BUFFALO
HISTORICAL SOCIETY
PUBLICATIONS
VOLUME TWENTY-SEVEN
EDITED BY FRANK H. SEVERANCE
[Illustration:
THE ATMOSPHERE IN WHICH LEGENDS WERE TOLD.
FROM A PAINTING SHOWING THE INTERIOR OF A BARK LONG HOUSE, BY RICHARD
J. TUCKER.
]
SENECA MYTHS AND FOLK TALES
BY
ARTHUR C. PARKER, M.S.
_Archæologist, New York State Museum_
_Life Member, The Buffalo Historical Society_
BUFFALO, NEW YORK:
Published by the
BUFFALO HISTORICAL SOCIETY
1923
THE TRIBUNE PUBLISHING COMPANY
PRINTERS AND BINDERS
MEADVILLE, PA.
TO
FRANK H. SEVERANCE, L.H.D., LL.D.
_Secretary, The Buffalo Historical Society_
_President, The New York State Historical Association_
WHOSE NUMEROUS ESSAYS AND HISTORICAL WRITINGS HAVE BEEN A SOURCE OF
INSPIRATION AND ENLIGHTENMENT, AND WHOSE INTEREST IN THE SENECA INDIANS
AND THEIR HISTORY HAS NEVER WANED, THIS VOLUME OF
_SENECA FOLK TALES_
IS DEDICATED IN TESTIMONY OF THE AUTHOR’S SINCERE ADMIRATION AND ESTEEM.
SENECA MYTHS AND FOLK TALES
------------------------------------------------------------------------
FOREWORD
The author of this collection of Seneca folk-tales cannot remember when
he first began to hear the wonder stories of the ancient days. His
earliest recollections are of hearing the wise old men relate these
tales of the mysterious past. They were called Kă´kāā, or Gă´kāā, and
when this word was uttered, as a signal that the marvels of old were
about to be unfolded, all the children grew silent,—and listened. In
those days, back on the Cattaraugus reservation, it was a part of a
child’s initial training to learn why the bear lost its tail, why the
chipmunk has a striped back and why meteors flash in the sky.
Many years later,—it was in 1903,—the writer of this manuscript returned
to the Cattaraugus reservation bringing with him his friend Mr. Raymond
Harrington, for the purpose of making an archæological survey of the
Cattaraugus valley for the Peabody Museum of Archæology, of Harvard
University. Our base camp was on the old Silverheels farm, which
occupies the site of one of the early Seneca villages of the period
after the Erie war of 1654. Here also is the site of the original Lower
Cattaraugus of pre-Revolutionary days.
To our camp came many Indian friends who sought to instruct Mr.
Harrington and myself in the lore of the ancients. We were regaled with
stories of the false faces, of the whirl-winds, of the creation of man,
of the death panther, and of the legends of the great bear, but in
particular we were blessed with an ample store of tales of vampire
skeletons, of witches and of folk-beasts, all of whom had a special
appetite for young men who dug in the ground for the buried relics of
the “old-time folks.”
To us came Tahadondeh (whom the Christian people called George
Jimerson), Bill Snyder, Gahweh Seneca, a lame man from Tonawanda, Frank
Pierce and several others versed in folk-lore. I filled my note-books
with sketches and outlines of folk-fiction, and after our return to New
York, I began to transcribe some of the stories.
The following winter was spent on the reservation among the
non-Christian element in a serious attempt to record folk tales,
ceremonial prayers, rituals, songs and customs. A large amount of
information and many stories were collected. Some of this material was
published by the State Museum, the rest perished in the Capitol fire at
Albany, in 1911.
Later I was able to go over my original notes with Edward Cornplanter,
the local authority on Seneca religion, rites and folk-ways, and to
write out the material here presented. Cornplanter’s son Jesse assisted
by way of making drawings under his father’s direction. I also had the
help of Skidmore Lay, Ward B. Snow, Delos B. Kittle, Mrs. John Kittle,
James Crow and others. My informants from the lower reservation, the
Christian district, were Aurelia Jones Miller, Fred Kennedy, George D.
Jimerson, Julia Crouse, Moses Shongo, Mrs. Moses Shongo, David George,
William Parker, Job King, and Chester C. Lay; and Laura Doctor and Otto
Parker of the Tonawanda Reservation.
In the preparation of these versions of old Seneca tales the writer used
no other texts for comparative purposes. It was thought best to rest
content with the version given by the Indian informant, and to wait
until a time of greater leisure came before attempting to annotate the
collection. Leisure has never seemed to be the privilege of the writer,
and one busy year has crowded upon another, until eighteen have passed
since the tales were written down. It may be best, after all, to present
the text just as it was prepared, and merely correct the spelling of a
name or two. It was not until after this text was in the hands of the
Buffalo Historical Society that the Curtin-Hewitt collection of Seneca
folk tales appeared, and though differences will be found between our
texts and those of Curtin, it must be remembered that variations are
bound to occur. All versions of folk tales recorded by different
individuals at different or even identical times will vary in certain
particulars, as is explained hereinafter.
In the preparation of this volume the writer wishes to record his
indebtedness to Mr. George Kelley Staples, Senator Henry W. Hill, Mr.
George L. Tucker and Dr. Frank H. Severance, all members of the Buffalo
Historical Society, for the advice and encouragement given.
ARTHUR C. PARKER.
Buffalo Consistory,
A. A. S. R.
Nov. 26, 1922.
CONTENTS
PAGE
FOREWORD ix
INTRODUCTION xvii
I. FUNDAMENTAL FACTORS IN SENECA FOLK LORE 1
BASIC PREMISES 3
GODS, MAJOR SPIRITS AND FOLK-BEASTS 5
NATURE BEINGS 10
MAGIC BEASTS AND BIRDS 16
MAGICAL MAN-LIKE BEINGS 18
II. THEMES AND MATERIALS 23
STEREOTYPED OBJECTS AND INCIDENTS 27
COMPONENTS OF THE COSMOLOGICAL MYTH 33
III. THE ATMOSPHERE IN WHICH THE LEGENDS WERE TOLD 37
IV. WHEN THE WORLD WAS NEW 57
1. HOW THE WORLD BEGAN 59
2. THE BROTHERS WHO CLIMBED INTO THE SKY 74
3. THE DEATH PANTHER 78
4. THE GREAT BEAR CONSTELLATION 81
5. THE SEVEN BROTHERS OF THE STAR CLUSTER 83
6. THE SEVEN STAR DANCERS 86
7. THE COMING OF SPRING 88
8. THE COMING OF DEATH 92
V. BOYS WHO DEFIED MAGIC AND OVERCAME IT 95
9. ORIGIN OF FOLK STORIES 97
10. THE FORBIDDEN ARROW AND THE QUILT OF MEN’S EYES 101
11. CORN GRINDER, THE GRANDSON 108
12. HE-GOES-TO-LISTEN 116
13. HATONDAS, THE LISTENER, FINDS A WIFE 122
14. THE ORIGIN OF THE CHESTNUT TREE 128
15. DIVIDED BODY RESCUES A GIRL 133
16. THE ORIGIN OF THE BUFFALO SOCIETY 137
17. THE BOY WHO COULD NOT UNDERSTAND 142
18. THE BOY WHO LIVED WITH THE BEARS 147
19. THE SEVENTH SON 154
20. THE BOY WHO OVERCAME ALL MAGIC BY LAUGHTER 159
VI. TALES OF LOVE AND MARRIAGE 171
21. TWO FEATHERS AND TURKEY BROTHER 173
22. TWO FEATHERS AND WOODCHUCK LEGGINGS 184
23. TURKEY BOY SQUEEZED THE HEARTS OF SORCERERS 200
24. CORN RAINS INTO EMPTY BARRELS 205
25. TWENTGOWA AND THE MISCHIEF MAKER 208
26. THE HORNED SERPENT RUNS AWAY WITH A GIRL 218
27. THE GREAT SERPENT AND THE YOUNG WIFE 223
28. BUSHY HEAD THE BEWITCHED WARRIOR 228
29. THE FLINT CHIP THROWER 235
VII. HORROR TALES OF CANNIBALS AND SORCERERS: 239
30. THE DUEL OF THE DREAM TEST 241
31. THE VAMPIRE SIRENS 253
32. YOUNGER BROTHER ELUDES HIS SISTER-IN-LAW 262
33. THE ISLAND OF THE CANNIBAL 269
34. THE TWELVE BROTHERS AND THE WRAITH 278
35. THE CANNIBAL AND HIS NEPHEW 284
36. A YOUTH’S DOUBLE ABUSES HIS SISTER 290
37. MURDERED DOUBLE SPEAKS THROUGH FIRE 293
38. THE VAMPIRE CORPSE 298
VIII. TALES OF TALKING ANIMALS: 301
39. THE MAN WHO EXHALED FIRE 303
40. THE TURTLE’S WAR PARTY 305
41. THE RACE OF THE TURTLE AND THE BEAVER 309
42. THE WOLF AND THE RACCOON 312
43. THE CHIPMUNK’S STRIPES 314
44. THE RABBIT SONG 315
45. THE RABBIT GAMBLER 317
46. THE RACCOON AND THE CRABS 319
47. THE CRAB’S EYES 321
48. HOW THE SQUIRREL GAVE A BLANKET, ETC. 322
49. THE CHICKADEE’S SONG 325
50. THE BIRD WOMAN 326
51. THE PARTRIDGE’S SONG 328
IX. TALES OF GIANTS, PYGMIES AND MONSTER BEARS: 329
52. A TALE OF THE DJOGEON OR PYGMIES 331
53. BEYOND-THE-RAPIDS AND THE STONE GIANT 334
54. THE ANIMATED FINGER 337
55. THE STONE GIANT’S BATTLE 340
56. THE BOY AND THE FALSE FACE 342
57. HOW A BOY OUTWITTED A NIA’´GWAHE 344
58. NIA’´GWAHE, THE MAMMOTH BEAR 349
59. THE BOY AND THE NIA’´GWAHE 358
X. TRADITIONS: 363
SENECA BELIEF IN WITCHCRAFT 365
60. CONTENTS OF A CHARM HOLDER’S BUNDLE 368
61. CONTENTS OF A WITCH BUNDLE 369
62. OVERCOMING A WITCH 370
63. THE SCORNED WITCH WOMAN 372
64. CATCHING A WITCH BUNDLE 376
65. WITCH WITH A DOG TRANSFORMATION 378
66. WITCH STEALS CHILDREN’S HEARTS 380
67. HOTCIWAHO (HAMMER IN HIS BELT) 382
68. HOW AMERICA WAS DISCOVERED 383
69. ORIGIN OF THE CHARM HOLDER’S MEDICINE SOCIETY 386
70. ORIGIN OF THE FALSE FACE COMPANY 394
71. ORIGIN OF THE LONG HOUSE 403
72. DEAD TIMBER, A TRADITION OF ALBANY 407
XI. APPENDIX: 409
A. ORIGIN OF THE WORLD 411
B. THE WYANDOT CREATION MYTH 417
C. AN INTERVIEW WITH “ESQ.” JOHNSON BY MRS. ASHER WRIGHT 421
D. EMBLEMATIC TREES IN IROQUOIAN MYTHOLOGY 431
E. THE SOCIETY THAT GUARDS THE MYSTIC POTENCE 445
ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATES:
THE ATMOSPHERE IN WHICH LEGENDS WERE TOLD.—FROM PAINTING
BY R. J. TUCKER _Front._
EDWARD CORNPLANTER—SOSONDOWA Op. p. 4
DELOS BIG KITTLE—SAINOWA 〃 〃 58
THE SEVEN DANCING BROTHERS—FROM PAINTING BY R. J. TUCKER 〃 〃 82
MRS. JOHN BIG KITTLE.—PHOTO BY E. C. WINNEGAR 〃 〃 172
HADUI MASK OF THE FALSE FACE COMPANY 〃 〃 240
EMILY TALLCHIEF.—PHOTO BY E. C. WINNEGAR 〃 〃 364
DRAWINGS BY JESSE CORNPLANTER:
THE THUNDER SERPENT 7
THE SPIRIT OF DIONHEKON 11
THE FLYING HEAD OF THE WIND 13
THE SPIRIT OF THE FROST 14
THE SNOW SNAKE GAME 39
A BARK COMMUNAL HOUSE 47
THE BEAR DANCE 151
THE HORNED SERPENT Op. p. 218
MAGIC WHISTLE 255
FIGURE OF DANCING WARRIOR 273
RESTORATION OF RED HAND 386
ILLUSTRATING EMBLEMATIC TREES:
PICTOGRAPH OF THE SKY-DOME 432
A FALSE FACE LEADER 435
SYMBOLISM OF LEGGING STRIPS 437
SKY-DOME SYMBOLS 438
EMBROIDERED BORDERS 441
EMBROIDERED POUCH: SENECA WORK BEFORE 1850 Op. p. 442
FORMS OF THE CELESTIAL TREE 443
“BIG TREE IN MIDDLE OF THE EARTH” 444
ARRANGEMENT OF THE LITTLE WATER LODGE 451
BIBLIOGRAPHY 459
INDEX 461
INTRODUCTION
In presenting this collection of Seneca myths and legends, the collator
feels that he should explain to the general reader that he does not
offer a series of tales that can be judged by present day literary
standards. These Indian stories are not published for the mere
entertainment of general readers, though there is much that is
entertaining in them, neither are they designed as children’s fables, or
for supplementary reading in schools, though it is true that some of the
material may be suited for the child mind. It must be understood that if
readings from this book are to be made for children, a wise selection
must be made.
This collection is presented as an exposition of the unwritten
literature of the Seneca Indians who still live in their ancestral
domain in western New York. It is primarily a collection of folk-lore
and is to be looked at in no other light. The professional
anthropologist and historian will not need to be reminded of this. He
will study these tales for their ethnological significance, and use them
in making comparisons with similar collections from other tribes and
stocks. In this manner he will determine the similarities or differences
in theme, in episode and character. He will trace myth diffusion thereby
and be able to chart the elements of the Seneca story.
There is an amazing lack of authentic material on Iroquois folk-lore,
though much that arrogates this name to itself has been written. The
writers, however, have in general so glossed the native themes with
poetic and literary interpretations that the material has shrunken in
value and can scarcely be considered without many reservations.
We do not pretend to have made a complete collection of all available
material, but we have given a fairly representative series of myths,
legends, fiction and traditions. One may examine this collection and
find representative types of nearly every class of Seneca folk-lore.
Multiplication is scarcely necessary.
The value of this collection is not a literary one but a scientific one.
It reveals the type of tale that held the interest and attention of the
Seneca; it reveals certain mental traits and tendencies; it reveals many
customs and incidents in native life, and finally, it serves as an index
of native psychology.
The enlightened mind will not be arrogant in its judgment of this
material, but will see in it the attempts of a race still in mental
childhood to give play to imagination and to explain by symbols what it
otherwise could not express.
While there is much value in this collection explaining indirectly the
folk-ways and the folk-thought of the Seneca and their allied kinsmen,
the whole life of the people may not be judged from these legends. Much
more must be presented before such a judgment is formed. Just as we gain
some knowledge of present day religions, governmental methods, social
organization and political economy from the general literature of the
day, but only a portion, and this unsystematized, so do we catch only a
glimpse of the life story of the Seneca from their folk-tales.
To complete our knowledge we must have before us works on Seneca
history, ethnology, archæology, religion, government and language.
Finally, we must personally know the descendents of the mighty Seneca
nation of old. We must enter into the life of the people in a
sympathetic way, for only then can we get at the soul of the race.
While all this is true, these folk-tales are not to be despised, for
they conserve many references to themes and things that otherwise would
be forgotten. Folk-lore is one of the most important mines of
information that the ethnologist and historian may tap. We can never
understand a race until we understand what it is thinking about, and we
can never know this until we know its literature, written or unwritten.
The folk-tale therefore has a special value and significance, if
honestly recorded.
METHODS EMPLOYED IN RECORDING FOLK TALES.
There are several methods which may be employed in recording folk-lore,
and the method used depends largely upon the purpose in mind. A poet may
use one method, and grasping the plot of a tale, recast it in a verbiage
entirely unsuitable and foreign to it; a fiction writer may use another
plan, a school boy another, a student of philology another, a missionary
another, and finally a student of folk lore still another.
The poet will see only the inherent beauty of the story, and perhaps
failing to find any beauty, will invent it and produce a tale that no
Indian would ever recognize. Plot and detail will be changed, fine
flowery language will be used, and perhaps the whole given the swing and
meter of blank verse. This is all very well for the poet, but he has
buried the personality of the folk-tale, albeit in petals of
roses,—instead of allowing it nakedly to appear the living thing it is.
The fiction writer will take the original Indian tale and tear it apart
with keen eyed professional discrimination. He will recast the plot,
expand here and there, explain here and prune down there. He will invent
names and new situations to make the story “go,” then, as a rule, he
sells it to a magazine or makes a collection of tales for “a
supplementary reader for children.” But are these Indian tales?
The amateur, finding good material in the Indian story will do as the
fiction writer does, but he will work in foreign allusions and
inconsistent elements and in other ways betray his unfamiliarity with
his material. Like the fiction writer he is primarily after a story that
he can dress as he pleases.
The sectarian enthusiast, recording folk-lore, will frequently seek to
show the absurdity of the Indian tale, and point out the foolishness of
peoples who are unacquainted with biblical teachings, but it is
fortunate that all missionaries have not done this. Many have recorded
folk-tales with great conscientiousness, and some of our best sources
are from the notes of well informed missionaries.
The philologist will seek to make literal transcripts of every Indian
word in painstaking phonetic spelling, and then secure an analytical
interlinear translation. This is an accurate but awkward way of securing
the tale, for readers who are accustomed to reading only straight
English. It makes it a most tedious and laborious thing to read, and
totally deprives the text of all literary life.
The student of folk lore starts in with a purpose. This is to secure the
tale in such a manner, that without unnecessarily colored verbiage, it
may be consistently dressed, and set forth in fluent English (or other
modern language) in such a manner that it may be understood by an
ordinary reader. The folk-lore student has still another motive and
purpose, which is to so present his legend that it will awaken in the
mind of his reader sensations similar to those aroused in the mind of
the Indian auditor hearing it from the native raconteur. The recorder of
the tale seeks to assimilate its characteristics, to become imbued with
its spirit, to understand its details, to follow its language,—its
sentences,—one by one, as they follow in sequence, and then he seeks to
present it consistently. He adds nothing not in the original,—despite
the temptation to improve the plot,—he presents the same arrangement as
in the original, he uses similar idioms and exclamations, similar
introductory words and phrases, and presents an honestly constructed
free translation. This is far from an easy thing to do, for it
frequently lays the recorder open to the charge of being a clumsy story
teller. The temptation is ever present to tell a good story, and let the
legend become the skeleton over which the words are woven. Needless to
say, this is not an honest thing to do, and the folk-lore student
resists this temptation, and gives his product a genuine presentation,
regardless of what literary critics may think. He strives only to be the
medium by which a native tale is transformed from its original language
to that of another tongue. The thought, the form and the sequence of the
story he insists must remain exactly as it was, though the verbal dress
is European and not Indian.[1]
Perhaps actual illustrations of these methods will serve to convey the
thought we are attempting to explain. Examples follow:
TEXT IN SENECA WITH INTERLINEAR TRANSLATION.
Ne’´ gwā´, gi’´o^n‘, hadi´noñge’ ne‘´ sgäoñ‘iādĭ‘´ ne‘´
There it seems they dwell the other side the
it is said of the sky
hĕñ´noñgwe‘. Da´, s‘hă’degano´ndāĕ^n‘ ne’´ho‘ ni‘hono^n‘sō´t
they (M) man So just in the center there just his
beings of the village lodge stands
ne‘´ hă‘sĕñnowā´nĕ^n‘, ne’´ho‘ hādjwadä´iĕ^n’, ne’´ ne´io’
the he Chief there his family the his
(great name) lies wife
ne’´ kho‘´ ne‘´ sgā´t hodiksă’dā´iĕ^n’, ie´o^n‘ ne‘´ ieksă’´ă‘.
that and the one they child have she
(it is) female is the child.
Waādiĕñgwă‘´s‘hoñ‘ o´nĕ^n‘ ho’ wă‘´săwĕ^n’ ne‘´ hăgweñdä’´s.
He was surprised now it that he became lonesome.
O´nĕ^n‘ dĭ´q we´so’ ho’nĕñ´iathĕñ‘ ne‘´ Hagĕ^n´tcĭ; ne’´
Now moreover much his bones are dry the He Ancient that
(he is very lean) One
gai´ioñnĭ t‘hĕ^n’´ĕ^n‘ deo’nigoñ‘´īiō‘ he‘´ odiksă’dā´iĕ^n’āiĕñ’´
it causes not (it is) his mind happy because they child one would
is have think
nĕ’´ noñ‘´ heniio’´dĕn‘ ne‘´ ne‘´ hosheie´o^n.
that perhaps so it is in that the he is
jealous.
state
LITERAL TRANSLATION.
There were, it seems, so it is said, man-beings dwelling on the other
side of the sky. So just in the center of their village the lodge of the
chief stood, wherein lived his family, consisting of his wife and one
child, that they two had. He was surprised that then he began to become
lonesome. Now furthermore, he the Ancient was very lean, his bones
having become dried, and the cause of this condition was that they two
had the child, and one would think, judging from the circumstances that
he was jealous.
Such is the beginning of the Seneca version of Iroquoian cosmology as
given by J. N. B. Hewitt in the 21st Report of the Bureau of Ethnology.
This faithful record of a native text and its translation is literally a
most painstaking work involving the closest attention to the minor
sounds in the language, in order that each word may be phonetically
recorded. To wade through this literal translation from the beginning to
the end of the myth would be too tedious for anyone but an enthusiastic
student of native tongues. To the majority of readers it would be a
forbidding task. Even to follow the involved language and grammatical
forms of the close literal translation would tire the mind of anyone
whose mother tongue was not that of the text.
A free translation, therefore becomes a prime necessity, but this must
not disturb the original thought. Just how to make such a translation
honestly becomes a problem beset with difficulty. Our plan is to smooth
out the language, divest it of its awkward arrangement, and allow the
thought to flow on. Let us attempt this in the following:
FREE TRANSLATION.
In ancient times a race of transcendent men dwelt on the other side of
the sky. In the center of a village in that land stood the lodge of
Ancient One, the chief, and there he lived with his wife and one child.
To his astonishment, though he had these companions, he began to feel
lonely and neglected. His form grew emaciated and his “bones became
dry,” for he longed for the attentions his wife now gave to his child.
Just how the poet would handle this version we hesitate to conjecture
but we may easily imagine that he would make the most of the land above
the sky, the celestial lodge, the age of the Ancient One, his initial
joy at the birth of his child, and his gradual discovery that his wife’s
affection had been transferred from him to their offspring, of the agony
of soul that wilted his heroic form and caused his very bones to wither
and lose their marrow, and of the final madness of the Ancient One, who
(to follow the myth in its fullness), had a tormenting dream which
caused him to tear up the celestial tree and cast his wife into the
cavernous hole that dropped down into chaos.
The plot of this myth-tale has elements that make it excellent material
for the fiction writer who would recast it entirely and weave it into
the thrilling story of celestial tragedy. We have seen such attempts and
have been astonished at the audacity of the writer who thus presents his
product as a “genuine Indian myth.” Yet, most popular versions of Indian
legends are recast to such an extent that the Indian who supplied the
bones would never recognize the creature the white man “teller-of-tales”
has clothed with civilized flesh. As an example of such fabrication,
witness the speech of Hiawatha to the assembled tribes as presented by
J. V. H. Clark in his “Onondaga.” (Vol. I, p. 28 ff.) This famous speech
has been passed down as Hiawatha’s own words and has been the
inspiration of more than one poet, though Clark admitted in later years
that he invented the entire address, basing it upon some obscure
references in the original tradition. In many a work on “Indian fables
for children” the so-called fable is merely an invention, and the only
Indian thing about it is the dash of Indian flavor used to give the
story plausibility. Indians who have never seen or read the text of such
stories of course might easily be induced in various ways to sign
statements vouching for them, thus contributing to the intensification
of error.
It is well to analyze the folk-tale or myth for its theme and to check
it against others, thereby determining whether or not it is actually
authentic. If it appears unusual and unlike anything other informants
have given, it may be placed in the class of doubtful fiction, and
especially so if the “fable” has a “moral” attached to it.
OBTAINING CORRECT VERSIONS.
It might be supposed that myths and folk-tales which are orally
transmitted would suffer great changes as they pass from one story
teller to another, and that in time a given tale would become utterly
corrupted, and indeed so changed that it would bear faint resemblance to
the “original.” Yet, an examination of the myths and legends recorded by
early observers, as the early missionaries, show that the modern
versions have suffered no essential change. An excellent example is the
Iroquoian creation myth, as recorded by the Jesuit fathers in the
_Relations_.
Religious traditions, ceremonies and myths, being of a “sacred”
character, must be related with a certain fidelity which forbids any
real change in the content. To a lesser degree, perhaps, but not much
less, the “gă´gāā” legends of the Iroquois are protected from violent
alteration. The legend is a thing, to the Indian mind, and it has a
certain personality. In certain instances the legend is a personal or
group possession and its form and content are religiously guarded from
change. With tales told for mere amusement, tales belonging to the class
of mere fiction, greater liberties may be taken.
Notwithstanding all this, it is certain that there are several versions
of each legend. Certain groups tell the myth or legend in different
ways. There are short versions and long versions and there are Seneca
versions and Mohawk versions. In order to ascertain the “correct
version” we must examine several versions as related by different
narrators, and then after making an outline of the episodes, the
characters and the motives, determine what the central theme of all is.
We can in this manner judge what is essential and what is non-essential.
There is a wide variation in the language used in the narration of some
legends, just as there is in the relation of modern stories told over
the banquet table. A better example of variation, is to consider the
innumerable versions of common nursery stories, as Puss in Boots,
Cinderella, or Aladdin’s Lamp. Yet the theme of the story and the
episodes, to say nothing of the characters, remain unchanged. Just so
with most Iroquois folk-lore, much depends upon the author-raconteur.
Some will add explanatory matter, some will add picturesque
descriptions, some will add an abundance of conversation, and some will
expand on the emotions of the characters. There is a wide individual
variation in these matters, and much depends upon the training and
education of the narrator, as well as upon his temperament. Language may
differ somewhat, but the theme must remain,—the real story must never
suffer essential change.
STORY-TELLING CUSTOMS OF THE SENECA.
Among the Seneca, in common with other Iroquois tribes, each settlement
had its official story tellers whose predecessors had carefully taught
them the legends and traditions of the mysterious past.
According to ancient traditions, no fable, myth-tale, or story of
ancient adventure might be told during the months of summer. Such
practice was forbidden by “the little people” (djogĕ´o^n), the wood
fairies. Should their law be violated some djogĕ´o^n flying about in the
form of a beetle or bird might discover the offender and report him to
their chief. Upon this an omen would warn the forgetful Indian. Failing
to observe the sign some evil would befall the culprit. Bees might sting
his lips or his tongue would swell and fill his mouth, snakes might
crawl in his bed and choke him while he slept, and so on, until he was
punished and forced to desist from forbidden talk.
Certain spirits were reputed to enforce this law for two purposes;
first, that no animal should become offended by man’s boasting of his
triumph over beasts, or at the same time learn too much of human
cunning, and fly forever the haunts of mankind; and second, that no
animal, who listening to tales of wonder, adventure or humor, should
become so interested as to forget its place in nature, and pondering
over the mysteries of man’s words, wander dazed and aimless through the
forest. To listen to stories in the summer time made trees and plants as
well as animals and men lazy, and therefore scanty crops, lean game and
shiftless people resulted. To listen to stories made the birds forget to
fly to the south when winter came, it made the animals neglect to store
up winter coats of fur. All the world stops work when a good story is
told and afterwards forgets its wonted duty in marveling. Thus the
modern Iroquois, following the old-time custom, reserves his tales of
adventures, myth and fable for winter when the year’s work is over and
all nature slumbers.
The story teller (Hage´otă’) when he finds an audience about him or
wishes to call one, announces his intention to recite a folk-tale,
(gă´gāā, or in the plural, gägä‘´sho^n’´o‘) by exclaiming
“I’´newa’eñgegĕ´odĕ^n, Hau’´nio‘´ djadao^n “diĭ^nus!” The auditors
eagerly reply “He^n‘´” which is the assenting to the proposed relation
of the folk-tale.
At intervals during the relation of a story the auditors must exclaim
“hĕ^n‘´.” This is the sign that they were listening. If there was no
frequent response of “he,” the story teller would stop and inquire what
fault was found with him or his story.
It was not only considered a breach of courtesy for a listener to fall
asleep, but also a positive omen of evil to the guilty party. If any one
for any reason wished to sleep or to leave the room, he must request the
narrator to “tie the story,” “e^nsĕgägha‘´a.” Failing to say this and
afterwards desiring to hear the remainder of the tale, the narrator
would refuse, for if he related it at all it must be from the beginning
through, unless “tied.” Thus “ĕ^nsĕgäha‘´a” was the magic word by which
a legend might be told as a serial (from ĕ^nsege´odĕ).
A story teller was known as “Hage´otă’” and his stock of tales called
“ganondas‘hägo^n”. Each listener gave the story teller a small gift, as
a bead, small round brooch, beads, tobacco, or other trinket. To tell
stories was called “ĕ^nsege´odĕ^n”, and the gift was termed
“dagwa´niatcis,” now an obsolete word.
PHONETIC KEY.
a as in father
ā preceding sound, prolonged
ă as in what
ä as in hat
â as in all
ai as in aisle
au as _ou_ in out
c as _sh_ in shall
ç as _th_ in wealth
d pronounced with the tip of the tongue touching the upper teeth, as in
enunciating English _th_ in with; the only sound of _d_ employed in
writing native words
e as in they
ĕ as in met
f as in waif
g as in gig
h as in hot
i as in pique
ĭ as in pit
k as in kick
n as in run
ñ as _ng_ in ring
o as in note
q as _ch_ in German ich
r slightly trilled; this is its only sound
s as in sop
t pronounced with the tip of the tongue touching the upper teeth, as in
enunciating the English _th_ in with; this is its only sound
u as in rule
ŭ as in rut
w as in wit
y as in ye
dj as _j_ in judge
hw as _wh_ in what
tc as _ch_ in church
^n marks nasalized vowels, thus e^n, o^n, ai^n, ĕ^n, ä^n, â^n
‘ indicates an aspiration or soft emission of breath
’ marks the glottal stop, ä’, ĕ^n’
t‘h In this combination _t_ and _h_ are separately uttered, as _th_ in
the English words hothouse, foothold
I
FUNDAMENTAL FACTORS IN SENECA FOLK-LORE
SENECA MYTHS AND FOLK-TALES
_BASIC PREMISES OF SENECA FOLK-LORE._
The myths and legends of the Seneca are built upon certain well
recognized and deeply rooted postulates. Each bit of folk-lore must have
its consistency adjudged by these elements in order to be credible. Any
myth or legend that offended the standards so set would immediately be
rejected by the Seneca as spurious. To a large extent the premises of
folk-lore are founded on folk-thought, and woe to the innovator who
sought to direct his theme from the accepted thought patterns.
Among the basic beliefs upon which the folk-tale is built are the
following:
_Unseen spirits._ Spirits pervade all nature and affect man for good or
evil. Their desires and plans must be satisfied by man. There are both
good and evil spirits. Spirits may inhabit anything in nature.
_Conflict of good and evil spirits._ Good spirits are constantly making
war upon evil spirits.
_Magical power._ There is such a thing as orenda or magical power. Such
power makes its possessor the master over the natural order of things.
This orenda may be acquired in various ways. It may be residual, and
therefore an attribute of the individual, or it may be inherent in some
charm or fetish. Virtuous persons may be given a good orenda, which is
always more powerful in the end than the evil orenda which is possessed
by witches and sorcerers.
_Transformation._ Any being possessing orenda may transform himself into
any form,—animate or inanimate, as his orenda gives power. Anything seen
in nature may be a temporary or a permanent transformation of a being
having orenda. Transformation may be by command or by entering the skin
of the creature whose form one desires to assume. Animals having orenda
may assume human form and mingle with human beings. A group of people,
therefore, may in reality be a transformed group of animals, and
likewise with individuals.
_All nature is conscious._ Everything in the Seneca philosophy lives and
is conscious. It is a being and in communication with other parts of
nature. Anything in nature may be spoken to and it will hear what one
has said. It may be induced to act in one’s behalf.
_All living creatures have souls._ The Seneca believes that animals have
souls that are alike in their nature to the souls of human beings. The
hunter, therefore, propitiates the soul of the animal he kills, and
explains why he killed it. The souls of friendly animals help man, if
man has been courteous, and has properly propitiated them. Souls of evil
animals injure men and must be “bought off.” The souls of all creatures
return to the Maker of Souls just as man’s does.
_Master of souls._ There is in the heaven world a Master of life and
soul. He allows his subordinate spirits to rule the earth-world and
concerns himself generally with his own realm. Souls that return to him
are taken apart and readjusted that they may function properly in the
immortal realm. Evil is therefore conceived in a measure as a
maladjustment of the soul’s parts.
_Ghosts._ The manes of departed men and animals wander over their
familiar haunts and startle men by their “materializations.” Wandering
ghosts generally want something and must have their desires satisfied.
The evil of the living person is intensified in the ghost. A ghost is
the body spirit and not the real psychic personality.
[Illustration:
EDWARD CORNPLANTER—SOSONDOWA
Leading chief of the Cattaraugus Wolf Clan and High Priest of the
Ganiodaiu religion. Mr. Cornplanter was probably the last of the New
York Iroquois who knew by heart every one of the ancient ceremonial
rituals. He died in June, 1918, aged 67, and was buried near the
Newtown Long House.
]
_Dreams._ Dreams are experiences of the soul as it leaves the body
during sleep. The dream god guides the soul to its dream experience.
Dreams that prompt the individual to certain desires must be interpreted
by a chosen person or by volunteer guessers, and the desire must be
satisfied, or calamity will befall the dreamer as well as the
unsuccessful guesser. Prophetic dreams must guide action and dream
demands must not be lightly set aside.
_Monsters._ There are monsters that men seldom see. These affect the
welfare and the destiny of man. They are generally evil and seek to
destroy and sometimes to eat human beings.
_Wizards._ There are such beings as wizards, witches and sorcerers.
These beings possess an evil orenda and seek to destroy innocent people.
_GODS, MAJOR SPIRITS AND FOLK-BEASTS OF THE SENECA._
1. BEINGS OF THE PRIMAL ORDER.
The first of the God Being was Te‘hao^n‘hwĕñdjaiwă’´kho^n’ or Earth
Holder. It was he who ruled the sky world and lived in the great
celestial lodge beneath the celestial tree. As the result of a dream
this chief, who also bears the title, Ancient One, was moved to take to
himself as a wife a certain maiden, known as Awĕ^nhā´i‘, Mature Flower
(Fertile Earth). Mature Flower consented to the betrothal, but due to
the embrace of her lover inhaled his breath, and was given a child. The
attention she gave this child caused the Ancient One to be moved to
jealousy, this emotion being aroused in him through the machinations of
the Fire Beast, whose invisibility rendered his work the more subtle.
Little is known through mythology of Ancient One, since his field is a
celestial one, and he seldom interferes with the doings of men of our
present order. Of his unhappy wife, who was cast through the hole made
by the uprooting of the celestial tree we learn more.[2]
The wife of the Ancient One was Iage^n’´tci‘, also meaning Ancient One
(Body). We recognize her in the Huron myths as recorded or mentioned in
the Jesuit _Relations_ as Ataentsic (Ataaentsik). In Onondaga this would
be Eiă’tăgĕ^n‘´tci‘. Her story is given in all versions of the creation
myth.
Her personal name seldom appears, but Hewitt gives it as Awĕ^n‘hā´i‘,
this referring to her maturity, or ability to bring forth seed. In some
versions the Chief casts his wife into the abyss made by uprooting the
celestial tree, Gai^niă’´tgä’´hei‘; in others her own curiosity is
responsible. The tree in such versions is uprooted as a dream demand and
her enraged husband pushes her into the hole made thereby through the
crust of the heaven world. After the completion of the earth-world the
sky mother returned by way of an etherial path that plainly was visible
to her, this having been made by her daughter, the first born and the
first to die of earth creatures.
Fire Beast (Gaăs‘ioñdie´t‘hă’), appears to have been one of the
important primal beings, and to have exercised a malign influence even
upon the inhabitants of the celestial world. He is described as of “sky
color” or invisible, and he is only detected at all when he emits
streams and flashes of light from his head. When a meteor flashes the
Iroquois recognizes the Fire Beast. His appearance is counted as a sign
of direful calamity and death.
[Illustration:
THE THUNDER SPIRIT
This is the powerful Hihnon, one of the principal spirits in the
Seneca pantheon. Drawing by Jesse Cornplanter.
]
Whirlwind (S‘hagodiiwe^n‘´gōwā or Hadu’´i’), was also a primal power of
great importance. He is the controller of the violent winds, and he
takes his name, He-who-defends-us, from his promise to help mankind when
threatened by calamity. His symbol is the crooked-mouthed false face.
There is also the concept of the four defenders, one for each of the
cardinal directions. It was Whirlwind who boasted his power to the Good
Mind (Iouskeha) and who had the contest with him of mountain moving. The
face became mutilated by the mountain coming too quickly against it, at
the command of the Good Mind. Agreeing that he was now a subordinate he
agreed furthermore, to drive away disease and pestilence and to defend
men-beings, who should be thereafter created, from malign influences.
His face carved in wood, after certain propitiatory and invocatory
ceremonies, was and still is used by the conservative Iroquois in their
ceremonial events, particularly at the mid-winter thanksgiving, when
parties of masked figures go from house to house, singing the magical
songs deemed potent for this purpose. The common name is Hadu’´i’, but
in all ceremonies the full Seneca appellation is given,
(Shagodiiwĕ^n´‘gōwā).
The Thunderer, Hĭ’´no^n’, was another of the great beings, but he
appears in the second order of mythology, as a servant to Iouskeha. He
occupies a high place in the category of Iroquois gods, so high a place
that it is an open question whether or not the Great Being whom the
Iroquois now address as Hawĕñi´o’ is not identical with the Thunderer,
though there is also a recognition of the Thunderer as a separate being.
The name Hawĕñi´o’, apparently is derived from owĕñ´nă’, (voice) and
i´o’ (good, great, majestic or beautiful). The initial _Ha_ is the
masculine sign. The name thus means, He-great-voice. This alludes to the
thunder. The Thunderer is a mighty being, the maker of rains. He
wrinkles his brow and the thunder rolls, he winks his eyes and
lightnings flash like arrows of fire. The Thunderer hates all evil
spirits, and he is charged with terrorizing the _otgont_ or malicious
dwellers of the under-world to return to their cave. He seeks to slay
the under water serpent and all folk-beasts that would use evil magic.
The benificient earth-god was T‘haho^n’hiawă’´ko^n, the light or elder
twin of the Sky Woman’s daughter. He is variously called Iouskeha
(Huron), Hă’ni‘go‘´io’, Good Mind, Elder Brother, and Sky Holder. It was
he who watched at the grave of his mother, and discovered the food
plants. It was he who set forth on the journey “to the East” and
obtained from his father the power to rule. He made the earth habitable
for man, obtained the mastery over the Thunderer and the Whirlwind, and
even made his grandmother, Eiă’tăgĕ^n‘´tci‘ (Awĕ^n‘hā´i‘) play the game
of plum stones, the result of which should determine who should rule the
earth. He animated his plum stone dice and gave them understanding,
ordered them to arrange themselves as he directed, and thereby won the
highest count in a single throw. This gave him mastery over his evil
brother Tawis´karo^n (the icy or flinty one), for the grandmother
sympathised with this ugly twin brother of his. In the heaven world,
T‘haho^n’hiawă’´ko^n, now lives with his grandmother, in the reunited
family of celestial beings, and though he grows very old he has the
power of renewing himself at will, and exercises this power over good
souls that come into the heaven world. He created man after observing
his own reflection in a pool of water, after which he made miniature
figures in clay and commanded them to live.
Tawis´karo^n, was the second born of the daughter of the Sky Woman. He
was of destructive nature, and found his way to life through the axilla
of his mother, killing her at birth. His heart was made of ice or of
flint (the words are similar). His delight is in destroying living
things, especially by freezing. He created all the evil beasts,
serpents, insects and birds. He invented thorns, briars, and by kicking
at the earth made cliffs and precipices. During his career he stole all
the good animals and hid them in a cave; he drove all the birds away.
His great feat was in stealing the sun and hiding it in the far
southwest. Aided by the fires which his brother, T‘haho^n’hiwă’´ko^n,
and his cohorts secured, the birds and animals were found and the sun
was released. This of course typifies the annual triumph of summer over
winter, the return of the migrating birds, and the return of the heat of
the sun. Tawis´karo^n is then confined to his cavern, hence his name
Hanis‘he´ono^n, meaning He who dwells in the earth. With the coming of
the Christian missionaries, Tawiskaro was identified with the Christian
devil, (Hă’nigoiĕt´gä‘, bad mind).[3] Strangely, about this time it was
the Thunder god, instead of the good-minded Sky Holder, who was
metamorphosed into the Great Spirit, Hawĕñi´o’, this name being the
Seneca equivalent for Jehovah (God).[4]
Lesser known gods were Ai‘ko^n’ the Dream god, Haskotă´hiāhāks, the Head
Opener, and Deiodă‘sondăi’ko^n‘, Thick Night. Aikon, caused the dreams
which demanded interpretation, and Haskotahiahaks, opened the heads of
soul-bodies as they passed over the sky-trail (Milky Way), and examined
them for good and evil thoughts, after which he ate the brains.
Cosmic trees. There is a marvelous tree in the center of the heaven
world. It bears all manner of fruits and flowers. (See cosmological
myth, p. 59.)
There is a great tree in the center of the earth. Its top touches the
sky. It grew in the world of the first order and it bore flowers of
light. To touch this tree is to acquire great magical power. The
Whirlwinds rub their rattles against it and become full of orenda.
2. NATURE BEINGS.
The Sun, among the nature gods, is recognized by the Seneca as a
powerful being. Yet, unlike the gods in other theogenies, the Sun is a
creation made after the formation of the world,—at least so it would
appear from the common cosmogeny. Sun was created from the face of the
earth-mother, yet it may be that her face was the sacrifice that brought
the Sun into evidence. There is evidence of attempts to conceal the
origin of the sun in several of the myths. He appears as the messenger
of the Sky Chief and as the special god of war, Ho‘sgĕ^n’age‘´dăgōwā. He
also appears as existing before the birth of the primal twins, and it
appears that he is the being who sat on the mountain “to the east across
the sea,” and who gave power to the Good Mind, or T’haho^nhiawă’´ko^n.
It thus appears there is an imperfect assimilation of conflicting myths,
probably from different sources.
[Illustration:
THE SPIRIT OF DIONHEKON
In this drawing the spirit of the food plants is shown touching the
shoulder of Handsome Lake, the Seneca Prophet. Drawing by Jesse
Cornplanter.
]
Each day the Sun starts from his resting place in the branches of the
celestial tree, takes his path under the lifted east sky, rolls up the
dome and commences his unerring watch of the movements of men. Wherever
there is light, there is the messenger of the Sky Chief watching human
behaviour. Returning at night, he recites all that he has observed on
earth.
He bears the name Endĕ´ka Gää‘´kwă, Diurnal Orb of Light.
The Moon is Soi‘´ka Gää‘´kwă, Nocturnal Orb of Light, and she is hailed
as “Our Grandmother.” In each of her several phases she has a different
name and function. She is watched by the females as a sign of health,
and by the men as a sign of hunting luck. By the Moon time is regulated,
and each monthly moon has a special name. Of all heavenly bodies she is
the most mysterious, though not the most powerful.
Morning Star, Gĕndeñ´wit‘hă, is one of the great beings of the sky and
her appearance is watched as an omen. It appears that once Morning Star
was an important celestial personage, but the Iroquois have drifted away
from giving her special honors. She appears in several rolls, sometimes
as a siren who lures hunters into a luckless marriage, mysteriously
leaving them to wander the world over in search of her. She appears to
have charmed an elk into loving her, and also as a rescuer of starving
villages in time of famine. She is called Gadjĭ‘so^n´dă’ gĕndeñ´wit‘hă’.
[Illustration:
THE FLYING HEAD OF THE WIND
This is the whirlwind or Dagwanoeient. Drawing by Jesse Cornplanter.
]
Storm Wind, Dagwanoeient, (Dagwano‘ĕñ´iĕn) is a being of great activity,
and he has a whole tribe of subordinates bearing his name. He appears to
men as a Flying Head, with long streaming hair, and his exploits are
generally discreditable. He is a great wizard and takes delight in
destroying things. His friends are generally sorcerers and otgont
(evilly potent) beasts. Many legends are related about Dagwanoeient in
his various forms, for he has several transformations.
Gä´ha‘, the zephyr, is a softer wind than the stormy Dagwanoeient, and
appears to be of a kindlier disposition. While Gä´ha‘ may have done
magical things, it was not malign, and there are legends that tell how
Gaha wooed some fair forest maid and married her. Gaha helps plant grow
and is associated with the warm season when fruits ripen and mature.
[Illustration:
THE SPIRIT OF THE FROST
This is Haht´ho, the spirit of the frost who signals by knocking on
the trees in winter. Drawing by Jesse Cornplanter.
]
The Frost god is known as Hă’´tho‘, and he is described as a fierce and
relentless old man who lives where frosts and ice abound the year
around. His home in the north is called Othowege. It is he who brings
the frost and who causes the snows to sweep over the earth. His clothing
is ice and he carries a maul with which he pounds the ice on rivers and
lakes, making them crack with a resounding boom. He also causes that
peculiar knocking sound on trees when the weather is very cold. He has
one great enemy, it is the spirit of Spring, who assisted by Thaw drives
him from the region that he has invaded and sends him grumbling back to
the northland. The Frost god has as his friends Dagwanoeient, the Storm
Wind, and Falling Hail.
The Hail spirit is called Owisondyon. He loves to startle people by
coming unexpectedly in the warm months of early summer and to pelt the
growing crops with his icy missiles. Sometimes he is given the name,
Dehodyadgaowen, meaning Divided Body.