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DELINEATIONS
OF
THE OX TRIBE.
[Illustration: THE SANGA OR GALLA OX OF ABYSSINIA, _v._ p. 120.]
DELINEATIONS
OF
THE OX TRIBE;
OR,
THE NATURAL HISTORY OF
BULLS, BISONS, AND BUFFALOES.
EXHIBITING
ALL THE KNOWN SPECIES
AND THE MORE REMARKABLE VARIETIES
OF
THE GENUS BOS.
BY GEORGE VASEY.
ILLUSTRATED BY 72 ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD, BY THE AUTHOR.
LONDON:
PUBLISHED BY G. BIGGS, 421, STRAND.
1851.
C. AND J. ADLARD, PRINTERS, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.
* * * * *
TO
WILLIAM YARRELL, Esq., F.L.S., F.Z.S.,
WHOSE SCIENTIFIC WORKS ON ZOOLOGY
PLACE HIM IN THE FIRST RANK OF NATURALISTS;
AND, MOREOVER,
WHOSE UNOSTENTATIOUS KINDNESS IN CONSULTING THE FEELINGS
AND ADVANCING THE INTERESTS OF OTHERS
IS RARELY EQUALLED,
This Volume is inscribed,
BY HIS SINCERE FRIEND AND ADMIRER,
THE AUTHOR.
PREFACE.
The primary object of the present work, is to give as correct and
comprehensive a view of the animals composing the Ox Tribe, as the
present state of our knowledge will admit, accompanied by authentic
figures of all the known species and the more remarkable varieties.
Although this genus (comprising all those Ruminants called Buffaloes,
Bisons, and Oxen generally,) is as distinct and well characterised as
any other genus in the animal kingdom, yet the facts which are at
present known respecting the various species which compose it, are not
sufficiently numerous to enable the naturalist to divide them into
sub-genera. This is abundantly proved by the unsuccessful result of
those attempts which have already been made to arrange them into minor
groups. Nor can we wonder at this want of success, when we consider that
even many of the species usually regarded as distinct are by no means
clearly defined.
The second object, therefore, of this treatise, is (by bringing into
juxta-position all the most important facts concerning the various
individual specimens which have been described, and by adding several
other facts of importance which have not hitherto been noticed,) to
enable the naturalist to define, more correctly than has yet been done,
the peculiarities of each species.
A third object is to direct the attention of travellers more
particularly to this subject; in order that, by their exertions, our
information upon this class of animals may be rendered more complete.
A new and important feature in the present Monograph, is the
introduction of a Table of the Number of Vertebrae, carefully constructed
from an examination of the actual skeletons, by which will be seen at a
glance the principal osteological differences of species which have
hitherto been confounded with each other. A Table of the Periods of
Gestation is likewise added, which presents some equally interesting
results.
Several of the descriptions have been verified by a reference to the
living animals, seven specimens of which are at present (1847) in the
Gardens of the Zoological Society, Regent's Park. The several Museums in
the Metropolis have likewise been consulted with advantage.
I am indebted to Judge FURNAM, of the United States, for some original
information respecting the American Bison; and also to the late Mr.
COLE, who was forty years park-keeper at Chillingham, for answers to
several questions which I proposed to him on the subject of the
Chillingham Cattle.
I beg to acknowledge my obligation to Mr. CATLIN for kindly allowing me,
not only to make extracts, but also to copy some of the outlines from
his 'Letters and Notes on the North American Indians,' a work which I do
not hesitate to pronounce one of the most curious and interesting which
the present century has produced,--whether we regard the graphic merits
of its literary or pictorial department.
To Professor OWEN and the Officers of the Royal College of Surgeons, to
the Officers of the Zoological Society, and to the Officers of the
Zoological Department of the British Museum, my sincere thanks are due
for the kindness and promptness with which every information has been
given, and every facility afforded to my inquiries and investigations.
With respect to the engraved figures, I have striven to produce correct
delineations of form and texture, rather than to make pretty pictures by
sacrificing truth and nature for the sake of ideal beauty and artistic
effect.
I cannot conclude this Preface without expressing my thanks to Messrs.
ADLARD for the first-rate style in which this volume has been printed;
particularly for the successful manner in which the impressions of the
engravings have been produced, superior, in general, to India-proof
impressions.
_King Street, Camden Town;_
_May, 1851._
ADDENDUM.
PENNANT--BUFFON--GOLDSMITH--BEWICK--BINGLEY.
In addition to the critical remarks on the writings of others, on this
subject, which the reader will find in the following pages, I have
further to observe that, although Pennant and Buffon have held a very
high character, for many years, as scientific naturalists, the portion
of their works which treats of the _Genus Bos_, appears to have been the
result of the most careless and superficial observation. With the
exception of the facts and observations furnished by such men as
Daubenton and Pallas, Buffon's works are little more than flimsy
speculations. As to Pennant's history of the Ox Tribe, it is calculated
rather to bewilder than to inform; it is, in fact, an incoherent mass of
dubious statements, huddled together in a most inextricable confusion:
as a piece of Natural History it is absolutely worse than nothing.
Goldsmith, Bewick, and Bingley, three of our most popular writers on
Natural History, appear to have done little more than compile from
Pennant and Buffon, and consequently are but little deserving of credit.
These strictures apply exclusively to such portions of their works as
relate to the Ox Tribe.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page
Introduction 1
American Bison 21
Aurochs 40
Yak 45
Gyall 51
Gayal 57
Domestic Gayal 68
Jungly Gau 71
Buffalo 75
Italian Buffalo 76
Manilla Buffalo 81
Condore Buffalo 84
Cape Buffalo 86
Pegasse 95
Gaur 97
Arnee 105
Zamouse 112
Musk Ox 115
Galla Ox 120
Zebu, or Brahmin Bull 125
Backeley Ox 133
African Bull 137
Chillingham Cattle 140
Kyloe, or Highland Ox 150
Table of the Number of Vertebrae 152
Table of the Periods of Gestation 153
Note on the Skeleton of the American Bison 154
APPENDIX.
Page
Free Martin 155
Short-nosed Ox 159
On the utility of the Ox Tribe to Mankind 160
Account of Alpine Cowherds
--Notice of Ranz des Vaches 164
Table of Habitat 168
---- Mode of Life 169
Indefinite Definitions of Col. H. Smith 170
Mr. Swainson's Transcendental Attempt at
Classification 176
On Species and Variety 181
Banteng (_Bos Bantiger_) 185
British Domestic Cattle 186
Influence of Colour in Breeding ib.
Influence of Male in Breeding 187
Generative Precocity ib.
Milk 188
Butter 189
Mr. Youatt's Philosophy of Rabies 190
Statistics 192
LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.
(_The Engravings not otherwise acknowledged are from original
Drawings._)
Page
1. Frontispiece.--The Sangu, or Abyssinian Ox i
2. Stomach of Manilla Buffalo 4
3. Gastro-duct (Oesophagean Canal), after Flourens 6
4. Stomach of a young Calf 12
5. Stomach of a full-grown Cow 13
6. Skull of Domestic Ox 17
7. Skeleton of Domestic Ox 20
8. American Bison 21
9. Young Female Bison 23
10. Wounded Bison 24
11. Indian shooting a Bison 29
12. Bison surrounded by Wolves 32
13. Bison Calf, after Cuvier 33
14. Skin Canoes of the Mandan Indians 36
15. Head of young Male Bison 39
16. Aurochs, or European Bison 40
17. Yak, from Asiatic Transactions 45
18. Yak, from Oriental Annual 49
19. Gyall (_Bos Frontalis_) 51
20. Head of Gyall 53
21. Gayal, from Asiatic Transactions 58
22. Head of Asseel Gayal 67
23. Domestic Gayal 68
24. Skull of Domestic Gayal 69
25. Occipital View of the same Skull ib.
26. Head of Domestic Gayal ib.
27. Jungly Gau, after Cuvier 71
28. Syrian Ox, anon. 74
29. Italian Buffalo--Brandt and Ratzeburg 76
30. Herefordshire Cow, after Howitt 80
31. Manilla Buffalo 81
32. Outlines of Buffaloes Backs 82
33. Head of Manilla Buffalo 83
34. Pulo Condore Buffalo 84
35. Short-horned Bull, after Howitt 85
36. Cape Buffalo 86
37. Young Cape Buffalo, after Col. Smith 90
38. Head of Cape Buffalo 94
39. Pegasse, from a Drawing in the Berlin Library 95
40. Horns of Cape Buffalo 96
41. Gaur, from Specimen in British Museum 97
42. Horns of Gaur, Edin. Phil. Trans. 103
43. Head of Gaur 104
44. Arnee, from Shaw's Zoology 105
45. Horns of Young Arnee, from 'The Bee' 107
46. Horns of Arnee, from Mus. Coll. Surg. 108
47. Horns of Arnee, from British Museum ib.
48. Arnee from Indian Painting 111
49. Zamouse, or Bush Cow 112
50. Head of Zamouse 114
51. Musk Ox 115
52. Foot of Musk Ox, Griff., Cuv. 117
53. Head of Musk Ox 119
54. Horns of Galla Ox, Mus. Coll. Surg. 123
55. Horns of Hungarian Ox, Brit. Mus. 124
56. Brahmin Bull, Harvey, Zool. Gar. 125
57. Zebu (var. beta), after Cuvier 128
58. Zebus (var. gamma) and Car, anon. 129
59. Zebu (var. delta), anon. 132
60. African Bull, Harvey 137
61. Eyes of African Bull, Harvey 139
62. Lateral Hoofs of African Bull, Harvey ib.
63. Dewlap of African Bull, Harvey 139
64. Chillingham Bull 140
65. Heads of Chillingham Cattle 148
66. Kyloe, or Highland Ox, Howitt 150
67. Free Martin, Hunter's Animal Economy 156
Skull of Domestic Ox, (repetition of fig. 6) 158
68. Skull of Short-nosed Ox of the Pampas 159
69. Outlines of Manilla Buffalo 174
70. Hungarian Ox, from British Museum 175
71. Banteng, from a Specimen in Brit. Mus. 185
72. Alderney Cow, after Howitt 189
INTRODUCTION.
Ruminantia is the term used by naturalists to designate those
mammiferous quadrupeds which chew the cud; or, in other words, which
swallow their food, in the first instance, with a very slight
mastication, and afterwards regurgitate it, in order that it may undergo
a second and more complete mastication: this second operation is called
ruminating, or chewing the cud. The order of animals which possess this
peculiarity, is divided into nine groups or genera, namely:--
CAMELS.
LLAMAS.
MUSKS.
DEER.
GIRAFFES.
ANTELOPES.
GOATS.
SHEEP.
OXEN.
The last named forms the subject of the following pages, and is called,
in zoological language, the _Genus Bos_, in popular language, the OX
TRIBE.
One of the most interesting occupations which the wide field of Zoology
offers to the naturalist, is the investigation of those remarkable
adaptations of organs to functions, and of these again to the
necessities and well-being of the entire animal. Nor does it in the
least diminish our interest in the investigation of individual
adaptations, or our admiration on becoming acquainted with them, that we
know, _a priori_, this universal truth, that all the constituents of
every organised body, be that organisation what it may, are invariably
adapted, in the most perfect manner, to each other, and to the whole.
It is by a knowledge of this exact harmony in the animal economy, that
the comparative anatomist can determine, with almost unerring precision,
the genus, or even species of an animal, by an examination of any
important part of its organisation, as the teeth, stomach, bones, or
extremities. In some cases, a single bone, or even the fragment of a
bone, is sufficient to convey an idea of the entire animal to which it
belonged.
In illustration of this:--if the viscera of an animal are so organised
as only to be fitted for the digestion of recent flesh, we find that the
jaws are so contracted as to fit them for devouring prey; the claws for
seizing and tearing it to pieces; the teeth for cutting and dividing its
flesh; the entire system of the limbs, or organs of motion, for pursuing
and overtaking it; and the organs of sense for discovering it at a
distance. Moreover, the brain of the animal is also endowed with
instincts sufficient for concealing itself, and for laying plans to
catch its necessary prey.
Again, we are well aware that all _hoofed_ animals must necessarily be
herbivorous, or vegetable feeders, because they are possessed of no
means of seizing prey. It is also evident, having no other use for their
fore-legs than to support their bodies, that they have no occasion for
a shoulder so vigorously organised as that of carnivorous animals; owing
to which they have no clavicles, and their shoulder-blades are
proportionally narrow. Having also no occasion to turn their forearms,
their radius is joined by ossification to the ulna, or is at least
articulated by gynglymus with the humerus. Their food being entirely
herbaceous, requires teeth with flat surfaces, on purpose to bruise the
seeds and plants on which they feed. For this purpose, also, these
surfaces require to be unequal, and are, consequently, composed of
alternate perpendicular layers of enamel and softer bone. Teeth of this
structure necessarily require horizontal motions to enable them to
triturate, or grind down the herbaceous food; and accordingly the
condyles of the jaw could not be formed into such confined joints as in
the carnivorous animals, but must have a flattened form, correspondent
to sockets in the temporal bones. The depressions, also, of the temporal
bones, having smaller muscles to contain, are narrower and not so deep;
and so on, throughout the whole organisation.
The digestive system of the ruminantia is more complicated in structure
than that of any other class of animals; and, owing to this complexity,
and the consequent difficulty of investigating it, its nature and
functions have been less perfectly understood.
The stomach of the Manilla Buffalo, which will serve as an example of
all the other species, is divided into four cavities or ventricles,
which are usually (but improperly) considered as four distinct
stomachs.
The following figure represents the form, relative size, and position of
these four cavities when detached from the animal, and fully inflated.
[Illustration: _a._ First cavity, called the paunch.
_b._ Second ditto, the honeycomb bag.
_c._ Third ditto, the many-plies.
_d._ Fourth ditto, the reed, or rennet.
_e._ A portion of the oesophagus, showing its connection with the
stomach.
_f._ The pylorus, or opening into the intestines.]
The interior of those cavities present some remarkable differences in
point of structure, which, in the present work, can only be alluded to
in a very general manner. For a particular account of the internal
anatomy of these complicated organs, the reader is referred to the
interesting work on 'Cattle,' by W. Youatt.
The paunch is lined with a thick membrane, presenting numerous prominent
and hard papillae. The inner surface of the second cavity is very
artificially divided into angular cells, giving it somewhat the
appearance of honeycomb, whence its name "honeycomb-bag." The lining
membrane of the third cavity forms numerous deep folds, lying upon each
other like the leaves of a book, and beset with small hard tubercles.
These folds vary in breadth in a regular alternate order, a narrow fold
being placed between each of the broader ones. The fourth cavity is
lined with a velvety mucous membrane disposed in longitudinal folds. It
is this part of the stomach that furnishes the gastric juice, and,
consequently, it is in this cavity that the proper digestion of the food
takes place; it is here, also, that the milk taken by the calf is
coagulated. The reed or fourth cavity of the calf's stomach retains its
power of coagulating milk even after it has been taken from the animal.
We have a familiar instance of its operation in the formation of curds
and whey.
The first and second cavities (_a_ and _b_) are placed parallel (or on a
level) with each other; and the oesophagus (_e_) opens, almost
equally, into them both. On each side of the termination of the
oesophagus there is a muscular ridge projecting, so that the two
together form a sort of groove or channel, which opens almost equally
into the second and third cavities (_b_ and _c_).
[As there has not been, as far as I am aware, any appropriate name given
to this very remarkable part of the stomach of ruminants, I here take
the liberty of suggesting the term _Gastro-duct_, by which epithet this
muscular channel will be designated in the following pages.]
[Illustration: View of Gastro-duct, after Flourens.
_a._ A portion of the oesophagus cut open, showing the internal folds
of the mucous membrane.
_b._ The opening of the oesophagus into the paunch.
_c, c._ The gastro-duct.
_d, d._ Muscular fibres passing completely round the edge of the
gastro-duct, and forming a sort of sphincter.
_e._ The opening from the gastro-duct into the third cavity.]
All these parts, namely, the oesophagus, the gastro-duct, and the
first three cavities, not only communicate with each other, but they
communicate by one common point, and that point is the gastro-duct. At
the extremity of the third cavity, opposite to that at which the
gastro-duct enters it, is an aperture which communicates immediately
with the fourth cavity (_d_).
Such is a very brief description of the complicated stomach of the Ox
Tribe. In what manner the food passes through this curious arrangement
of cavities is a problem which has engaged the attention of naturalists
from a very early period. A host of great men might be cited who have
failed to solve it. The French physiologist, M. Flourens, by his recent
experiments, has done more than any or all of his predecessors to give
clearness and precision to this intricate subject.
The following is an abstract of the most important of his experiments:--
A sheep having been fed on fresh trefoil, was killed and opened
immediately,--that is, before the process of rumination had commenced.
He (M. Flourens) found the greatest part of this herb (easily recognised
by its leaves, which were still almost entire,) in the paunch; but he
also found a certain portion (_une partie notable_) of those leaves (in
the same unmasticated state) in the honeycomb. In the other two
cavities, (the many-plies and the reed,) there was absolutely none.
M. Flourens repeated this experiment a great many times, with herbs of
various kinds, and the result was constantly the same: from which it
appears, that herbaceous food, on its first deglutition, enters into the
honeycomb, as well as into the paunch; the proportion, however, being
considerably greater into the paunch than into the honeycomb. It appears
equally certain that, in the first swallowing, this kind of food _only_
enters into the first two cavities, and never passes into the many-plies
or the reed.
Having ascertained this fact with respect to _herbs_, he instituted a
similar series of experiments, in which the animals were fed upon
various kinds of _grain_,--rye, barley, wheat, oats, &c. The animals
were killed and examined, as in the former experiments, immediately
after being fed. He found the greater part of the grain unmasticated
(_tout entier_) in the paunch; but, as in the case of the herbs, he also
found a certain portion, in the same unmasticated state, in the
honeycomb. Neither the many-plies nor the reed contained a single grain.
He repeated these experiments many times, and always with the same
result.
He then tried the effect of carrots cut into pieces, from half an inch
to an inch in length; and in order that the animals might not chew them,
he passed them into the pharynx by means of a tube. In one of these
sheep he found all the morsels in the paunch; but, in the other two,
some of the morsels were in the honeycomb, and some in the paunch. In
all the three cases, there was none either in the many-plies or in the
reed.
He then proceeded to ascertain the effect of substances previously
comminuted. He caused a certain quantity of carrots to be reduced to a
kind of mash, with which he fed two sheep, and opened them immediately
afterwards. He found the greatest part of this mash in the paunch and in
the honeycomb; but he likewise found a certain portion in the many-plies
and in the reed.
His next experiments were made upon plain fluids. It is the opinion of
the generality of authors on this subject that fluids pass immediately
and _entirely_, along the gastro-duct, into the third and fourth
cavities. But, according to the experiments of M. Flourens, this is not
the case. He found, by making artificial openings (_anus artificiel_) in
the stomachs of various sheep, that, as the animals drank, the fluid
came directly out at the opening, in whatever cavity it might have been
made.
It is clear, then, that fluids pass, in part, into the first and second
cavities, and, in part, into the third and fourth; and they pass as
directly into the former as into the latter.
The following is the result of some experiments which M. Flourens made
respecting the formation of the pellets.
In the first place, after the animal has swallowed a certain quantity of
food the first time, successive pellets are formed of this food, which
remount singly to the mouth; secondly, there is a particular apparatus,
which forms these pellets; and, thirdly, this apparatus consists of the
two closed apertures (_ouvertures fermees_) of the many-plies, and of
the oesophagus. Thus, the first two cavities, in contracting, push the
aliments which they contain between the edges of the gastro-duct; and
the gastro-duct, contracting in its turn, draws together the two
openings of the many-plies and oesophagus; and these two openings,
_closed_ at this moment of their action, seize a portion of the food,
detach it, and form it into a pellet.
The chief utility of rumination, as applicable to all the
animals in which it takes place, and the final purpose of this
wonderfully-complicated function in the animal economy, are still
imperfectly known; what has been already suggested on these points is
quite unsatisfactory. Perrault and others supposed that it contributed
to the security of those animals, which are at once voracious and timid,
by showing the necessity of their remaining long employed in chewing in
an open pasture; but the Indian buffalo ruminates, although it does not
fly even from the lion; and the wild goat dwells in Alpine countries,
which are inaccessible to beasts of prey.
Whatever may be our ignorance of the cause or the object of rumination,
it is certain that the nature of the food has a considerable influence
in increasing or diminishing the necessity for the performance of that
function. Thus, dry food requires to be entirely subjected to a second
mastication, before it can pass into the many-plies and reed; whilst a
great portion of that which is moist and succulent passes readily into
those cavities, on its first descent into the stomach.
It has already been shown by the illustration, (p. 4,) that the paunch
is the largest of the four cavities; but this is not the case with the
stomach of the young calf, which, while it continues to suck, does not
ruminate; in this case the _reed_, which is the true digestive cavity,
is actually larger than the other three taken together.
When the calf begins to feed upon solid food, then it begins to
ruminate; and as the quantity of solid food is increased, so does the
size of the paunch increase, until it attains its full dimensions. In
this latter case, the _paunch_ has become considerably larger than the
other three cavities taken together.
A curious modification of an organ to adjust itself to the altered
condition of the animal is beautifully shown in the instance now under
consideration, the nature of which will be easily understood by a
reference to the following diagrams, giving the exact relative
proportions of the different cavities of the stomach to each other in
the young calf and in the full-grown cow.
[I am informed by Professor Symonds, of the Royal Veterinary
College, that the two following sketches should be placed in
the page so as to be viewed with the oesophagus to the right,
and the pylorus to the left, instead of being, as they now are,
at the top and the bottom; but as the present object is only to
show the relative sizes of the different cavities, the error is
not of much consequence.]
The letters refer to the same parts in each figure: _a_, the paunch;
_b_, the honeycomb bag; _c_, the many-plies; _d_, the reed.
[Illustration: Outline of the Stomach of a Calf about a fortnight old.]
[Illustration: Outline of the Stomach of a full-grown Cow.]
[These engravings, illustrative of the comparative sizes of the
different stomachal cavities, are copied from original drawings taken
from preparations of the stomachs which I made expressly for this
purpose.]
In all herbivorous animals, and especially those of the ruminating kind,
the alimentary canal is of an enormous length; measuring in a full grown
ox, as much as sixty yards. The paunch, in such an animal, will hold
from fifteen to eighteen gallons.
Blumenbach observes, that the process of rumination supposes a power of
voluntary motion in the oesophagus; and, indeed, the influence of the
will throughout the whole process is incontestible. It is not confined
to any particular time, since the animal can delay it according to
circumstances, even when the paunch is quite full. It has been expressly
stated of some men, who have had the power of ruminating, that it was
quite voluntary with them. Blumenbach knew four men who ruminated their
food, and they assured him they had a real enjoyment in doing it: two of
them had the power of doing or abstaining from it at their pleasure.
A case of human rumination occurred some years ago at Bristol, the
particulars of which are minutely recorded in the 'Philosophical
Transactions.' It seemed, in this instance, to have been hereditary, as
the father of the individual was subject to the same habit. The young
man usually began to chew his food over again, within a quarter of an
hour after eating. His ruminating after a full meal generally lasted
about an hour and a half; nor could he sleep until this task was
completed. The victuals, upon its return, tasted even more pleasantly
than at first; and seemed as if it had been beaten up in a mortar. If he
ate a variety of things, that which he ate first, came up again first;
and if this return was interrupted for any length of time, it produced
sickness and disorder; nor was he ever well till it returned. These
singular cases are caused, no doubt, by some abnormal structure of the
interior of the stomach. No account has yet been given of the dissection
of an individual so constituted.
When cattle are at rest, or not employed in grazing or chewing the cud,
they are observed frequently to lick themselves. By this means they
raise up the hair of their coats, and often swallow it in considerable
quantities. The hair thus swallowed gradually accumulates in the
stomach, where it is formed into smooth round balls, which, in time,
become invested with a hardish brown crust, composed, apparently, of
inspissated mucilage, that, by continual friction from the coats of the
stomach, becomes hard and glossy. It is generally in the paunch that
these hair-balls are found. They vary in weight from a few ounces to six
or seven pounds. Mr. Walton, author of an 'Account of the Peruvian
Sheep,' makes mention of one that he had in his possession which weighed
eight pounds and a quarter. This hair-ball had been taken from a cow
that fed on the Pampas of Buenos Ayres. It was of a flat circular shape,
and measured two feet eleven inches and a half in circumference; two
feet eight inches round the flat part; nine inches diameter also in the
flat part; eleven inches diameter in the cross part; and, on immersing
it in water, it displaced upwards of eight quarts, which made its bulk
correspond to 462 cubic inches. The digestive functions are sometimes
seriously impaired by these concretions; a loss of appetite ensues, and
general debility.
In the Museum of Daniel Crosthwaite, there is a very extraordinary ball
of hair, taken from a fatted calf only seven weeks old. The ball of
hair, when taken out of the animal's stomach, and full of moisture,
weighed eleven ounces. The calf was fatted by Daniel Thwaite, of Dale
Head Hall, within six miles of Keswick; and slaughtered by John Fisher,
butcher, Keswick. The calf was a particularly healthy animal.
Before closing this brief sketch of the digestive apparatus of the ox,
it may not be uninteresting to quote some of the quaint speculations of
Nathaniel Grew on this subject, from his 'Comparative Anatomy of
Stomachs and Guts.'
He says: "The _voluntary_ motion of the stomach is that only which
accompanies rumination. That it is truly voluntary, is clear, from the
command that ruminating animals have of that action. For this purpose it
is, that the muscules of their venters are so thick and strong; and have
several duplicatures, as the bases of those muscules, whereupon the
stress of their motion lies. By means whereof they are able with ease to
rowl and tumble any part of the meat from one cell of the same venter to
another; or from one venter to another; or from thence into the gullet,
whensoever they are minded to do it; so that the ejectment of the meat,
in rumination, is a voluntary eructation.
"The pointed knots, like little papillae, in the stomachs of ruminating
beasts, are also of great use, namely, for the tasting of the meat. The
inner membrane of the first three venters is fibrous (like the gustatory
papillae of the tongue) and not glandulous; the fourth only being
glandulous, as in a man. Of the fibres of this membrane, and the
nervous, are composed those pointed knots, which are, both in substance
and shape, altogether like to those upon the tongue. Whence I doubt not,
but that the said three ventricles, as they have a power of voluntary
motion, so, likewise, that they are the seat of taste, and as truly the
organs of that sense, as is the tongue itself."
[Illustration: Skull of Domestic Ox, from a specimen in the Royal
College of Surgeons.]
The mouth of animals of the Ox Tribe contains, when full, thirty-two
teeth. Six molars in each jaw, above, below, and on either side; and
eight incisors in the lower jaw. In the upper jaw there are no
incisors; but instead thereof a fibrous and elastic pad, or cushion,
which covers the convex extremity of the anterior maxillary bone, and
which is well worthy of observation.
The final cause of this pad (which stands in the place of upper incisor
teeth) and the part it plays in the procuring of food, is thus described
by Youatt. "The grass is collected and rolled together by means of the
long and moveable tongue; it is firmly held between the lower cutting
teeth and the pad, the cartilaginous upper lip assisting in this; and
then by a sudden nodding motion of the head, the little roll of herbage
is either torn or cut off, or partly both torn and cut.
"The intention of this singular method of gathering the food, it is
somewhat difficult satisfactorily to explain. It is peculiar to
ruminants, who have one large stomach, in which the food is kept as a
kind of reservoir until it is ready for the action of the other
stomachs. While it is kept there it is in a state of maceration; it is
exposed to the united influence of moisture and warmth, and the
consequence of this is, that a species of decomposition sometimes
commences, and a vast deal of gas is extricated.
"That this should not take place in the natural process of retention and
maceration, nature possibly established this mechanism for the first
gathering of the food. It is impossible that half of that which is thus
procured can be fairly cut through; part will be torn, and no little
portion will be torn up by the roots. If cattle are observed while they
are grazing, it will be seen that many a root mingles with the blades of
grass; and these roots have sometimes no inconsiderable quantity of
earth about them. The beast, however, seems not to regard this; he eats
on, dirt and all, until his paunch is filled.
"It was designed that this earth should be gathered and swallowed; it
was the meaning of this mechanism. A portion of absorbent earth is found
in every soil, sufficient not only to prevent the evil that would result
from occasional decomposition, by neutralizing the acid principle as
rapidly as it is evolved; but, perhaps, by its presence, preventing that
decomposition from taking place. Hence the eagerness with which
stall-fed cattle, who have not the opportunity of plucking up the roots
of grass, evince for mould. It is seldom that a cow will pass a
newly-raised mole hill without nuzzling into it, and devouring a
considerable portion of it. This is particularly the case where there is
any degree of indigestion."
The general disposition of animals of this class, when unmolested, is
inoffensive and retiring; but when excited and irritated, they are
fierce and courageous, and extremely dangerous to encounter. It is a
remarkable circumstance in their history, that they are generally
provoked to attack at the sight of red, or any very bright and glaring
colour.
[Illustration:
_a._ Cervical vertebrae.
_b._ Dorsal vertebrae.
_c._ Lumbar vertebrae.
_d._ Sacrum.
_e._ Caudal vertebrae, or coccygeal bones.
_f._ Ribs.
_g._ Costal cartilages.
_h._ Scapula.
_i._ Humerus,
_k._ Radius.
_l._ Ulna
_m._ Carpus, or knee.
_n._ Large metacarpal, or cannon.
_pp._ Sesamoid bones.
_qq._ Phalanges.
_r._ Pelvis.
_s._ Femur.
_t._ Patella.
_u._ Tibia.
_v._ Rudimentum fibulae.
_w._ Hock and tarsals.
_x._ Large metatarsal.
_y._ Small metatarsal.
1. Inferior maxilla (lower jaw).
2. Superior maxilla (upper jaw).
3. Anterior maxilla
4. Nasal bone.
5. Frontal.
6. Parietal.
7. Occipital.
Skeleton of Domestic Ox, from a specimen in the Royal College of
Surgeons.]
THE OX TRIBE
OR
_Genus_ BOS,
Is distinguished from other Genera of Ruminantia by possessing hollow
persistent horns, growing on a bony core; the tail long, terminated by a
tuft of hair; and four inguinal mammae.
THE AMERICAN BISON.
_Bos Americanus._
[Illustration: THE BISON. ]
The head of this animal is enormously large; larger, in fact, in
proportion to the size of its body, than that of any other species of
the Ox Tribe. This huge head is supported by very powerful muscles,
attached to the projecting spinous processes of the dorsal vertebrae; and
these muscles, together with a quantity of fat, constitute the hump on
the shoulders. The horns are short, tapering, round, and very distant
from each other, as are also the eyes, which are small and dark. The
head, neck, shoulders, and fore-legs, to the knee-joints, are covered
with long woolly hair, which likewise forms a beard under the mouth. The
rest of the body is clothed only by short, close hair, which becomes
rather woolly in the depth of winter. The colour is of a deep brown,
nearly black on the head, and lighter about the neck and shoulders. The
legs are firm and muscular; the tail is short, with a tuft at the end.
The female is, in every respect, much smaller than the male; her horns
are more slender, and the hair on her neck and shoulders is not so thick
or long, nor the colour so dark. She brings forth in the spring, and
rarely more than one. The calves continue to be suckled nearly twelve
months, and follow the cows for a much longer period. It is said that
the cows are not unfrequently followed by the calves of two, or even
three, breeding seasons.
These animals, both male and female, are timid and shy, notwithstanding
their fierce appearance; unless they are wounded, or during the breeding
season, when it is dangerous to approach. Their mode of attack is to
throw down, by pushing, as they run with their head; then to crush, by
trampling their enemy under their fore-feet, which, surmounted as they
are, by their tremendous head and shoulder, form most effectual weapons
of destruction.
[Illustration: Young female Bison, after Cuvier.]
The following account, by Dr. Richardson, affords an instance of the
danger to be apprehended from these powerful animals, when wounded, and
not disabled: "Mr. Finnan M'Donald, one of the Hudson's Bay Company's
clerks was descending the Saskatchewan in a boat; and one evening,
having pitched his tent for the night, he went out in the dusk to look
for game. It had become nearly dark when he fired at a Bison bull, which
was galloping over an eminence; and as he was hastening forward to see
if this shot had taken effect, the wounded beast made a rush at him. He
had the presence of mind to seize the animal by the long hair on the
forehead, as it struck him on the side with its horn, and being a
remarkably tall and powerful man, a struggle ensued, which continued
until his wrist was severely sprained, and his arm was rendered
powerless; he then fell, and after receiving two or three blows, became
senseless. Shortly afterwards he was found by his companions, lying
bathed in his blood, being gored in several places, and the Bison was
couched beside him, apparently waiting to renew the attack, had he shown
any signs of life. Mr. M'Donald recovered from the immediate effects of
the injuries, but he died a few months afterwards. Many instances might
be mentioned of the tenaciousness with which this animal pursues its
revenge; and I have been told of a hunter being detained for many hours
in a tree, by an old bull, which had taken its post below, to watch
him."
[Illustration: Wounded Bison, after Catlin.]
The capture of the Bison is effected in various ways, chiefly with the
rifle, and on foot. Their sense of smelling, however, is so acute, that
they are extremely difficult of approach, scenting their enemy from
afar, and retiring with the greatest precipitation. Care, therefore,
must be taken to go against the wind, in which case they may be
approached very near, being almost blinded by the long hair hanging over
their foreheads. The hunters generally aim at the shoulder, which, if
effectually hit, causes them to drop at once; otherwise they are
infuriated, and become dangerous antagonists, as was proved in the
result of Mr. M'Donald's adventure.
When flying before their pursuers, it would be in vain for the foremost
to halt, or attempt to obstruct the progress of the main body, as the
throng in the rear, still rushing onwards, the leaders must advance,
although destruction await the movement. The Indians take advantage of
this circumstance to destroy great quantities of this favorite game; and
certainly no method could be resorted to more effectually destructive,
nor could a more terrible devastation be produced, than that of forcing
a numerous herd of these large animals to leap from the brink of a
dreadful precipice upon a rocky and broken surface, a hundred feet
below.
When the Indians determine to destroy Bisons in this way, one of their
swiftest-footed and most active young men is selected, who is disguised
in a Bison skin, having the head, ears, and horns adjusted on his own
head, so as to make the deception very complete; and thus accoutred, he
stations himself between the Bison herd and some of the precipices,
which often extend for several miles along the rivers. The Indians
surround the herd as nearly as possible, when, at a given signal, they
show themselves, and rush forward with loud yells. The animals being
alarmed, and seeing no way open but in the direction of the disguised
Indian, run towards him, and he, taking to flight, dashes on to the
precipice, where he suddenly secures himself in some previously
ascertained crevice. The foremost of the herd arrives at the
brink,--there is no possibility of retreat, no chance of escape; the
foremost may, for an instant, shrink with terror, but the crowd behind,
who are terrified by the approaching hunters, rush forward with
increasing impetuosity, and the aggregate force hurls them successively
into the gulf, where certain death awaits them.
Sometimes they are taken by the following method:--A great number of men
divide and form a vast square; each band then sets fire to the dry grass
of the savannah, where the herds are feeding; seeing the fire advance on
all sides, they retire in great consternation to the centre of the
square; the men then close and kill them without the least hazard.
Great numbers are also taken in pounds, constructed with an embankment
of such an elevation as to prevent the return of the Bisons when once
they are driven into it. A general slaughter then takes place with
rifles or arrows.
The following vivid sketch is from the narrative of John Tanner, who,
when about seven or eight years of age, was stolen from his parents by
the Indians, and remained with them during a period of thirty years.
"By the end of the second day after we left Pembinah we had not a
mouthful to eat, and were beginning to be very hungry. When we laid down
in our camp (near Craneberry River) at night, and put our ears close to
the ground, we could hear the tramp of the buffaloes, but when we sat up
we could hear nothing; and on the following morning nothing could be
seen of them; though we could command a very extensive view of the
prairie. As we knew they must not be far off in the direction of the
sounds we had heard, eight men, of whom I was one, were selected and
dispatched to kill some, and bring the meat to a point where it was
agreed the party should stop next night. The noise we could still hear
next morning, by applying our ears to the ground; and it seemed about as
far distant, and in the same direction, as before. We started early, and
rode some hours before we could begin to see them; and when we first
discovered the margin of the herd, it must have been at least ten miles
distant. It was like a black line drawn along the edge of the sky, or a
low shore seen across a lake. The distance of the herd from the place
where we first heard them could not have been less than twenty miles.
But it was now the rutting season, and various parts of the herd were
all the time kept in rapid motion by the severe fights of the bulls. To
the noise produced by the knocking together of the two divisions of the
hoof, when they raised their feet from the ground, and of their
incessant tramping, was added the loud and furious roar of the bulls,
engaged, as they all were, in their terrific and appalling conflicts. We
were conscious that our approach to the herd would not occasion the
alarm now, that it would at any other time, and we rode directly towards
them. As we came near we killed a wounded bull, which scarcely made an
effort to escape from us. He had wounds in his flanks, into which I
could put my whole hand. As we knew that the flesh of the bulls was not
now good to eat, we did not wish to kill them, though we might easily
have shot any number. Dismounting, we put our horses in the care of some
of our number, who were willing to stay back for that purpose, and then
crept into the herd to try to kill some cows. I had separated from the
others, and advancing, got entangled among the bulls. Before I found an
opportunity to shoot a cow, the bulls began to fight very near me. In
their fury they were totally unconscious of my presence, and came
rushing towards me with such violence, that in some alarm for my safety,
I took refuge in one of those holes which are so frequent where those
animals abound, and which they themselves dig to wallow in. Here I found
they were pressing directly upon me, and I was compelled to fire to
disperse them, in which I did not succeed until I had killed four of
them. By this firing the cows were so frightened, that I perceived I
should not be able to kill any in this quarter; so regaining my horse, I
rode to a distant part of the herd, where the Indians had succeeded in
killing a fat cow. But from this cow, as is usual in similar cases, the
herd had all moved off, except one bull, who, when I came up, still kept
the Indians at bay. 'You are warriors,' said I, as I rode up, 'going far
from your own country, to seek an enemy, but you cannot take his wife
from that old bull, who has nothing in his hands.' So saying, I passed
them directly towards the bull, then standing something more than two
hundred yards distant. He no sooner saw me approach, than he came
plunging towards me with such impetuosity, that, knowing the danger to
my horse and myself, I turned and fled. The Indians laughed heartily at
my repulse, but they did not give over their attempts to get at the cow.
By dividing the attention of the bull, and creeping up to him on
different sides, they at length shot him down. While we were cutting up
the cow, the herd were at no great distance; and an old cow, which the
Indians supposed to be the mother of the one we had killed, taking the
scent of the blood, came running with great violence towards us. The
Indians were alarmed and fled, many of them not having their guns in
their hands; but I had carefully reloaded mine, and had it ready for
use. Throwing myself down close to the body of the cow, and behind it, I
waited till the other came up within a few yards of the carcase, when I
fired upon her; she turned, gave one or two jumps, and fell dead. We had
now the meat of two fat cows, which was as much as we wanted;
accordingly we repaired, without delay, to the appointed place, where we
found our party, whose hunger was already somewhat allayed by a deer one
of them had killed."
In hunting the Bison, the spear and the arrow are still much in use
among the Indians. The following sketch (after Catlin) represents an
Indian in the act of shooting a Bison with the arrow:--
[Illustration]
In the 'Letters and Notes on the North-American Indians,' by Catlin,
there are a great many interesting details of the Bison (or Buffalo, as
it is there called).
"Six days of severe travelling have brought us from the Camanchee
village to the north bank of the Canadian, where we are snugly encamped
on a beautiful plain, and in the midst of countless numbers of
buffaloes; and halting a few days to recruit our horses and men, and dry
meat to last us the remainder of our journey.
"The plains around this, for many miles, seem actually speckled, in
distance and in every direction, with herds of grazing buffaloes; and
for several days, the officers and men have been indulged in a general
license to gratify their sporting propensities; and a scene of bustle
and cruel slaughter it has been, to be sure! From morning till night,
the camp has been daily almost deserted. The men have dispersed in
little squads, in all directions, and are dealing death to these poor
creatures to a most cruel and wanton extent, merely for the pleasure of
destroying, generally without stopping to cut out the meat. During
yesterday and to day, several hundreds have undoubtedly been killed, and
not so much as the flesh of half a dozen used. Such immense swarms of
them are spread over this tract of country, and so divided and terrified
have they become, finding their enemies in all directions where they
run, that the poor beasts seem completely bewildered, running here and
there, and, as often as otherwise, come singly advancing to the
horsemen, as if to join them for their company, and are easily shot
down. In the turmoil and confusion, when their assailants have been
pushing them forward, they have galloped through our encampment, jumping
over our fires, upsetting pots and kettles, driving horses from their
fastenings, and throwing the whole encampment into the greatest
consternation and alarm."
Speaking of the attacks made upon them by the Wolves, he says, "When the
herd is together the Wolves never attack them, as they instantly gather
for combined resistance, which they effectually make. But when the herds
are travelling, it often happens that an aged or wounded one lingers at
a little distance behind, and when fairly out of sight of the herd, is
set upon by the voracious hunters, which often gather to the number of
fifty or more, and are sure at last to torture him to death, and use him
up at a meal. The Buffalo, however, is a huge and furious animal, and
when his retreat is cut off, makes desperate and deadly resistance,
contending to the last moment for the right of life, and oftentimes
deals death by wholesale to his canine assailants.