province.
* * * * *
The eastern portion of the Territory of Utah is drained by the Colorado
River by the aid of a number of important tributaries. The western
portion is drained by streams that, heading in the mountains and high
plateaus of the central portion, find their way by many meanderings
into the salt lakes and desert sands to the westward.
Considered with reference to its drainage, Utah may thus be divided
into two parts--the Colorado drainage area and the Desert drainage
area; the former is about two-fifths, the latter three-fifths of the
area of the territory.
All of the Wasatch Mountains lie west of the drainage crest; a part of
the High Plateaus are drained to the Colorado, a part to the deserts.
This great water divide, commencing north of the Pine Valley Mountains
in the southwest corner of the territory, runs north of the Colob
Plateau and enters the district of the High Plateaus. It first runs
eastward along the crest or brink of the Pink Cliffs that bound the
Markagunt and Pauns-a-gunt Plateaus, and then north and east in many
meandering ways, now throwing a plateau into the western drainage, and
now another into the eastern, until it reaches the western extremity of
the Tavaputs table lands. Thence it runs around the western end of the
Uinta Valley, throwing the Tavaputs table lands, the Uinta Valley, and
Uinta Mountains into the Colorado drainage, and the Wasatch Mountains
into the Desert drainage.
These two regions are highly differentiated in orographic structure
and other geological characteristics. The sedimentary formations of
the eastern region are in large part of Cenozoic and Mesozoic age,
though Paleozoic rocks appear in some localities. The Cenozoic and
Mesozoic formations are largely composed of incoherent sands and shales
with intercalated beds of indurated sandstone and limestone. The
great geological displacements are chiefly by faults and monoclinal
flexures, by which the whole country has been broken up into many broad
blocks, so that the strata are horizontal or but slightly inclined,
except along the zones of displacement by which the several blocks are
bounded. Here the strata, when not faulted, are abruptly flexed, and
the rocks dip at high angles.
The Uinta Mountains are storm carved from an immense uplifted block.
The mountains of the Cañon Lands are isolated and volcanic. In the
High Plateaus sedimentary beds are covered by vast sheets of lava.
The sedimentary beds exposed in the mountains of the Desert region
are of Paleozoic age, and many crystalline schists appear, while
the sedimentary beds exposed in the valleys are Post-Tertiary. The
crystalline schists and ancient sedimentaries of the mountains are
often extensive masses of extravasated rocks. The prevailing type of
orographic structure is that of monoclinal ridges of displacement.
Blocks of strata have been turned up so as to incline at various
angles, and from their upturned edges the mountains have been carved.
But these monoclinal ridges are much complicated by mountain masses
having an eruptive origin.
In the eastern districts the materials denuded from the mountains and
plateaus have been carried to the sea, but in the western districts
the materials carried from the mountains are deposited in the adjacent
valleys, so that while the mountains are composed of rocks of great
age, the rocks of the valleys are of recent origin. In that geological
era known as the Glacial epoch the waters of a great lake spread over
these valleys, and the mountains stood as islands in the midst of a
fresh-water sea. For the history of this lake we are indebted to the
researches of Mr. Gilbert. It had its outlet to the north by way of the
Shoshoni River and the Columbia to the North Pacific. These later beds
of the valleys are in part the sediments of Lake Bonneville, the great
lake above mentioned, and in part they are subaërial gravels and sands.
* * * * *
The Wasatch system of mountains is composed of abrupt ranges crowned
with sharp peaks. The several minor ranges and groups of peaks
into which it is broken are separated only in part by structural
differences, since ridges with homogeneous structure are severed by
transverse valleys. The drainage of the whole area occupied by the
Wasatch Mountains is westward to the Great Salt Lake. The streams
that head in the western end of the Uinta Mountains and West Tavaputs
Plateau cut through the Wasatch Mountains.
Great Salt Lake and its upper tributary, Utah Lake, exist by virtue of
the presence of the Wasatch Mountains, for the mountains wring from the
clouds the waters with which the lakes are supplied.
Walled by high ridges and peaks, many elevated valleys are found.
In the midsummer months these valleys are favored with a pleasant,
invigorating climate. Occasionally showers of rain fall. Vegetation is
vigorous. The distant mountain slopes bear forests of spruce, pine,
and fir; the broken foot hills are often covered by low, ragged piñon
pines and cedars; and the flood plains of the streams are natural
meadows. About the springs and streamlets groves of aspen stand, and
the streams are bordered with willows, box elders, and cottonwoods. Now
and then a midsummer storm comes, bringing hail, and even snow. When
the short summer ends, the aspen and box elder foliage turns to gold
flecked with scarlet; the willows to crimson and russet; the meadows
are quickly sered, and soon the autumn verdure presents only the somber
tints of the evergreens; early snows fall, and the whole land is soon
covered with a white mantle, except that here and there bleak hills
and rugged peaks are swept bare by the winds. The brief, beautiful
summer is followed by a long, dreary winter, and during this winter of
snowfall are accumulated the waters that are to be used in fertilizing
the valleys away below in the border region between the mountains and
the desert basins.
From the Wasatch on the north to the Colob on the south are elevated
tables, in general bounded by bold, precipitous escarpments. The lands
above are highly and sharply differentiated from the lands below in
climate, vegetation, soil, and other physical characters. These high
plateaus are covered with sheets and beds of lava, and over the lava
sheets are scattered many volcanic cinder cones. The higher plateaus
bear heavy forests of evergreens, and scattered through the forests are
many little valleys or meadow glades. The gnarled, somber forests are
often beset with fallen timber and a vigorous second growth, forming
together a dead and living tangle difficult to penetrate. But often the
forest aisles are open from glade to glade, or from border cliff to
border cliff. In the midst of the glades are many beautiful lakelets,
and from the cliffs that bound the plateaus on every hand the waters
break out in innumerable springs.
Here, also, a brief summer is followed by a long winter, and through
its dreary days the snow is gathered which fills the lakelets above and
feeds the springs along the bordering cliffs. The springs of the cliffs
are the fountains of the rivers that are to fertilize the valleys lying
to the east, south, and west.
The Uinta Mountains constitute an east and west range. From a single
great uplift, nearly 200 miles long and from 40 to 50 miles wide,
valleys and cañons have been carved by rains and rivers, and table
lands and peaks have been left embossed on the surface. Along its
middle belt from east to west the peaks are scattered in great
confusion, but in general the highest peaks are near the center of the
range. The general elevation descends abruptly both on the north and
south margins of the uplift, and at the crest of each abrupt descent
there are many limestone ridges and crags. Between these ridges and
crags that stand along the bordering crests, and the peaks that stand
along the meandering watershed, there are broad tables, some times
covered with forests, sometimes only with grass.
This is a third region of short summers and long winters, where the
waters are collected to fertilize the valleys to the north and south.
Away to the southward are the twin plateaus, East and West Tavaputs,
severed by the Green River. These plateaus culminate at the Brown
Cliffs, where bold escarpments are presented southward.
Outlying the Brown Cliffs are the Book Cliffs. These, also, are
escarpments of naked rock, with many salient and reëntrant angles and
outlying buttes. The beds of which they are composed are shales and
sandstones of many shades of blue, gray, and buff. In the distance,
and softly blended by atmospheric haze, the towering walls have an
azure hue. Everywhere they are elaborately water carved, and the bold
battlements above are buttressed with sculptured hills. In 1869, when
the writer first saw this great escarpment, he gave it the name of
the Azure Cliffs, but an earlier traveler, passing by another route
across the country, had seen them in the distance, and, seizing
another characteristic feature, had called them the Book Mountains.
Gunnison saw, however, not a range of mountains, but the escarped edge
of a plateau, and this escarpment we now call the Book Cliffs. From
the Brown Cliffs northward these plateaus dip gently north to the
Uinta-White Basin. From the very crest of the Brown Cliffs the drainage
is northward.
This is a fourth region of short summers and long winters, where the
moisture is collected to fertilize adjacent lands; but the altitude
is not great enough nor the area large enough to accumulate a large
supply of water, and the amount furnished by the Tavaputs Plateaus is
comparatively small.
Such are the lofty regions of Utah that furnish water to irrigate the
lowlands.
TIMBER.
In these elevated districts is found all the timber of commercial
value. This is well shown on the map. The map also exhibits the fact
that many portions of the elevated districts are devoid of timber,
it having been destroyed by fire, as explained in a former chapter.
Doubtless, if fires could be prevented, the treeless areas would in
due time be again covered with forests, but in such a climate forest
growth is slow. At present, the treeless areas will afford valuable
summer pasturage for cattle, and doubtless such pasturage would be
advantageous to the growth of new forests, by keeping down the grasses
in which in part the fires spread. It has already been shown that, to
a great extent, the fires which destroy the forests are set by Indians
while on their hunting excursions. The removal of the Indians from the
country will further protect the forests. Eventually, the better class
of timber lands will fall into the hands of individual owners, who
will be interested in protecting their property from devastation by
this fierce element. By all of these means the standing timber will be
preserved for economic uses; but it will be a long time before complete
immunity from fires will be secured.
The demand for lumber will never be very great. A variety of causes
conspire to this end. The adjacent country will sustain but a small
agricultural population, because the irrigable lands are of limited
extent. The people of the lowlands will eventually supply themselves
with fuel by cultivating timber along the water courses and by using
the coal so abundant in some portions of Utah. The lumber will never be
carried to a foreign market because of the expense of transportation:
first, it will be expensive to get it down from the highlands to the
lowlands, and, second, there are no navigable streams by which lumber
may be cheaply transported from the country. In general, the lumber is
of inferior quality, and cannot successfully compete for a permanent
place in the markets of the world. But there will be a demand for
lumber for building and fencing purposes in the valleys, and for mining
purposes in the mountains.
If the timber region can be protected from fire, the supply of timber
will equal the demand.
From the brief description given above, it will be seen that the timber
region will never support agriculture. Much of it is mountainous and
inhospitable, and the climate is cold. The timber region is ever to be
such; mining industries will slightly encroach on it on the one hand,
and pasturage industries on the other, but lumbermen will control the
country.
The forests of these upper regions are monotonous, as the variety of
tree life is very small. All of the timber trees proper are coniferous,
and belong to the pine, fir, and juniper families. The pine of chief
value is _Pinus ponderosa_, locally distinguished as the “Long leaved
pine”; the wood is very heavy and coarse grained, but is suitable for
the ruder building and mining purposes. It is usually found on the
slopes between eight and nine thousand feet above the level of the sea.
It attains a large size, and is a stately tree, contrasting grandly
with the darker and smaller firs that usually keep it company.
_Pinus aristata_ is of no commercial value, as it is much branched
and spreading with limbs near the base; it grows on the crags at an
altitude of from nine to eleven thousand feet.
_Pinus flexilis_ grows at the same altitude as the last mentioned, and
often shows a similar habit of growth. On the southern plateaus it is
less branched and has a tolerably straight trunk, but it is too small
and scarce to be important as timber. It is highly resinous, and is
called “Pitch pine.”
_Pinus monticola_, or Sugar pine, is found on the southern plateaus,
but is not abundant, and rarely attains milling size.
_Pinus edulis_ is the well known “Piñon pine”. It covers the foot
hills and less elevated slopes adjacent to the river valleys. The
tree is low, diffusely branched and scrubby, and is of no use for
lumber; but the wood is well supplied with resin and makes an excellent
fuel, for which purpose it is extensively used in consequence of its
accessibility.
There are three valuable species of Abies, namely: _A. Douglasii_, _A.
concolor_, and _A. Engelmanni_. _Abies Douglasii_, or Douglas’ spruce,
bears some resemblance to the eastern spruce, _A. Canadensis_, but it
is a finer tree, and the wood is much superior. Though rather light,
it is tough and exceedingly durable. The heart wood is red, from which
circumstance lumbermen distinguish it as the “Red pine”. In building
it is used for all the heavier parts, as frames, joists, rafters,
etc., and it makes excellent flooring. Its value is still further
enhanced from the fact that it occupies a belt of from seven to nine
thousand feet altitude, and thus is easily obtained. It may readily be
distinguished by its cones, the bracts of which are trifurcate, sharp,
pointed, and conspicuously exserted, and they are unlike those of any
other species.
_Abies concolor_, known in Utah as the “Black balsam”, grows at about
the same altitude as the last mentioned species, and though rather
cross-grained makes good lumber, being quite durable and strong. From
its silvery foliage, the leaves being glaucous on both sides, this tree
is known to tourists as the “White silver fir”. Lumbermen sometimes
call it the “Black gum”, the wood being very dark colored.
_Abies Engelmanni_, or Engelmann’s spruce, occupies the highest
elevations, and constitutes the only timber above 11,000 feet in
altitude. Above 11,500 feet it is reduced to a dwarf. On the terraces
of the high plateaus, at about 10,000 feet altitude, it appears to
flourish best, and here it becomes a large, beautiful tree. The leaves
are needle shaped, and thus differ from both the preceding species. The
trunks are straight and free from limbs or knots, making fine saw logs.
The wood is white and soft, but fine grained and durable, and being
easily worked is held in high esteem for all the lighter uses, such as
sash, doors, etc. Its place in the lumber industries of Utah is about
the same as that of the “White pine” (_Pinus Strobus_) in the east.
Lumbermen usually call it “White pine”. Because of the altitude of its
habitat it is difficult to obtain, yet it is systematically sought, and
large amounts are yearly manufactured into lumber; it also makes good
shingles.
_Abies Menziesii_, or Menzies’s spruce, usually called “Spruce” by
lumbermen of the country, is botanically very similar to the species
last described, but the cones are larger and the leaves sharper
pointed. It bears a large quantity of cones, which are generally
aggregated near the top, obscuring the foliage, and giving the trees a
peculiar tawny appearance. The wood is light, white, and fine grained,
and would rival that of the last named species but for the fact that
the trunk has a number of slight curves, so that it is impossible to
obtain good saw logs of sufficient length from it. Its habitat is along
the cañons from seven to nine thousand feet altitude, and seems to end
about where _A. Engelmanni_ begins. It is, however, a smaller tree, and
less abundant.
_Abies subalpina_ is of little value as a timber tree; the wood is
soft and spongy, from which circumstance it is locally known as
“Pumpkin pine”, but the more appropriate name of “White balsam” is also
applied to distinguish it from _A. concolor_, which is called “Black
balsam”. This species grows high up on the mountains and plateaus,
generally from nine to eleven thousand feet. It is very tall, often
attaining a height of 80 or 90 feet. Its trunk is straight and limbless
for a great distance. This species has been but little known to
botanists heretofore, from the fact that it has been confounded with
_A. grandis_, but Mr. Engelmann decides, from specimens collected by
Mr. L. F. Ward, that it must be considered as a new species.
_Abies amabilis_ and _Abies grandis_, spruces resembling the “White
balsam” in their general appearance, occur in the Wasatch Mountains,
but are not abundant.
_Juniperus Californicus_, var. _Utahensis_, or White cedar, is very
abundant over the foot hills and lower mountain slopes, and, like the
piñon pine, is much used for fire wood. It has also the characteristic
durability of the junipers, and makes excellent fence posts. It grows
low, is diffusely branched, and is valueless for milling purposes.
_Juniperus Virginiana_, or Red cedar, is also found in this region. Its
habitat is near the streams and at moderate altitudes. It is said to
lack the durable qualities for which it is noted at the east, and which
seem to be transferred to the other species.
_Populus angustifolia_, or Cottonwood, is the chief representative of
the poplar family in this region. The people of the country distinguish
two varieties or species, the Black cottonwood and Yellow cottonwood.
The former is said to be useless for lumber, while the latter has some
slight value. It forms no part of the forest proper, but fringes the
lower reaches of the streams, rarely occurring higher in altitude than
6,000 feet. Its rapid growth and its proximity to the irrigable lands
make it valuable for fuel, although it is not of superior quality.
_Populus monilifera_, the Cottonwood of the Mississippi Valley, grows
with the above in the southern part of the Territory, and has about the
same value.
_Populus tremuloides_, or Aspen, is found about the moist places on
the mountain sides, and often borders the glades of the plateaus. The
long poles which it furnishes are sometimes used for fencing purposes;
it makes a fair fuel; the quantity found is small.
_Acer grandidentata_, a species of Maple, abounds at the north as a
bush, and rare individuals attain the rank of small trees. Its wood is
highly prized for the repair of machinery, but is too scarce to be of
great service.
_Negundo aceroides_, or Box elder, is found along the water courses in
many places. Sometimes along the larger streams it attains a height
of 25 or 30 feet. It makes a good fuel, but is found in such small
quantities as to be scarcely worthy of mention.
_Quercus undulata_, or White oak, is very abundant as a bush, and
sometimes attains a diameter of six or eight inches. It is too rare as
a tree to deserve more than mere mention.
_Betula occidentalis_, a species of Birch, grows about the upland
springs and creeks. Its habit is bushlike, but it often has a height of
20 feet, and it makes a tolerable fuel.
The Hackberry (_Celtis occidentalis_) and two species of Ash (_Fraxinus
coriacea_ and _F. anomala_) grow as small trees, but are exceedingly
rare.
The above is a nearly complete list of the forest trees of Utah. The
number of species is very small; aridity on the one hand, and cold on
the other, successfully repel the deciduous trees. The oak, hickory,
ash, etc., necessary to such a variety of industries, especially the
manufacture of agricultural machinery, must all be imported from more
humid regions. The coniferous trees, growing high among the rocks of
the upper regions and beaten by the cold storms of a long winter, are
ragged and gnarled, and the lumber they afford is not of the finest
quality; and the finishing lumber for architectural purposes and
furniture must also be imported from more humid regions.
IRRIGABLE AND PASTURE LANDS.
UINTA-WHITE BASIN.
The Uinta-White Valley is a deep basin inclosed by the Uinta Mountains
on the north and the Tavaputs highlands on the south. Eastward the
basin extends beyond the limits of Utah; westward the Uinta Mountains
and West Tavaputs Plateau nearly inclose the head of the Uinta
Valley, but the space between is filled with a section of the Wasatch
Mountains. From the north, west, and south the Uinta Valley inclines
gently toward the Duchesne River. Many streams come down from the north
and from the south. In the midst of the valley there are some small
stretches of bad lands.
Along the lower part of the Uinta and the Duchesne, and the lower
courses of nearly all the minor streams, large tracts of arable land
are found, and from these good selections can be made, sufficient to
occupy in their service all the water of the Uinta and its numerous
branches. The agricultural portion of the valley is sufficiently low to
have a genial climate, and all the crops of the northern States can be
cultivated successfully.
Stretching back on every hand from the irrigable districts, the little
hills, valleys, and slopes are covered with grasses, which are found
more and more luxuriant in ascending the plateaus and mountains, until
the peaks are reached, and these are naked.
On the north of the Uinta, and still west of the Green, the basin is
drained by some small streams, the chief of which is Ashley Fork.
Except near the lower course of Ashley Fork, this section of country
is exceedingly broken; the bad lands and hogbacks are severed by deep,
precipitous cañons.
From the east the White River enters the Green. Some miles up the
White, a cañon is reached, and the country on either hand, stretching
back for a long distance, is composed of rugged barren lands. But
between the highlands and the Green, selections of good land can be
made, and the waters of the White can be used to serve them. From the
White, south to the East Tavaputs Plateau, the grass lands steadily
increase in value to the summit of the Brown Cliffs. Many good springs
are found in this region, and eventually this will be a favorite
district for pasturage farms.
Fine pasturage farms may be made on the southern slope of the Yampa
Plateau, with summer pasturage above and winter pasturage below.
Altogether, the Uinta-White Basin is one of the favored districts of
the west, with great numbers of cool springs issuing from the mountains
and hills; many beautiful streams of clear, cold water; a large amount
of arable land from which irrigable tracts may be selected; an
abundance of fuel in the piñon pines and cedars of the foot hills; and
building timber farther back on the mountains and plateaus.
The whole amount of irrigable land is estimated at 280,320 acres.
THE CAÑON LANDS.
South of the Tavaputs highlands, and east and south of the High
Plateaus, the Cañon Lands of Utah are found. The lower course of the
Grand, the lower course of the Green, and a large section of the
Colorado cuts through them, and the streams that head in the High
Plateaus run across them. All the rivers, all the creeks, all the
brooks, run in deep gorges--narrow, winding cañons, with their floors
far below the general surface of the country. Many long lines of cliffs
are found separating higher from lower districts. The hills are bad
lands and alcove lands.
The Sierra la Sal and Henry Mountains are great masses of lava, wrapped
in sedimentary beds, which are cut with many dikes. South of the High
Plateaus great numbers of cinder cones are found.
On the Grand River there are some patches of land which can be served
by the waters of that river. On the Green, in what is known as Gunnison
Valley, patches of good land can be selected and redeemed by the waters
of that river.
Castle Valley is abruptly walled on the west, north, and northeast
by towering cliffs. East of its southern portion a region of towers,
buttes, crags, and rocklands is found, known as the San Rafael Swell.
In this valley there is a large amount of good land, and the numerous
streams which run across it can all be used in irrigation. Farther
south, on the Fremont, Escalante, and Paria, some small tracts of
irrigable land are found, and on the Kanab and Virgin there are limited
areas which can be used for agricultural purposes. But all that portion
of the cañon country south of Castle Valley and westward to the Beaver
Dam Mountains is exceedingly desolate; naked rocks are found, refusing
footing even to dwarfed cedars and piñon pines; the springs are
infrequent and yield no bountiful supply of water; its patches of grass
land are widely scattered, and it has but little value for agricultural
purposes.
A broad belt of coal land extends along the base of the cliffs from
the Tavaputs Plateau on the northeast to the Colob Plateau on the
southwest. At the foot of the cliffs which separate the lowlands
from the highlands, many pasturage farms may be made; the grass of
the lowlands can be used in the winter, and that of the highlands in
summer, and everywhere good springs of water may be found.
The extent of the irrigable lands in this district is estimated at
213,440 acres.
THE SEVIER LAKE DISTRICT.
This district embraces all the country drained by the waters which flow
into the Sevier Lake, and the areas drained by many small streams which
are quickly lost in the desert. The greater part of the irrigable land
lies in the long, narrow valleys walled by the plateaus, especially
along the Sevier, Otter Creek, and the San Pete. The arable lands
greatly exceed the irrigable, and good selections may be made. Most of
the irrigable lands are already occupied by farmers, and the waters
are used in their service. In the valleys among the high plateaus, and
along their western border, the grasses are good, and many pasturage
farms may be selected, and the springs and little streams that come
from the plateau cliffs will afford an abundant supply of water. The
summits of the plateaus will afford an abundant summer pasturage.
Westward among the Basin Ranges feeble and infrequent springs are
found; there is little timber of value, but the lower mountains and
foot hills have cedars and piñon pines that would be valuable for fuel
if nearer to habitations. The cedar and piñon hills bear scant grasses.
The valleys are sometimes covered with sage, sometimes with grease
wood, sometimes quite naked.
The amount of irrigable land in this district is estimated at 101,700
acres.
THE GREAT SALT LAKE DISTRICT.
This district has already become famous in the history of western
agriculture, for here the Latter Day Saints first made “a home in the
valleys among the mountains”.
The rivers and creeks bring the waters down from the Wasatch Mountains
on the east. The high valleys among the mountains have to some extent
been cultivated, and will hereafter be used more than at present for
meadow purposes. In general the people have selected their lands low
down, in order to obtain a more genial climate. Yet the irrigable
lands are not very far from the mountains, as a glance at the map will
reveal. Utah Lake constitutes a fine natural reservoir and discharges
its waters into Salt Lake by the Jordan, and from its channel the
waters may be conducted over a large area of country. The waters of
the Weber and Bear Rivers, now flowing idly into the lake, will soon
be spread over extensive valleys, and the area of agricultural lands
be greatly increased. Westward the influence of the mountains in
the precipitation of moisture is soon lost, and beyond the lake an
irreclaimable desert is found.
Near to the mountains the grass lands are fair but they have been
overpastured and greatly injured. Out among the Basin Ranges little
grass land of value is found.
The amount of irrigable land in this district is estimated at 837,660
acres.
The lofty zone of mountains and table lands with arms stretching
eastward, with its culminating points among summer frosts and winter
storms, is the central region about which the human interests of the
country gather. The timber, the water, the agricultural lands, the
pasturage lands, to a large extent the coal and iron mines, and to
some extent the silver mines, are all found in these higher regions or
clinging closely to them.
GRASSES.
While the forests present but a few species of trees, the pasturage
lands present a great variety of grasses. Between fifty and sixty
species have been collected by parties connected with the survey
under the direction of the writer, and these are distributed among
twenty-six or twenty-seven genera. Most of them belong to the mountains
or highlands, and are rich and sweet. Nearly all of them are bunch
grasses. The spaces by which the bunches are separated are bare or
occupied with weeds and shrubs. This is often the case on the mountains
and high plateaus. A continuous turf is never seen. Where a sward is
seen in moist places, about springs and in glades, the verdure consists
in chief part of other plants, sedges and reeds.
Of the bunch grasses the _Poas_ are by far the most abundant. Of this
genus nine species were obtained, but this gives an inadequate idea
of the variety. Of one species alone Dr. Vasey has enumerated nine
varieties, and advances the opinion that several will be eventually
considered as species. They are found at all altitudes, mostly on
the slopes. Perhaps the most important single species in that region
is the _Bouteloua oligostachya_, the so called “Circle grass”. It
has a peculiar habit of forming partial or complete circles on the
ground, with areas of bare ground in the center. These turfy rings
are comparatively narrow, often not more than three or four inches
in width, while the circles are from two to four feet in diameter.
The form is not always circular, but often assumes irregular shapes.
The grass is sweet and nutritious, but its chief value consists in
its power to resist inclement seasons, as it cures standing, like the
“Buffalo grass” of the Great Plains.
Another very valuable grass is the _Eriocoma cuspidata_, which is known
by the name of “Sand grass”. It grows at much lower altitudes, and is
properly a valley grass. It has a solitary, scattering habit, or at
least the bunches are small and turfless. Horses and cattle select it
with care from among other species, and it seems especially nutritious.
It has a large black grain, which is often collected by the Indians for
food.
A remarkable lowland grass is the Vilfa (_Sporobolis airoides_). It has
something of the appearance of “Hair grass”, with a widely spreading
purple panicle and large perennial roots. The old culms persist at
the base, and with the new ones form thick and almost woody tufts.
These tufts are scattered about in the strongly alkaline soils of the
river bottoms, and are extensively pastured by large herds of cattle.
A marked characteristic of this grass, common, however, to several
others, is its power to take up saline matter, which gives to the whole
plant a salty taste. The effect of this upon the stock feeding upon it
is doubtful, judging from the conflicting reports of the inhabitants;
but it seems that when cattle are first pastured upon it they are
injured by the excess of salt, but that after a time they cease to be
injured by it. All of the so called “Salt grasses” are cropped to a
greater or less extent by stock.
The chief grasses of the elevated timber tracts belong to the genus
_Bromus_. When young they are good, but they become stale and valueless
with age. The only grass that can compare with those of the eastern
meadows, and which forms a continuous sod and covers the ground with a
uniform growth, is a variety of _Aira cæspitosa_, a red topped grass,
which was found surrounding the small lakes of the mountains and
plateaus, at elevations of 11,000 feet and over. This is an exceedingly
beautiful grass as it waves in the gentle breezes that fan the lakelets
of the upper regions.
_Phragmites communis_, the so called “Cane”, is common in the glades
and sloughs; and, though large and rather dry, it furnishes the only
verdure obtainable for months in severe seasons.
Much of the hay and pasturage of the country, which is there called
grass, consists of plants of different families. Notable among these
are several species of _Carex_ (sedges), particularly _Carex Jamesii_,
which springs up wherever artificial meadows are made by the system
of flooding commonly practiced. The plants have large, strong,
subterranean root-stocks, forming a tangled mass which, when once
established, cannot easily be eradicated. The leaves are broad and
grasslike, and, though coarse and comparatively insipid, form a good
sward which can be mowed--a rare condition in that country; and hence
such meadows are highly prized.
_Juncus Balticus_, var. _montanus_, which has a blue color, terete
culms, and tough fiber, and which the settlers call “Wire grass”, is
very abundant. It is cut for hay, and is said to serve a good purpose
as such.
There are some shrubs that furnish excellent browsing, among which,
perhaps, the grease wood takes the first rank. The sage brush,
_Artemisia_, on the contrary, is seldom resorted to. There is one shrub
to which great virtues are ascribed which may be mentioned in this
connection. This is the _Cercocarpus parvifolius_, which occupies the
mountain sides for a wide zone of altitude. The foliage, though not
strictly evergreen, remains most of the winter, and is said to afford
the only food for horses and cattle that can be obtained during some
seasons of deep snows. This shrub is a congener of the well known
mountain mahogany, _C. ledifolius_, which grows at higher altitudes,
and has truly evergreen foliage.
The small perennial plant _Eurotia lanata_, or “White sage”, found
growing in the valleys and plains, is held in high esteem as winter
food for stock.
The growth of grass, even on the plateaus, is often scant; on the foot
hills it becomes less, and farther away from the highlands it still
diminishes in quantity until absolute deserts are found. Most of the
grasses seem to protect themselves from the great aridity by growing
in bunches. They appear to produce proportionately a greater amount
of seeds than the grasses of the Humid Region, and their nutritive
qualities, especially in winter, seems to be due thereto. In general,
the grasses seem to have large, strong stems, and are not so easily
broken down as those of the Humid Region, and the rains and snows by
which they would be so broken down are infrequent. Again, for these
reasons, the grasses, standing long after they are cut by frosts, cure
themselves, forming thereby a winter pasturage.
The irrigable lands of Utah will be discussed more thoroughly and
in detail in subsequent chapters by Mr. G. K. Gilbert, who has made
the Great Salt Lake District his study; by Capt. C. E. Dutton, who
has prepared the chapter on the irrigable lands of the Sevier Lake
Drainage, and by Prof. A. H. Thompson, who has written the chapter on
the irrigable lands of the Colorado Drainage.
The following is a table of the irrigable lands, arranged by districts,
as discussed in the present chapter. The table is compiled from those
presented in subsequent chapters.
_Table of irrigable lands in Utah Territory._
+---------------------------------------+------+-------+------+-------+
| | | | Cultivated |
| | | | in 1877. |
| | | +------+-------+
| |Square| |Square| |
| |miles.| Acres.|miles.| Acres.|
+---------------------------------------+------+-------+------+-------+
| _Salt Lake drainage system._ | | | | |
|Base of Uinta Mountains | 2.5| 1,600| 1.6 | 1,024|
|Yellow Creek and Duck Creek | 2.0| 1,280| -- | -- |
|Randolph Valley and Saleratus Creek | 69.0| 44,160| 9.6 | 6,344|
|Shores of Bear Lake | 9.0| 5,760| 5.0 | 3,200|
|Cache Valley | 250.0|160,000| 50.0 | 32,000|
|Bear River Delta, Malade Valley, | | | | |
| and Connor’s Spring Valley | 218.0|139,520| 22.0 | 14,080|
|Box Elder Valley (Mantua) | 1.5| 960| 1.1 | 704|
|Weber Valley from Peoa to Hennefer, | | | | |
| inclusive | 9.0| 5,760| 8.5 | 5,440|
|Parley’s Park | 3.2| 2,048| 3.2 | 2,048|
|Uptown | 2.0| 1,280| .5 | 320|
|Echo Creek | 0.9| 576| .3 | 192|
|Croydon | 0.5| 320| .4 | 256|
|Round Valley | 0.5| 320| .5 | 320|
|Morgan Valley | 6.9| 4,416| 6.0 | 3,840|
|Ogden Valley | 8.0| 5,120| 4.1 | 2,624|
|Weber Delta Plain | 219.0|140,160| 91.0 | 58,240|
|Kamas Prairie | 13.0| 8,320| 4.7 | 3,003|
|Hailstone Ranche and vicinity | 2.0| 1,280| 2.0 | 1,280|
|Provo Valley | 16.0| 10,240| 6.0 | 3,840|
|Waldsburg | 2.0| 1,280| 2.0 | 1,280|
|Utah Valley | 190.0|121,600| 59.0 | 37,760|
|Salt Creek | 16.0| 10,240| 14.0 | 8,960|
|Salt Lake Valley (including Bountiful | | | | |
| and Centerville) | 192.0|122,880| 89.8 | 57,412|
|Tooele Valley | 45.0| 28,800| 5.4 | 3,456|
|Cedar Fort | 1.5| 1,000| 1.2 | 800|
|Fairfield | 1.5| 900| 1.2 | 800|
|Vernon Creek | 2.0| 1,200| 1.5 | 900|
|Saint Johns | 1.1| 700| 1.1 | 700|
|East Cañon Creek (Rush Valley) | 1.5| 900| .8 | 500|
|Stockton | .3| 500| .3 | 200|
|Skull Valley | 4.0| 2,500| 1.6 | 1,000|
|Government Creek | .5| 300| .5 | 300|
|Willow Spring, T. 10 S., R. 17 W | .4| 250| .4 | 250|
|Redding Spring | .1| 50| -- | 20|
|Dodoquibe Spring | .1| 50| -- | -- |
|Deep Creek, T. 9 S., R. 19 W | 1.6| 1,000| .8 | 500|
|Pilot Peak | .3| 200| -- | -- |
|Grouse Valley | 2.4| 1,500| .8 | 500|
|Owl Spring | .1| 10| -- | -- |
|Rosebud Creek | .6| 400| .2 | 150|
|Muddy Creek, T. 10 N., R. 15 W | .5| 300| .5 | 300|
|Park Valley | 3.5| 2,300| 1.1 | 700|
|Widow Spring | .1| 20| -- | -- |
|Indian Creek, T. 13 N., R. 12 W | .2| 100| -- | -- |
|East base Clear Creek Mountains | .2| 150| -- | 5|
|Cazure Creek | .3| 200| -- | -- |
|Clear Creek, T. 15 N., R. 12 W | .3| 200| .1 | 80|
|Junction Creek | .7| 500| -- | -- |
|Goose Creek | .3| 200| -- | -- |
|Pilot Spring | .1| 15| -- | -- |
|Deseret Creek (or Deep Creek) | 4.5| 3,000| .5 | 300|
|Crystal Springs, T. 14 N., R. 7 W | .2| 100| .1 | 60|
|Antelope Springs, T. 9 N., R. 6 W | .1| 30| -- | 30|
|Hanzel Spring | .1| 15| -- | 15|
|Promontory, east base | .9| 600| .5 | 300|
|Blue Creek | 2.3| 1,500| -- | -- |
|Brackish Springs, near Blue Creek | 1.5| 1,000| .3 | 200|
|Antelope Island | .1| 50| -- | -- |
| | | | | |
| _The valley of the Sevier River._ | | | | |
| | | | | |
|San Pete Valley | 31.2| 20,000| 17.0 | 10,880|
|Gunnison | 6.2| 4,000| 44.4 | 2,800|
|Sevier Valley, above Gunnison | 54.7| 35,000| 16.5 | 10,500|
|Circle Valley | 6.3| 4,000| 1.1 | 750|
|Panguitch and above | 10.9| 7,000| 2.8 | 1,800|
| | | | | |
| _Irrigable lands of the desert | | | | |
| drainage of southwestern Utah._ | | | | |
| | | | | |
|Cherry Creek | .2| 100| -- | -- |
|Judd Creek | .2| 100| -- | -- |
|Levan | 3.1| 2,000| -- | -- |
|Scipio | 2.6| 1,700| -- | -- |
|Holden | 1.6| 1,000| -- | -- |
|Filmore and Oak Creek | 5.5| 3,500| -- | -- |
|Meadow Creek | 1.9| 1,200| -- | -- |
|Kanosh | 3.1| 2,000| -- | -- |
|Beaver Creek and tributaries | 21.9| 14,000| -- | -- |
|Paragoonah | 1.6| 1,000| -- | -- |
|Parowan | 1.6| 1,000| -- | -- |
|Summit | .6| 400| -- | -- |
|Cedar City, Iron City, & Fort Hamilton | 3.6| 2,300| -- | -- |
|Mountain Meadows | .3| 200| -- | -- |
|Pinto | .3| 200| -- | -- |
|Hebron | 1.6| 1,000| -- | -- |
| | | | | |
| _Irrigable lands of | | | | |
| the Colorado drainage._ | | | | |
| | | | | |
|Virgin River | 30 | 19,200| 11.0 | 7,040|
|Kanab Creek | 2.5| 1,600| 1.1 | 700|
|Paria River | 6 | 3,840| -- | -- |
|Escalante River | 6 | 3,840| -- | -- |
|Fremont River | 38 | 24,320| -- | -- |
|San Rafael River | 175 |112,000| -- | -- |
|Price River | 11 | 7,040| -- | -- |
|Minnie Maud Creek | 3 | 1,920| -- | -- |
|Uinta River | 285 |182,400| .5 | 300|
|Ashley Fork | 25 | 16,000| .1 | 50|
|Henrys Fork | 10 | 6,400| -- | -- |
|White River | 75 | 48,000| -- | -- |
|Green River | | | | |
| Browns Park | 10 | 6,400| -- | -- |
| Below Split Mountain Cañon | 50 | 32,000| -- | -- |
| Gunnison Valley | 25 | 16,000| -- | -- |
|Grand River | 40 | 25,600| -- | -- |
| +------+-------+------+-------+
| Total 2,262.4 1,447,920 -- -- |
+---------------------------------------+------+-------+------+-------+