REPORT
ON THE
LANDS OF THE ARID REGION
OF THE
UNITED STATES,
WITH A
MORE DETAILED ACCOUNT OF THE LANDS OF UTAH.
WITH MAPS.
BY
J. W. POWELL.
SECOND EDITION.
WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1879.
CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES (3D SESSION),
IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES,
_March 3, 1879_.
The following resolution, originating in the House of Representatives,
has this day been concurred in by the Senate:
_Resolved, by the House of Representatives_ (_the Senate concurring_),
That there be printed five thousand copies of the Report on the Lands
of the Arid Region of the United States, by J. W. Powell; one thousand
for the use of the Senate, two thousand for the use of the House of
Representatives, and two thousand for the use of the Department of the
Interior.
Attest:
GEO. M. ADAMS, _Clerk_.
J. W. POWELL’S REPORT ON SURVEY OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION.
LETTER
FROM
THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR,
TRANSMITTING
_Report of J. W. Powell, geologist in charge of the United States
Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, upon
the lands of the Arid Region of the United States._
APRIL 3, 1878.--Referred to the Committee on Appropriations and
ordered to be printed.
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,
WASHINGTON, D. C., _April 3, 1878_.
SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report from Maj. J. W.
Powell, geologist in charge of the United States Geographical and
Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, upon the lands of
the Arid Region of the United States, setting forth the extent of
said region, and making suggestions as to the conditions under which
the lands embraced within its limit may be rendered available for
agricultural and grazing purposes. With the report is transmitted a
statement of the rainfall of the western portion of the United States,
with reports upon the subject of irrigation by Capt. C. E. Dutton, U.
S. A., Prof. A. H. Thompson, and Mr. G. K. Gilbert.
Herewith are also transmitted draughts of two bills, one entitled “A
bill to authorize the organization of pasturage districts by homestead
settlements on the public lands which are of value for pasturage
purposes only”, and the other “A bill to authorize the organization of
irrigation districts by homestead settlements upon the public lands
requiring irrigation for agricultural purposes”, intended to carry
into effect a new system for the disposal of the public lands of said
region, and to promote the settlement and development of that portion
of the country.
In view of the importance of rendering the vast extent of country
referred to available for agricultural and grazing purposes, I have
the honor to commend the views set forth by Major Powell and the bills
submitted herewith to the consideration of Congress.
Very respectfully,
C. SCHURZ,
_Secretary_.
Hon. SAMUEL J. RANDALL,
_Speaker of the House of Representatives_.
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, GENERAL LAND OFFICE,
WASHINGTON, D. C., _April 1, 1878_.
SIR: I have the honor to submit herewith a report from Maj. J. W.
Powell, in charge of the Geographical and Geological Survey of the
Rocky Mountains, in regard to the Arid Region of the United States,
and draughts of two bills, one entitled “A bill to authorize the
organization of pasturage districts by homestead settlements on the
public lands which are of value for pasturage purposes only”, and the
other “A bill to authorize the organization of irrigation districts by
homestead settlements upon the public lands requiring irrigation for
agricultural purposes”.
Major Powell reviews at length the features of, and furnishes
statistics relative to, the Arid Region of the United States, which is
substantially the territory west of the one hundredth meridian and east
of the Cascade Range, and the bills named are intended, if passed, to
carry into effect the views expressed in his report for the settlement
and development of this region.
He has, in the performance of his duties in conducting the geological
and geographical survey, been over much of the country referred to,
and is qualified by observation, research, and study to speak of the
topography, characteristics, and adaptability of the same.
I have not been able, on account of more urgent official duties, to
give Major Powell’s report and proposed bills the careful investigation
necessary, in view of their great importance, to enable me to express
a decided opinion as to their merits. Some change is necessary in the
survey and disposal of the lands, and I think his views are entitled
to great weight, and would respectfully recommend that such action
be taken as will bring his report and bills before Congress for
consideration by that body.
Very respectfully,
J. A. WILLIAMSON,
_Commissioner_.
Hon. C. SCHURZ,
_Secretary of the Interior_.
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,
U. S. GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION,
WASHINGTON, D. C., _April 1, 1878_.
SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report on the lands of the
Arid Region of the United States. After setting forth the general facts
relating to the conditions under which these lands must be utilized, I
have taken the liberty to suggest a system for their disposal which I
believe would be adapted to the wants of the country.
I wish to express my sincere thanks for the assistance you have given
me in the collection of many of the facts necessary to the discussion,
and especially for the aid you have rendered in the preparation of the
maps.
Permit me to express the hope that the great interest you take in the
public domain will be rewarded by the consciousness that you have
assisted many citizens in the establishment of farm homes thereon.
I am, with great respect, your obedient servant,
J. W. POWELL,
_In charge U. S. G. and G. Survey Rocky Mountain Region_.
Hon. J. A. WILLIAMSON,
_Commissioner General Land Office, Washington, D. C._
PREFACE.
It was my intention to write a work on the Public Domain. The object
of the volume was to give the extent and character of the lands yet
belonging to the Government of the United States. Compared with the
whole extent of these lands, but a very small fraction is immediately
available for agriculture; in general, they require drainage or
irrigation for their redemption.
It is true that in the Southern States there are some millions of
acres, chiefly timber lands, which at no remote time will be occupied
for agricultural purposes. Westward toward the Great Plains, the lands
in what I have, in the body of this volume, termed the Humid Region
have passed from the hands of the General Government. To this statement
there are some small exceptions here and there--fractional tracts,
which, for special reasons, have not been considered desirable by
persons in search of lands for purposes of investment or occupation.
In the Sub-humid Region settlements are rapidly extending westward
to the verge of the country where agriculture is possible without
irrigation.
In the Humid Region of the Columbia the agricultural lands are largely
covered by great forests, and for this reason settlements will progress
slowly, as the lands must be cleared of their timber.
The redemption of the Arid Region involves engineering problems
requiring for their solution the greatest skill. In the present volume
only these lands are considered. Had I been able to execute the
original plan to my satisfaction, I should have treated of the coast
swamps of the South Atlantic and the Gulf slopes, the Everglade lands
of the Floridian Peninsula, the flood plain lands of the great rivers
of the south, which have heretofore been made available only to a
limited extent by a system of levees, and the lake swamp lands found
about the headwaters of the Mississippi and the region of the upper
Great Lakes. All of these lands require either drainage or protection
from overflow, and the engineering problems involved are of diverse
nature. These lands are to be redeemed from excessive humidity,
while the former are to be redeemed from excessive aridity. When
the excessively humid lands are redeemed, their fertility is almost
inexhaustible, and the agricultural capacity of the United States will
eventually be largely increased by the rescue of these lands from
their present valueless condition. In like manner, on the other hand,
the arid lands, so far as they can be redeemed by irrigation, will
perennially yield bountiful crops, as the means for their redemption
involves their constant fertilization.
To a great extent, the redemption of all these lands will require
extensive and comprehensive plans, for the execution of which
aggregated capital or coöperative labor will be necessary. Here,
individual farmers, being poor men, cannot undertake the task. For
its accomplishment a wise prevision, embodied in carefully considered
legislation, is necessary. It was my purpose not only to consider the
character of the lands themselves, but also the engineering problems
involved in their redemption, and further to make suggestions for the
legislative action necessary to inaugurate the enterprises by which
these lands may eventually be rescued from their present worthless
state. When I addressed myself to the broader task as indicated above,
I found that my facts in relation to some of the classes of lands
mentioned, especially the coast swamps of the Gulf and some of the
flood plain lands of the southern rivers, were too meager for anything
more than general statements. There seemed to be no immediate necessity
for the discussion of these subjects; but to the Arid Region of the
west thousands of persons are annually repairing, and the questions
relating to the utilization of these lands are of present importance.
Under these considerations I have decided to publish that portion of
the volume relating to the arid lands, and to postpone to some future
time that part relating to the excessively humid lands.
In the preparation of the contemplated volume I desired to give a
historical sketch of the legislation relating to swamp lands and
executive action thereunder; another chapter on bounty lands and land
grants for agricultural schools, and still another on land grants in
aid of internal improvements--chiefly railroads. The latter chapter has
already been prepared by Mr. Willis Drummond, jr., and as the necessary
map is ready I have concluded to publish it now, more especially as the
granted lands largely lie in the Arid Region. Mr. Drummond’s chapter
has been carefully prepared and finely written, and contains much
valuable information.
To the late Prof. Joseph Henry, secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution, I am greatly indebted for access to the records of the
Institution relating to rainfall. Since beginning my explorations and
surveys in the far west, I have received the counsel and assistance
of the venerable professor on all important matters relating to my
investigations; and whatever of value has been accomplished is due in
no small part to his wisdom and advice. I cannot but express profound
sorrow at the loss of a counselor so wise, so patient, and so courteous.
I am also indebted to Mr. Charles A. Schott, of the United States Coast
Survey, to whom the discussion of the rain gauge records has been
intrusted by the Smithsonian Institution, for furnishing to me the
required data in advance of publication by himself.
Unfortunately, the chapters written by Messrs. Gilbert, Dutton,
Thompson, and Drummond have not been proof-read by themselves, by
reason of their absence during the time when the volume was going
through the press; but this is the less to be regretted from the fact
that the whole volume has been proof-read by Mr. J. C. Pilling, whose
critical skill is all that could be desired.
J. W. P.
AUGUST, 1878.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
The first edition of this report having been exhausted in a few months
and without satisfying the demand which the importance of the subject
created, a second was ordered by Congress in March, 1879. The authors
were thus given an opportunity to revise their text and eliminate a
few formal errors which had crept in by reason of their absence while
the first edition was passing through the press. The substance of the
report is unchanged.
J. W. P.
JULY, 1879.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARID REGION: Page.
The Arid Region 5
Irrigable lands 6
Advantages of irrigation 10
Coöperative labor or capital necessary for the development of
irrigation 11
The use of smaller streams sometimes interferes with the use of the
larger 12
Increase of irrigable area by the storage of water 12
Timber lands 14
Agricultural and timber industries differentiated 18
Cultivation of timber 19
Pasturage lands 19
Pasturage farms need small tracts of irrigable land 21
The farm unit for pasturage lands 21
Regular division lines for pasturage farms not practicable 22
Farm residences should be grouped 22
Pasturage lands cannot be fenced 23
Recapitulation 23
Irrigable lands 23
Timber lands 23
Pasturage lands 24
CHAPTER II.
THE LAND-SYSTEM NEEDED FOR THE ARID REGION:
Irrigable lands 27
Timber lands 27
Pasturage lands 28
A bill to authorize the organization of irrigation districts 30
A bill to authorize the organization of pasturage districts 33
Water rights 40
The lands should be classified 43
CHAPTER III.
THE RAINFALL OF THE WESTERN PORTION OF THE UNITED STATES:
Precipitation of the Sub-humid Region 47
Precipitation of the Arid Region 48
Precipitation of the San Francisco Region 49
Precipitation of the Region of the Lower Columbia 49
Distribution of rain through the year 50
Precipitation of Texas 50
Precipitation of Dakota 51
Seasonal precipitation in the Region of the Plains 52
Seasonal precipitation in the San Francisco Region 53
Mean temperature, by seasons, for the San Francisco Region 54
Seasonal precipitation and temperature on the Pacific Coast, etc. 55
Seasonal precipitation in Arizona and New Mexico 56
CHAPTER IV.
WATER SUPPLY.--BY G. K. GILBERT:
Increase of streams 57
Rise of Great Salt Lake 58
Volcanic theory 67
Climatic theory 68
Theory of human agencies 71
Farming without irrigation 77
CHAPTER V.
CERTAIN IMPORTANT QUESTIONS RELATING TO IRRIGABLE LANDS:
The unit of water used in irrigation 81
The quantitative value of water in irrigation 81
Area of irrigable land sometimes not limited by water supply 85
Method of determining the supply of water 85
Methods of determining the extent of irrigable land unlimited by
water supply 86
The selection of irrigable lands 87
Increase in the water supply 89
CHAPTER VI.
THE LANDS OF UTAH:
Physical features 93
Timber 98
Irrigable and pasturage lands 103
Uinta-White Basin 103
The Cañon Lands 105
The Sevier Lake District 106
The Great Salt Lake District 106
Grasses 107
Table of Irrigable lands in Utah Territory 111
CHAPTER VII.
IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE SALT LAKE DRAINAGE SYSTEM.--BY G. K. GILBERT:
Irrigation by the larger streams 117
Bear River drainage basin 119
Weber River drainage basin 121
Jordan River drainage basin 124
Irrigation by smaller streams 126
CHAPTER VIII.
IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE VALLEY OF THE SEVIER RIVER.--BY CAPT. C. E.
DUTTON:
Altitudes of the San Pete Valley 133
Volume of flowing water in San Pete Valley 140
Irrigable lands of the Sevier Lake District 144
CHAPTER IX.
IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THAT PORTION OF UTAH DRAINED BY THE COLORADO RIVER
AND ITS TRIBUTARIES.--BY PROF. A. H. THOMPSON:
The Virgin River 152
Kanab Creek 154
The Paria River 155
The Escalante River 156
The Fremont River 157
The San Rafael River 158
The Price River 159
Minnie Maud Creek 159
The Uinta River 160
Ashley Fork 161
Henrys Fork 161
The White River 161
The Green River 162
The Grand River 163
The San Juan River 163
Other streams 163
Irrigable lands of the Colorado drainage 164
CHAPTER X.
LAND GRANTS IN AID OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS.--BY WILLIS DRUMMOND,
JR. 165
REPORT ON THE LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.
BY J. W. POWELL.
CHAPTER I.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARID REGION.
The eastern portion of the United States is supplied with abundant
rainfall for agricultural purposes, receiving the necessary amount
from the evaporation of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico; but
westward the amount of aqueous precipitation diminishes in a general
way until at last a region is reached where the climate is so arid that
agriculture is not successful without irrigation. This Arid Region
begins about midway in the Great Plains and extends across the Rocky
Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. But on the northwest coast there is
a region of greater precipitation, embracing western Washington and
Oregon and the northwest corner of California. The winds impinging on
this region are freighted with moisture derived from the great Pacific
currents; and where this water-laden atmosphere strikes the western
coast in full force, the precipitation is excessive, reaching a maximum
north of the Columbia River of 80 inches annually. But the rainfall
rapidly decreases from the Pacific Ocean eastward to the summit of the
Cascade Mountains. It will be convenient to designate this humid area
as the Lower Columbia Region. Rain gauge records have not been made
to such an extent as to enable us to define its eastern and southern
boundaries, but as they are chiefly along high mountains, definite
boundary lines are unimportant in the consideration of agricultural
resources and the questions relating thereto. In like manner on the
east the rain gauge records, though more full, do not give all the
facts necessary to a thorough discussion of the subject; yet the
records are such as to indicate approximately the boundary between
the Arid Region, where irrigation is necessary to agriculture, and the
Humid Region, where the lands receive enough moisture from the clouds
for the maturing of crops. Experience teaches that it is not wise to
depend upon rainfall where the amount is less than 20 inches annually,
if this amount is somewhat evenly distributed throughout the year;
but if the rainfall is unevenly distributed, so that “rainy seasons”
are produced, the question whether agriculture is possible without
irrigation depends upon the time of the “rainy season” and the amount
of its rainfall. Any unequal distribution of rain through the year,
though the inequality be so slight as not to produce “rainy seasons”,
affects agriculture either favorably or unfavorably. If the spring and
summer precipitation exceeds that of the fall and winter, a smaller
amount of annual rain may be sufficient; but if the rainfall during the
season of growing crops is less than the average of the same length
of time during the remainder of the year, a greater amount of annual
precipitation is necessary. In some localities in the western portion
of the United States this unequal distribution of rainfall through the
seasons affects agriculture favorably, and this is true immediately
west of the northern portion of the line of 20 inches of rainfall,
which extends along the plains from our northern to our southern
boundary.
The isohyetal or mean annual rainfall line of 20 inches, as indicated
on the rain chart accompanying this report, begins on the southern
boundary of the United States, about 60 miles west of Brownsville,
on the Rio Grande del Norte, and intersects the northern boundary
about 50 miles east of Pembina. Between these two points the line is
very irregular, but in middle latitudes makes a general curve to the
westward. On the southern portion of the line the rainfall is somewhat
evenly distributed through the seasons, but along the northern portion
the rainfall of spring and summer is greater than that of fall and
winter, and hence the boundary of what has been called the Arid Region
runs farther to the west. Again, there is another modifying condition,
namely, that of temperature. Where the temperature is greater, more
rainfall is needed; where the temperature is less, agriculture is
successful with a smaller amount of precipitation. But geographically
this temperature is dependent upon two conditions--altitude and
latitude. Along the northern portion of the line latitude is an
important factor, and the line of possible agriculture without
irrigation is carried still farther westward. This conclusion, based
upon the consideration of rainfall and latitude, accords with the
experience of the farmers of the region, for it is a well known fact
that agriculture without irrigation is successfully carried on in the
valley of the Red River of the North, and also in the southeastern
portion of Dakota Territory. A much more extended series of rain-gauge
records than we now have is necessary before this line constituting
the eastern boundary of the Arid Region can be well defined. It is
doubtless more or less meandering in its course throughout its whole
extent from south to north, being affected by local conditions of
rainfall, as well as by the general conditions above mentioned; but in
a general way it may be represented by the one hundredth meridian, in
some places passing to the east, in others to the west, but in the main
to the east.
The limit of successful agriculture without irrigation has been set
at 20 inches, that the extent of the Arid Region should by no means
be exaggerated; but at 20 inches agriculture will not be uniformly
successful from season to season. Many droughts will occur; many
seasons in a long series will be fruitless; and it may be doubted
whether, on the whole, agriculture will prove remunerative. On this
point it is impossible to speak with certainty. A larger experience
than the history of agriculture in the western portion of the United
States affords is necessary to a final determination of the question.
In fact, a broad belt separates the Arid Region of the west from the
Humid Region of the east. Extending from the one hundredth meridian
eastward to about the isohyetal line of 28 inches, the district of
country thus embraced will be subject more or less to disastrous
droughts, the frequency of which will diminish from west to east.
For convenience let this be called the Sub-humid Region. Its western
boundary is the line already defined as running irregularly along
the one hundredth meridian. Its eastern boundary passes west of
the isohyetal line of 28 inches of rainfall in Minnesota, running
approximately parallel to the western boundary line above described.
Nearly one-tenth of the whole area of the United States, exclusive
of Alaska, is embraced in this Sub-humid Region. In the western
portion disastrous droughts will be frequent; in the eastern portion
infrequent. In the western portion agriculturists will early resort to
irrigation to secure immunity from such disasters, and this event will
be hastened because irrigation when properly conducted is a perennial
source of fertilization, and is even remunerative for this purpose
alone; and for the same reason the inhabitants of the eastern part will
gradually develop irrigating methods. It may be confidently expected
that at a time not far distant irrigation will be practiced to a
greater or less extent throughout this Sub-humid Region. Its settlement
presents problems differing materially from those pertaining to the
region to the westward. Irrigation is not immediately necessary, and
hence agriculture does not immediately depend upon capital. The region
may be settled and its agricultural capacities more or less developed,
and the question of the construction of irrigating canals may be a
matter of time and convenience. For many reasons, much of the sub-humid
belt is attractive to settlers: it is almost destitute of forests, and
for this reason is more readily subdued, as the land is ready for the
plow. But because of the lack of forests the country is more dependent
upon railroads for the transportation of building and fencing materials
and for fuel. To a large extent it is a region where timber may be
successfully cultivated. As the rainfall is on a general average nearly
sufficient for continuous successful agriculture, the amount of water
to be supplied by irrigating canals will be comparatively small, so
that its streams can serve proportionally larger areas than the streams
of the Arid Region. In its first settlement the people will be favored
by having lands easily subdued, but they will have to contend against a
lack of timber. Eventually this will be a region of great agricultural
wealth, as in general the soils are good. From our northern to our
southern boundary no swamp lands are found, except to some slight
extent in the northeastern portion, and it has no excessively hilly or
mountainous districts. It is a beautiful prairie country throughout,
lacking somewhat in rainfall; but this want can be easily supplied by
utilizing the living streams; and, further, these streams will afford
fertilizing materials of great value.
The Humid Region of the lower Columbia and the Sub-humid Region of the
Great Plains have been thus briefly indicated in order that the great
Arid Region, which is the subject of this paper, may be more clearly
defined.
THE ARID REGION.
The Arid Region is the great Rocky Mountain Region of the United
States, and it embraces something more than four-tenths of the
whole country, excluding Alaska. In all this region the mean annual
rainfall is insufficient for agriculture, but in certain seasons some
localities, now here, now there, receive more than their average
supply. Under such conditions crops will mature without irrigation.
As such seasons are more or less infrequent even in the more favored
localities, and as the agriculturist cannot determine in advance
when such seasons may occur, the opportunities afforded by excessive
rainfall cannot be improved.
In central and northern California an unequal distribution of rainfall
through the seasons affects agricultural interests favorably. A “rainy
season” is here found, and the chief precipitation occurs in the months
of December-April. The climate, tempered by mild winds from the broad
expanse of Pacific waters, is genial, and certain crops are raised by
sowing the seeds immediately before or during the “rainy season”, and
the watering which they receive causes the grains to mature so that
fairly remunerative crops are produced. But here again the lands are
subject to the droughts of abnormal seasons. As many of these lands can
be irrigated, the farmers of the country are resorting more and more
to the streams, and soon all the living waters of this region will be
brought into requisition.
In the tables of a subsequent chapter this will be called the San
Francisco Region.
Again in eastern Washington and Oregon, and perhaps in northern Idaho,
agriculture is practiced to a limited extent without irrigation. The
conditions of climate by which this is rendered possible are not yet
fully understood. The precipitation of moisture on the mountains is
greater than on the lowlands, but the hills and mesas adjacent to the
great masses of mountains receive a little of the supply condensed by
the mountains themselves, and it will probably be found that limited
localities in Montana, and even in Wyoming, will be favored by this
condition to an extent sufficient to warrant agricultural operations
independent of irrigation. These lands, however, are usually supplied
with living streams, and their irrigation can be readily effected, and
to secure greater certainty and greater yield of crops irrigation will
be practiced in such places.
IRRIGABLE LANDS.
Within the Arid Region only a small portion of the country is
irrigable. These irrigable tracts are lowlands lying along the streams.
On the mountains and high plateaus forests are found at elevations so
great that frequent summer frosts forbid the cultivation of the soil.
Here are the natural timber lands of the Arid Region--an upper region
set apart by nature for the growth of timber necessary to the mining,
manufacturing, and agricultural industries of the country. Between the
low irrigable lands and the elevated forest lands there are valleys,
mesas, hills, and mountain slopes bearing grasses of greater or less
value for pasturage purposes.
Then, in discussing the lands of the Arid Region, three great classes
are recognized--the irrigable lands below, the forest lands above, and
the pasturage lands between. In order to set forth the characteristics
of these lands and the conditions under which they can be most
profitably utilized, it is deemed best to discuss first a somewhat
limited region in detail as a fair type of the whole. The survey under
the direction of the writer has been extended over the greater part of
Utah, a small part of Wyoming and Colorado, the northern portion of
Arizona, and a small part of Nevada, but it is proposed to take up for
this discussion only the area embraced in Utah Territory.
In Utah Territory agriculture is dependent upon irrigation. To this
statement there are some small exceptions. In the more elevated regions
there are tracts of meadow land from which small crops of hay can be
taken: such lands being at higher altitudes need less moisture, and
at the same time receive a greater amount of rainfall because of the
altitude; but these meadows have been, often are, and in future will
be, still more improved by irrigation. Again, on the belt of country
lying between Great Salt Lake and the Wasatch Mountains the local
rainfall is much greater than the general rainfall of the region.
The water evaporated from the lake is carried by the westerly winds
to the adjacent mountains on the east and again condensed, and the
rainfall thus produced extends somewhat beyond the area occupied by the
mountains, so that the foot hills and contiguous bench lands receive
a modicum of this special supply. In some seasons this additional
supply is enough to water the lands for remunerative agriculture, but
the crops grown will usually be very small, and they will be subject
to seasons of extreme drought, when all agriculture will result in
failure. Most of these lands can be irrigated, and doubtless will be,
from a consideration of the facts already stated, namely, that crops
will thereby be greatly increased and immunity from drought secured.
Perhaps other small tracts, on account of their subsoils, can be
profitably cultivated in favorable seasons, but all of these exceptions
are small, and the fact remains that agriculture is there dependent
upon irrigation. Only a small part of the territory, however, can be
redeemed, as high, rugged mountains and elevated plateaus occupy much
of its area, and these regions are so elevated that summer frosts
forbid their occupation by the farmer. Thus thermic conditions limit
agriculture to the lowlands, and here another limit is found in the
supply of water. Some of the large streams run in deep gorges so far
below the general surface of the country that they cannot be used; for
example, the Colorado River runs through the southeastern portion of
the Territory and carries a great volume of water, but no portion of
it can be utilized within the Territory from the fact that its channel
is so much below the adjacent lands. The Bear River, in the northern
part of the Territory, runs in a somewhat narrow valley, so that only
a portion of its waters can be utilized. Generally the smaller streams
can be wholly employed in agriculture, but the lands which might thus
be reclaimed are of greater extent than the amount which the streams
can serve; hence in all such regions the extent of irrigable land is
dependent upon the volume of water carried by the streams.
In order to determine the amount of irrigable land in Utah it was
necessary to determine the areas to which the larger streams can be
taken by proper engineering skill, and the amount which the smaller
streams can serve. In the latter case it was necessary to determine
first the amount of land which a given amount or unit of water would
supply, and then the volume of water running in the streams; the
product of these factors giving the extent of the irrigable lands. A
continuous flow of one cubic foot of water per second was taken as the
unit, and after careful consideration it was assumed that this unit of
water will serve from 80 to 100 acres of land. Usually the computations
have been made on the basis of 100 acres. This unit was determined in
the most practical way--from the experience of the farmers of Utah who
have been practicing agriculture for the past thirty years. Many of
the farmers will not admit that so great a tract can be cultivated by
this unit. In the early history of irrigation in this country the lands
were oversupplied with water, but experience has shown that irrigation
is most successful when the least amount of water is used necessary to
a vigorous growth of the crops; that is, a greater yield is obtained
by avoiding both scanty and excessive watering; but the tendency to
overwater the lands is corrected only by extended experience. A great
many of the waterways are so rudely constructed that much waste ensues.
As irrigating methods are improved this wastage will be avoided; so in
assuming that a cubic foot of water will irrigate from 80 to 100 acres
of land it is at the same time assumed that only the necessary amount
of water will be used, and that the waterways will eventually be so
constructed that the waste now almost universal will be prevented.
In determining the volume of water flowing in the streams great
accuracy has not been attained. For this purpose it would be necessary
to make continuous daily, or even hourly, observations for a series of
years on each stream, but by the methods described in the following
chapters it will be seen that a fair approximation to a correct amount
has been made. For the degree of accuracy reached much is due to the
fact that many of the smaller streams are already used to their fullest
capacity, and thus experience has solved the problem.
Having determined from the operations of irrigation that one cubic foot
per second of water will irrigate from 80 to 100 acres of land when the
greatest economy is used, and having determined the volume of water
or number of cubic feet per second flowing in the several streams of
Utah by the most thorough methods available under the circumstances,
it appears that within the territory, excluding a small portion in the
southeastern corner where the survey has not yet been completed, the
amount of land which it is possible to redeem by this method is about
2,262 square miles, or 1,447,920 acres. Of course this amount does not
lie in a continuous body, but is scattered in small tracts along the
water courses. For the purpose of exhibiting their situations a map
of the territory has been prepared, and will be found accompanying
this report, on which the several tracts of irrigable lands have been
colored. A glance at this map will show how they are distributed.
Excluding that small portion of the territory in the southeast corner
not embraced in the map, Utah has an area of 80,000 square miles, of
which 2,262 square miles are irrigable. That is, 2.8 per cent. of
the lands under consideration can be cultivated by utilizing all the
available streams during the irrigating season.
In addition to the streams considered in this statement there are
numerous small springs on the mountain sides scattered throughout the
territory--springs which do not feed permanent streams; and if their
waters were used for irrigation the extent of irrigable land would be
slightly increased; to what exact amount cannot be stated, but the
difference would be so small as not to materially affect the general
statement, and doubtless these springs can be used in another way and
to a better purpose, as will hereafter appear.
This statement of the facts relating to the irrigable lands of Utah
will serve to give a clearer conception of the extent and condition of
the irrigable lands throughout the Arid Region. Such as can be redeemed
are scattered along the water courses, and are in general the lowest
lands of the several districts to which they belong. In some of the
states and territories the percentage of irrigable land is less than in
Utah, in others greater, and it is probable that the percentage in the
entire region is somewhat greater than in the territory which we have
considered.
The Arid Region is somewhat more than four-tenths of the total area of
the United States, and as the agricultural interests of so great an
area are dependent upon irrigation it will be interesting to consider
certain questions relating to the economy and practicability of
distributing the waters over the lands to be redeemed.
ADVANTAGES OF IRRIGATION.
There are two considerations that make irrigation attractive to
the agriculturist. Crops thus cultivated are not subject to the
vicissitudes of rainfall; the farmer fears no droughts; his labors
are seldom interrupted and his crops rarely injured by storms. This
immunity from drought and storm renders agricultural operations much
more certain than in regions of greater humidity. Again, the water
comes down from the mountains and plateaus freighted with fertilizing
materials derived from the decaying vegetation and soils of the upper
regions, which are spread by the flowing water over the cultivated
lands. It is probable that the benefits derived from this source alone
will be full compensation for the cost of the process. Hitherto these
benefits have not been fully realized, from the fact that the methods
employed have been more or less crude. When the flow of water over the
land is too great or too rapid the fertilizing elements borne in the
waters are carried past the fields, and a washing is produced which
deprives the lands irrigated of their most valuable elements, and
little streams cut the fields with channels injurious in diverse ways.
Experience corrects these errors, and the irrigator soon learns to
flood his lands gently, evenly, and economically. It may be anticipated
that all the lands redeemed by irrigation in the Arid Region will be
highly cultivated and abundantly productive, and agriculture will
be but slightly subject to the vicissitudes of scant and excessive
rainfall.
A stranger entering this Arid Region is apt to conclude that the soils
are sterile, because of their chemical composition, but experience
demonstrates the fact that all the soils are suitable for agricultural
purposes when properly supplied with water. It is true that some of the
soils are overcharged with alkaline materials, but these can in time be
“washed out”. Altogether the fact suggests that far too much attention
has heretofore been paid to the chemical constitution of soils and
too little to those physical conditions by which moisture and air are
supplied to the roots of the growing plants.
COÖPERATIVE LABOR OR CAPITAL NECESSARY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF
IRRIGATION.
Small streams can be taken out and distributed by individual
enterprise, but coöperative labor or aggregated capital must be
employed in taking out the larger streams.
The diversion of a large stream from its channel into a system of
canals demands a large outlay of labor and material. To repay this all
the waters so taken out must be used, and large tracts of land thus
become dependent upon a single canal. It is manifest that a farmer
depending upon his own labor cannot undertake this task. To a great
extent the small streams are already employed, and but a comparatively
small portion of the irrigable lands can be thus redeemed; hence the
chief future development of irrigation must come from the use of the
larger streams. Usually the confluence of the brooks and creeks which
form a large river takes place within the mountain district which
furnishes its source before the stream enters the lowlands where
the waters are to be used. The volume of water carried by the small
streams that reach the lowlands before uniting with the great rivers,
or before they are lost in the sands, is very small when compared with
the volume of the streams which emerge from the mountains as rivers.
This fact is important. If the streams could be used along their upper
ramifications while the several branches are yet small, poor men could
occupy the lands, and by their individual enterprise the agriculture of
the country would be gradually extended to the limit of the capacity
of the region; but when farming is dependent upon larger streams such
men are barred from these enterprises until coöperative labor can be
organized or capital induced to assist. Before many years all the
available smaller streams throughout the entire region will be occupied
in serving the lands, and then all future development will depend on
the conditions above described.
In Utah Territory coöperative labor, under ecclesiastical organization,
has been very successful. Outside of Utah there are but few instances
where it has been tried; but at Greeley, in the State of Colorado, this
system has been eminently successful.
THE USE OF SMALLER STREAMS SOMETIMES INTERFERES WITH THE USE OF THE
LARGER.
A river emerging from a mountain region and meandering through a valley
may receive small tributaries along its valley course. These small
streams will usually be taken out first, and the lands which they will
be made to serve will often lie low down in the valley, because the
waters can be more easily controlled here and because the lands are
better; and this will be done without regard to the subsequent use of
the larger stream to which the smaller ones are tributary. But when the
time comes to take out the larger stream, it is found that the lands
which it can be made to serve lying adjacent on either hand are already
in part served by the smaller streams, and as it will not pay to take
out the larger stream without using all of its water, and as the people
who use the smaller streams have already vested rights in these lands,
a practical prohibition is placed upon the use of the larger river.
In Utah, church authority, to some extent at least, adjusts these
conflicting interests by causing the smaller streams to be taken out
higher up in their course. Such adjustment is not so easily attained
by the great body of people settling in the Rocky Mountain Region, and
some provision against this difficulty is an immediate necessity. It is
a difficulty just appearing, but in the future it will be one of great
magnitude.
INCREASE OF IRRIGABLE AREA BY THE STORAGE OF WATER.
Within the Arid Region great deposits of gold, silver, iron, coal,
and many other minerals are found, and the rapid development of these
mining industries will demand _pari passu_ a rapid development of
agriculture. Thus all the lands that can be irrigated will be required
for agricultural products necessary to supply the local market created
by the mines. For this purpose the waters of the non-growing season
will be stored, that they may be used in the growing season.
There are two methods of storing the waste waters. Reservoirs may be
constructed near the sources of the streams and the waters held in
the upper valleys, or the water may be run from the canals into ponds
within or adjacent to the district where irrigation is practiced.
This latter method will be employed first. It is already employed to
some extent where local interests demand and favorable opportunities
are afforded. In general, the opportunities for ponding water in this
way are infrequent, as the depressions where ponds can easily be made
are liable to be so low that the waters cannot be taken from them to
the adjacent lands, but occasionally very favorable sites for such
ponds may be found. This is especially true near the mountains where
alluvial cones have been formed at the debouchure of the streams
from the mountain cañons. Just at the foot of the mountains are many
places where ancient glaciation has left the general surface with many
depressions favorable to ponding.
Ponding in the lower region is somewhat wasteful of water, as the
evaporation is greater than above, and the pond being more or less
shallow a greater proportional surface for evaporation is presented.
This wastage is apparent when it is remembered that the evaporation in
an arid climate may be from 60 to 80 inches annually, or even greater.
Much of the waste water comes down in the spring when the streams are
high and before the growing crops demand a great supply. When this
water is stored the loss by evaporation will be small.
The greater storage of water must come from the construction of great
reservoirs in the highlands where lateral valleys may be dammed and
the main streams conducted into them by canals. On most streams
favorable sites for such water works can be found. This subject cannot
be discussed at any length in a general way, from the fact that each
stream presents problems peculiar to itself.
It cannot be very definitely stated to what extent irrigation can be
increased by the storage of water. The rainfall is much greater in
the mountain than in the valley districts. Much of this precipitation
in the mountain districts falls as snow. The great snow banks are the
reservoirs which hold the water for the growing seasons. Then the
streams are at flood tide; many go dry after the snows have been melted
by the midsummer sun; hence they supply during the irrigating time much
more water than during the remainder of the year. During the fall and
winter the streams are small; in late spring and early summer they are
very large. A day’s flow at flood time is greater than a month’s flow
at low water time. During the first part of the irrigating season less
water is needed, but during that same time the supply is greatest. The
chief increase will come from the storage of this excess of water in
the early part of the irrigating season. The amount to be stored will
then be great, and the time of this storage will be so short that it
will be but little diminished by evaporation. The waters of the fall
and winter are so small in amount that they will not furnish a great
supply, and the time for their storage will be so great that much will
be lost by evaporation. The increase by storage will eventually be
important, and it would be wise to anticipate the time when it will be
needed by reserving sites for principal reservoirs and larger ponds.
TIMBER LANDS.
Throughout the Arid Region timber of value is found growing
spontaneously on the higher plateaus and mountains. These timber
regions are bounded above and below by lines which are very irregular,
due to local conditions. Above the upper line no timber grows because
of the rigor of the climate, and below no timber grows because of
aridity. Both the upper and lower lines descend in passing from south
to north; that is, the timber districts are found at a lower altitude
in the northern portion of the Arid Region than in the southern. The
forests are chiefly of pine, spruce, and fir, but the pines are of
principal value. Below these timber regions, on the lower slopes of
mountains, on the mesas and hills, low, scattered forests are often
found, composed mainly of dwarfed piñon pines and cedars. These stunted
forests have some slight value for fuel, and even for fencing, but the
forests of principal value are found in the Timber Region as above
described.
Primarily the growth of timber depends on climatic conditions--humidity
and temperature. Where the temperature is higher, humidity must be
greater, and where the temperature is lower, humidity may be less.
These two conditions restrict the forests to the highlands, as above
stated. Of the two factors involved in the growth of timber, that
of the degree of humidity is of the first importance; the degree of
temperature affects the problem comparatively little, and for most of
the purposes of this discussion may be neglected. For convenience, all
these upper regions where conditions of temperature and humidity are
favorable to the growth of timber may be called the _timber regions_.
Not all these highlands are alike covered with forests. The timber
regions are only in part _areas of standing timber_. This limitation
is caused by fire. Throughout the timber regions of all the arid land
fires annually destroy larger or smaller districts of timber, now
here, now there, and this destruction is on a scale so vast that the
amount taken from the lands for industrial purposes sinks by comparison
into insignificance. The cause of this great destruction is worthy
of careful attention. The conditions under which these fires rage
are climatic. Where the rainfall is great and extreme droughts are
infrequent, forests grow without much interruption from fires; but
between that degree of humidity necessary for their protection, and
that smaller degree necessary to growth, all lands are swept bare by
fire to an extent which steadily increases from the more humid to the
more arid districts, until at last all forests are destroyed, though
the humidity is still sufficient for their growth if immunity from
fire were secured. The amount of mean annual rainfall necessary to the
growth of forests if protected from fire is probably about the same as
the amount necessary for agriculture without irrigation; at any rate,
it is somewhere from 20 to 24 inches. All timber growth below that
amount is of a character so stunted as to be of little value, and the
growth is so slow that, when once the timber has been taken from the
country, the time necessary for a new forest growth is so great that no
practical purpose is subserved.
The evidence that the growth of timber, if protected from fires,
might be extended to the limits here given is abundant. It is a
matter of experience that planted forests thus protected will thrive
throughout the prairie region and far westward on the Great Plains.
In the mountain region it may be frequently observed that forest
trees grow low down on the mountain slopes and in the higher valleys
wherever local circumstances protect them from fires, as in the case
of rocky lands that give insufficient footing to the grass and shrubs
in which fires generally spread. These cases must not be confounded
with those patches of forest that grow on alluvial cones where rivers
leave mountain cañons and enter valleys or plains. Here the streams,
clogged by the material washed from the adjacent mountains by storms,
are frequently turned from their courses and divided into many
channels running near the surface. Thus a subterranean watering is
effected favorable to the growth of trees, as their roots penetrate to
sufficient depth. Usually this watering is too deep for agriculture, so
that forests grow on lands that cannot be cultivated without irrigation.
Fire is the immediate cause of the lack of timber on the prairies,
the eastern portion of the Great Plains, and on some portions of the
highlands of the Arid Region; but fires obtain their destructive force
through climatic conditions, so that directly and remotely climate
determines the growth of all forests. Within the region where prairies,
groves, and forests appear, the local distribution of timber growth is
chiefly dependent upon drainage and soil, a subject which needs not
be here discussed. Only a small portion of the Rocky Mountain Region
is protected by climatic conditions from the invasion of fires, and a
sufficiency of forests for the country depends upon the control which
can be obtained over that destructive agent. A glance at the map of
Utah will exhibit the extent and distribution of the forest region
throughout that territory, and also show what portions of it are in
fact occupied by standing timber. The _area of standing timber_, as
exhibited on the map, is but a part of the Timber Region as there
shown, and includes all of the timber, whether dense or scattered.
Necessarily the area of standing timber has been generalized. It
was not found practicable to indicate the growth of timber in any
refined way by grading it, and by rejecting from the general area
the innumerable small open spaces. If the area of standing timber
were considered by acres, and all acres not having timber valuable
for milling purposes rejected, the extent would be reduced at least
to one-fourth of that colored. Within the territory represented on
the map the Timber Region has an extent of 18,500 square miles; that
is, 23 per cent. belongs to the Timber Region. The general area of
standing timber is about 10,000 square miles, or 12.5 per cent. of
the entire area. The area of milling timber, determined in the more
refined way indicated above, is about 2,500 square miles, or 3¹⁄₈ per
cent. of the area embraced on the map. In many portions of the Arid
Region these percentages are much smaller. This is true of southern
California, Nevada, southern Arizona, and Idaho. In other regions the
percentages are larger. Utah gives about a fair average. In general it
may be stated that the timber regions are fully adequate to the growth
of all the forests which the industrial interests of the country will
require if they can be protected from desolation by fire. No limitation
to the use of the forests need be made. The amount which the citizens
of the country will require will bear but a small proportion to the
amount which the fires will destroy; and if the fires are prevented,
the renewal by annual growth will more than replace that taken by
man. The protection of the forests of the entire Arid Region of the
United States is reduced to one single problem--Can these forests be
saved from fire? The writer has witnessed two fires in Colorado, each
of which destroyed more timber than all that used by the citizens of
that State from its settlement to the present day; and at least three
in Utah, each of which has destroyed more timber than that taken by
the people of the territory since its occupation. Similar fires have
been witnessed by other members of the surveying corps. Everywhere
throughout the Rocky Mountain Region the explorer away from the beaten
paths of civilization meets with great areas of dead forests; pines
with naked arms and charred trunks attesting to the former presence of
this great destroyer. The younger forests are everywhere beset with
fallen timber, attesting to the rigor of the flames, and in seasons of
great drought the mountaineer sees the heavens filled with clouds of
smoke.
In the main these fires are set by Indians. Driven from the lowlands
by advancing civilization, they resort to the higher regions until
they are forced back by the deep snows of winter. Want, caused by
the restricted area to which they resort for food; the desire for
luxuries to which they were strangers in their primitive condition, and
especially the desire for personal adornment, together with a supply
of more effective instruments for hunting and trapping, have in late
years, during the rapid settlement of the country since the discovery
of gold and the building of railroads, greatly stimulated the pursuit
of animals for their furs--the wealth and currency of the savage. On
their hunting excursions they systematically set fire to forests for
the purpose of driving the game. This is a fact well known to all
mountaineers. Only the white hunters of the region properly understand
why these fires are set, it being usually attributed to a wanton
desire on the part of the Indians to destroy that which is of value to
the white man. The fires can, then, be very greatly curtailed by the
removal of the Indians.
These forest regions are made such by inexorable climatic conditions.
They are high among the summer frosts. The plateaus are scored by deep
cañons, and the mountains are broken with crags and peaks. Perhaps at
some distant day a hardy people will occupy little glens and mountain
valleys, and wrest from an unwilling soil a scanty subsistence among
the rigors of a sub-arctic climate. Herdsmen having homes below may
in the summer time drive their flocks to the higher lands to crop the
scanty herbage. Where mines are found mills will be erected and little
towns spring up, but in general habitations will be remote. The forests
will be dense here or scattered there, as the trees may with ease or
difficulty gain a foothold, but the forest regions will remain such, to
be stripped of timber here and there from time to time to supply the
wants of the people who live below; but once protected from fires, the
forests will increase in extent and value. The first step to be taken
for their protection must be by prohibiting the Indians from resorting
thereto for hunting purposes, and then slowly, as the lower country
is settled, the grasses and herbage of the highlands, in which fires
generally spread, will be kept down by summer pasturage, and the dead
and fallen timber will be removed to supply the wants of people below.
This protection, though sure to come at last, will be tardy, for it
depends upon the gradual settlement of the country; and this again
depends upon the development of the agricultural and mineral resources
and the establishment of manufactories, and to a very important extent
on the building of railroads, for the whole region is so arid that its
streams are small, and so elevated above the level of the sea that its
few large streams descend too rapidly for navigation.
AGRICULTURAL AND TIMBER INDUSTRIES DIFFERENTIATED.
It is apparent that the irrigable lands are more or less remote
from the timber lands; and as the larger streams are employed for
irrigation, in the future the extended settlements will be still
farther away. The pasturage lands that in a general way intervene
between the irrigable and timber lands have a scanty supply of
dwarfed forests, as already described, and the people in occupying
these lands will not resort, to any great extent, to the mountains for
timber; hence timber and agricultural enterprises will be more or less
differentiated; lumbermen and woodmen will furnish to the people below
their supply of building and fencing material and fuel. In some cases
it will be practicable for the farmers to own their timber lands, but
in general the timber will be too remote, and from necessity such a
division of labor will ensue.
CULTIVATION OF TIMBER.
In the irrigable districts much timber will be cultivated along the
canals and minor waterways. It is probable that in time a sufficient
amount will thus be raised to supply the people of the irrigable
districts with fuel wherever such fuel is needed, but often such a
want will not exist, for in the Rocky Mountain Region there is a great
abundance of lignitic coals that may be cheaply mined. All these coals
are valuable for domestic purposes, and many superior grades are found.
These coals are not uniformly distributed, but generally this source of
fuel is ample.
PASTURAGE LANDS.
The irrigable lands and timber lands constitute but a small fraction
of the Arid Region. Between the lowlands on the one hand and the
highlands on the other is found a great body of valley, mesa, hill,
and low mountain lands. To what extent, and under what conditions
can they be utilized? Usually they bear a scanty growth of grasses.
These grasses are nutritious and valuable both for summer and winter
pasturage. Their value depends upon peculiar climatic conditions;
the grasses grow to a great extent in scattered bunches, and mature
seeds in larger proportion perhaps than the grasses of the more humid
regions. In general the winter aridity is so great that the grasses
when touched by the frosts are not washed down by the rains and snows
to decay on the moist soil, but stand firmly on the ground all winter
long and “cure”, forming a _quasi_ uncut hay. Thus the grass lands are
of value both in summer and winter. In a broad way, the greater or
lesser abundance of the grasses is dependent on latitude and altitude;
the higher the latitude the better are the grasses, and they improve
as the altitude increases. In very low altitudes and latitudes the
grasses are so scant as to be of no value; here the true deserts are
found. These conditions obtain in southern California, southern Nevada,
southern Arizona, and southern New Mexico, where broad reaches of land
are naked of vegetation, but in ascending to the higher lands the grass
steadily improves. Northward the deserts soon disappear, and the grass
becomes more and more luxuriant to our northern boundary. In addition
to the desert lands mentioned, other large deductions must be made from
the area of the pasturage lands. There are many districts in which the
“country rock” is composed of incoherent sands and clays; sometimes
sediments of ancient Tertiary lakes; elsewhere sediments of more
ancient Cretaceous seas. In these districts perennial or intermittent
streams have carved deep waterways, and the steep hills are ever washed
naked by fierce but infrequent storms, as the incoherent rocks are
unable to withstand the beating of the rain. These districts are known
as the _mauvaises terres_ or bad lands of the Rocky Mountain Region.
In other areas the streams have carved labyrinths of deep gorges and
the waters flow at great depths below the general surface. The lands
between the streams are beset with towering cliffs, and the landscape
is an expanse of naked rock. These are the alcove lands and cañon lands
of the Rocky Mountain Region. Still other districts have been the
theater of late volcanic activity, and broad sheets of naked lava are
found; cinder cones are frequent, and scoria and ashes are scattered
over the land. These are the lava-beds of the Rocky Mountain Region. In
yet other districts, low broken mountains are found with rugged spurs
and craggy crests. Grasses and chaparral grow among the rocks, but such
mountains are of little value for pasturage purposes.
After making all the deductions, there yet remain vast areas of
valuable pasturage land bearing nutritious but scanty grass. The lands
along the creeks and rivers have been relegated to that class which
has been described as irrigable, hence the lands under consideration
are away from the permanent streams. No rivers sweep over them and no
creeks meander among their hills.
Though living water is not abundant, the country is partially supplied
by scattered springs, that often feed little brooks whose waters
never join the great rivers on their way to the sea, being able to
run but a short distance from their fountains, when they spread among
the sands to be reëvaporated. These isolated springs and brooks will
in many cases furnish the water necessary for the herds that feed on
the grasses. When springs are not found wells may be sometimes dug,
and where both springs and wells fail reservoirs may be constructed.
Wherever grass grows water may be found or saved from the rains in
sufficient quantities for all the herds that can live on the pasturage.
PASTURAGE FARMS NEED SMALL TRACTS OF IRRIGABLE LAND.
The men engaged in stock raising need small areas of irrigable lands
for gardens and fields where agricultural products can be raised for
their own consumption, and where a store of grain and hay may be raised
for their herds when pressed by the severe storms by which the country
is sometimes visited. In many places the lone springs and streams are
sufficient for these purposes. Another and larger source of water for
the fertilization of the gardens and fields of the pasturage farms is
found in the smaller branches and upper ramifications of the larger
irrigating streams. These brooks can be used to better advantage for
the pasturage farms as a supply of water for stock gardens and small
fields than for farms where agriculture by irrigation is the only
industry. The springs and brooks of the permanent drainage can be
employed in making farms attractive and profitable where large herds
may be raised in many great districts throughout the Rocky Mountain
Region.
The conditions under which these pasturage lands can be employed are
worthy of consideration.
THE FARM UNIT FOR PASTURAGE LANDS.
The grass is so scanty that the herdsman must have a large area for the
support of his stock. In general a quarter section of land alone is of
no value to him; the pasturage it affords is entirely inadequate to the
wants of a herd that the poorest man needs for his support.
Four square miles may be considered as the minimum amount necessary
for a pasturage farm, and a still greater amount is necessary for
the larger part of the lands; that is, pasturage farms, to be of
any practicable value, must be of at least 2,560 acres, and in many
districts they must be much larger.[1]
[1] For the determination of the proper unit for pasturage farms the
writer has conferred with many persons living in the Rocky Mountain
Region who have had experience. His own observations have been
extensive, and for many years while conducting surveys and making long
journeys through the Arid Region this question has been uppermost in
his mind. He fears that this estimate will disappoint many of his
western friends, who will think he has placed the minimum too low, but
after making the most thorough examination of the subject possible he
believes the amount to be sufficient for the best pasturage lands,
especially such as are adjacent to the minor streams of the general
drainage, and when these have been taken by actual settlers the size of
the pasturage farms may be increased as experience proves necessary.
REGULAR DIVISION LINES FOR PASTURAGE FARMS NOT PRACTICABLE.
Many a brook which runs but a short distance will afford sufficient
water for a number of pasturage farms; but if the lands are surveyed in
regular tracts as square miles or townships, all the water sufficient
for a number of pasturage farms may fall entirely within one division.
If the lands are thus surveyed, only the divisions having water will
be taken, and the farmer obtaining title to such a division or farm
could practically occupy all the country adjacent by owning the water
necessary to its use. For this reason divisional surveys should conform
to the topography, and be so made as to give the greatest number of
water fronts. For example, a brook carrying water sufficient for
the irrigation of 200 acres of land might be made to serve for the
irrigation of 20 acres to each of ten farms, and also supply the water
for all the stock that could live on ten pasturage farms, and ten small
farmers could have homes. But if the water was owned by one man, nine
would be excluded from its benefits and nine-tenths of the land remain
in the hands of the government.
FARM RESIDENCES SHOULD BE GROUPED.
These lands will maintain but a scanty population. The homes must
necessarily be widely scattered from the fact that the farm unit
must be large. That the inhabitants of these districts may have the
benefits of the local social organizations of civilization--as schools,
churches, etc., and the benefits of coöperation in the construction of
roads, bridges, and other local improvements, it is essential that the
residences should be grouped to the greatest possible extent. This may
be practically accomplished by making the pasturage farms conform to
topographic features in such manner as to give the greatest possible
number of water fronts.
PASTURAGE LANDS CANNOT BE FENCED.
The great areas over which stock must roam to obtain subsistence
usually prevents the practicability of fencing the lands. It will
not pay to fence the pasturage fields, hence in many cases the lands
must be occupied by herds roaming in common; for poor men coöperative
pasturage is necessary, or communal regulations for the occupancy of
the ground and for the division of the increase of the herds. Such
communal regulations have already been devised in many parts of the
country.
RECAPITULATION.
The Arid Region of the United States is more than four-tenths of the
area of the entire country excluding Alaska.
In the Arid Region there are three classes of lands, namely, irrigable
lands, timber lands, and pasturage lands.
IRRIGABLE LANDS.
Within the Arid Region agriculture is dependent upon irrigation.
The amount of irrigable land is but a small percentage of the whole
area.
The chief development of irrigation depends upon the use of the large
streams.
For the use of large streams coöperative labor or capital is necessary.
The small streams should not be made to serve lands so as to interfere
with the use of the large streams.
Sites for reservoirs should be set apart, in order that no hinderance
may be placed upon the increase of irrigation by the storage of water.
TIMBER LANDS.
The timber regions are on the elevated plateaus and mountains.
The timber regions constitute from 20 to 25 per cent. of the Arid
Region.
The area of standing timber is much less than the timber region, as the
forests have been partially destroyed by fire.
The timber regions cannot be used as farming lands; they are valuable
for forests only.
To preserve the forests they must be protected from fire. This will be
largely accomplished by removing the Indians.
The amount of timber used for economic purposes will be more than
replaced by the natural growth.
In general the timber is too far from the agricultural lands to be
owned and utilized directly by those who carry on farming by irrigation.
A division of labor is necessary, and special timber industries will be
developed, and hence the timber lands must be controlled by lumbermen
and woodmen.
PASTURAGE LANDS.
The grasses of the pasturage lands are scant, and the lands are of
value only in large quantities.
The farm unit should not be less than 2,560 acres.
Pasturage farms need small tracts of irrigable land; hence the small
streams of the general drainage system and the lone springs and streams
should be reserved for such pasturage farms.
The division of these lands should be controlled by topographic
features in such manner as to give the greatest number of water fronts
to the pasturage farms.
Residences of the pasturage farms should be grouped, in order to secure
the benefits of local social organizations, and coöperation in public
improvements.
The pasturage lands will not usually be fenced, and hence herds must
roam in common.
As the pasturage lands should have water fronts and irrigable tracts,
and as the residences should be grouped, and as the lands cannot
be economically fenced and must be kept in common, local communal
regulations or coöperation is necessary.