FOOTNOTES:

[1] For "mixed articles" see DOGMA.

[2] _Hist. of Dogma_; Eng. trans. i. p. 21, footnote.

DOGRA, a race of Hill Rajputs in India, inhabiting Kashmir and the

adjacent valleys of the Himalayas. They form the ruling race in Kashmir.

"Dogra" is the name given to the country round Jammu, and is said to be

derived from a word meaning the "two lakes," as the original home of the

Dogra people was situated between the lakes of Siroensar and Mansar.

There are numerous castes in the Dogra country, and the Hindu,

Mahommedan and Sikh religions are represented. All, whether Hindus or

Mahommedans, whether high-born Rajputs of the Maharaja's caste or

low-born menials, are known as Dogras. At the time of the first Sikh War

the Dogras had a great reputation as soldiers, which they have worthily

maintained in the ranks of the Indian native army. They are classed as

fighting men with the Sikh and Punjabi Mahommedan. They distinguished

themselves in the Hunza Nagar Expedition and the affair at Chilas in

1891, and in the Tirah campaign of 1897-98.

DOGS, ISLE OF, a district of London, England, on the north bank of the

Thames, which surrounds it on three sides. It falls within the

metropolitan borough of Poplar. It is occupied by docks, riverside works

and poor houses. The origin of the name is not known. The suggestion

that it is corrupted from the Isle of Docks falls to the ground on the

question of chronology; another, that there were royal kennels here, is

improbable, though they were situated at Deptford in the 17th century.

(See POPLAR.)

DOG-TOOTH (the French _dent-de-scie_), in architecture, an ornament

found in the mouldings of medieval work of the commencement of the 12th

century, which is thought to have been introduced by the Crusaders from

the East. The earliest example is found in the hall at Rabbath-Ammon in

Moab (c. A.D. 614) built by the Sassanians, where it decorates the arch

moulding of the blind arcades and the string courses. In the apse of the

church at Murano, near Venice, it is similarly employed. In the 12th and

13th centuries it was further elaborated with carving, losing therefore

its primitive form, but constituting a most beautiful decorative

feature. In Elgin cathedral the dog-tooth ornament in the archivolt

becomes a four-lobed leaf, and in Stone church, Kent, a much more

enriched type of flower. The term has been supposed to originate in a

resemblance to the dog-tooth violet, but the original idea of a

projecting tooth is a sufficient explanation.

DOGWOOD (i.e. wood of the dog-tree; referred by the _New English

Dictionary_ to "dog," apparently as indicating inferiority; but by

others connected with "dag," "dagger," and by Prior with A.S. _dolc_, a

brooch-pin), the name applied to plants of the genus _Cornus_, of the

natural order Cornaceae. The common dogwood, prick-wood, skewer-wood,

cornel or dogberry, _C. sanguinea_, is a shrub reaching a height of 8 or

9 ft., common in hedges, thickets and plantations in Great Britain. Its

branches are dark red; the leaves egg-shaped, pointed, about 2 in. long

by 1-1/2 broad, and turning red in autumn; the flowers are dull white, in

terminal clusters. The berries are small, of a black-purple, bitter and

one-seeded, and contain a considerable percentage of oil, which in some

places is employed for lamps, and in the manufacture of soap. The wood

is white and very hard, and like that of other species of the genus is

used for making ladder-spokes, wheel-work, skewers, forks and other

implements, and gunpowder charcoal. The red berries of the dwarf

species, _C. suecica_, of the Scottish Highlands, are eaten, and are

reputed to be tonic in properties. _C. mas_, the Cornelian cherry, a

native of Europe and Northern Asia, bears a pulpy and edible fruit,

which when unripe contains much tannin. It is a good garden plant, as is

also the North American species _C. florida_, one of the commonest trees

of the deciduous forests of the middle and southern states. Professor C.

S. Sargent (_Silva of North America_) describes it as "one of the most

beautiful of the small trees of the American forests, which it enlivens

in early spring with the whiteness of its floral leaves and in autumn

with the splendour of its foliage and the brilliancy of its fruit. No

tree is more desirable in the garden or park in regions where the

summer's sun is sufficiently hot to ensure the production of its flowers

through the perfect development of the branchlets." The Jamaica dogwood,

the root-bark of which is poisonous, is the species _Piscidia

Erythrina_, of the natural order Leguminosae.

DOL, a town of north-western France, in the department of

Ille-et-Vilaine, 36 m. N. of Rennes on the Western railway. Pop. (1906)

3543. Dol is situated to the south-west of the rich agricultural

district known as the marsh of Dol, where market-gardening is especially

flourishing. The streets are still rendered picturesque by houses of the

14th and 15th centuries, which form deep arcades by the projection of

their upper storeys: and, high above all, rises the grey granite of the

cathedral, mainly of the 13th century, which in the middle ages ranked

as the metropolitan church of all Brittany, and still keeps fresh the

name of Bishop St Samson, who, having fled, as the legend tells, from

the Saxon invaders of England, selected this spot as the site of his

monastery. To the architect it is interesting for the English character

of its design, and to the antiquarian, for its stained-glass windows of

the 13th century, and for the finely sculptured tomb of Bishop Thomas

James (d. 1504). About 1-1/2 m. from the town is the _pierre de Champ

Dolent_, a menhir some 30 ft. in height; not far off stands the great

granite rock of Mont Dol, over 200 ft. in height, surmounted by the

statue and chapel of Notre-Dame de l'Esperance. Dol has trade in grain,

vegetables and fruit, tobacco is cultivated in the neighbourhood and

there are salt-marshes. Tanning and leather-currying are carried on in

the town. The town was unsuccessfully besieged by William the Conqueror,

taken by Henry II. in 1164 and by Guy de Thouars in 1204. In 1793 it

witnessed the defeat of the republican forces by the Vendeans who had

taken refuge within its walls. The bishopric established in the 6th

century was suppressed in 1790.

DOLABELLA, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS, Roman general and son-in-law of Cicero,

was born about 70 B.C. He was by far the most important of the

Dolabellae, a family of the patrician gens Cornelia. In the civil wars

he at first took the side of Pompey, but afterwards went over to Caesar,

and was present at the battle of Pharsalus. To escape the urgent demands

of his creditors, he introduced (as one of the tribunes) a bill

proposing that all debts should be cancelled. This was strongly resisted

by his colleagues, and led to serious disturbances in the city. Caesar,

on his return from Alexandria, seeing the expediency of removing

Dolabella from Rome, took him as one of his generals in the expedition

to Africa and Spain. On Caesar's death Dolabella seized the insignia of

the consulship (which had already been conditionally promised him), and,

by making friends with Brutus and the other assassins, was confirmed in

his office. When, however, M. Antonius offered him the command of the

expedition against the Parthians and the province of Syria he changed

sides at once. His journey to the province was marked by plundering,

extortion and the murder of C. Trebonius, proconsul of Asia, who refused

to allow him to enter Smyrna. He was thereupon declared a public enemy

and superseded by C. Cassius (the murderer of Caesar), who attacked him

in Laodicea. On the capture of the place, Dolabella ordered one of his

soldiers to kill him (43). Throughout his life he was a profligate and a

spendthrift.

See Cicero's _Letters_ (ed. Tyrrell and Purser); G. Boissier, _Cicero

and his Friends_ (Eng. trans., 1897); Orelli, _Onomasticon Tullianum_;

Dio Cassius xli. 40, xlii. 29, xliii. 51, xliv. 22, xlvi. 40, xlvii.

30; Appian, _Bell. civ._ iii. 7, iv. 60.

DOLBEN, JOHN (1625-1686), English divine, was the son of William Dolben

(d. 1631), prebendary of Lincoln and bishop-designate of Gloucester. He

was educated at Westminster under Richard Busby and at Christ Church,

Oxford. He fought on the royalist side at Marston Moor, 1644.

Subsequently he took orders and maintained in private the proscribed

Anglican service. At the Restoration he became canon of Christ Church

(1660) and prebendary of St Paul's, London (1661). As dean of

Westminster (1662-1683) he opposed an attempt to bring the abbey under

diocesan rule. In 1666 he was made bishop of Rochester, and in 1683

archbishop of York; he distinguished himself by reforming the discipline

of the cathedrals in these dioceses. His son John Dolben (1662-1710) was

a barrister and politician; he was M.P. for Liskeard from 1707 to 1710

and manager of Sacheverell's impeachment in 1709.

DOLCE, LUDOVICO, or LUIGI (1508-1568 or 1569), Italian writer, was a

native of Venice, and belonged to a family of honourable tradition but

decadent fortune. He received a good education, and early undertook the

task of maintaining himself by his pen. Translations from Greek and

Latin epics, satires, histories, plays and treatises on language and art

followed each other in rapid succession, till the whole number amounted

to upwards of seventy works. But he is now mainly memorable as the

author of _Marianna_, a tragedy from the life of Herod, which was recast

in French by Tristan and by Voltaire, and still keeps a place on the

stage. Four licentious comedies, _Il Ragazzo_ (1541), _Il Capitano_

(1545), _Il Marito_ (1560), _Il Ruffiano_ (1560), and seven of Seneca's

tragedies complete the list of his dramatic efforts. In one epic--to

translate the title-page--"he has marvellously reduced into _ottava

rima_ and united into one narrative the stories of the Iliad and the

Aeneid"; in another he devotes thirty-nine cantos to a certain

Primaleone, son of Palmerius; in a third he celebrates the first

exploits of Count Orlando; and in a fourth he sings of the Paladin

Sacripante. A life of the emperor Charles V. and a similar account of

Ferdinand I., published respectively in 1560 and 1566, are his chief

historical productions; and among his minor treatises it is enough to

mention the _Osservazioni sulla lingua volgare_ (1550); the _Dialogo

della pittura_ (1557); and the _Dialogo nel quale si ragiona del modo di

accrescar la memoria_ (1552).

DOLCI, CARLO, or CARLINO (1616-1686), Italian painter, was born in

Florence in May 1616. He was the grandson of a painter on the mother's

side, and became a disciple of Jacopo Vignali; and when only eleven

years of age he attempted a whole figure of St John, and a head of the

infant Christ, which received extraordinary approbation. He afterwards

painted a portrait of his mother, and displayed a new and delicate style

which brought him into notice, and procured him extensive employment at

Florence (from which city he hardly ever moved) and in other parts of

Italy. Dolci used his pencil chiefly in sacred subjects, and bestowed

much labour on his pictures. In his manner of working he was remarkably

slow. It is said that his brain was affected by seeing Luca Giordano, in

1682, despatch more business in four or five hours than he could have

executed in as many months, and that he hence fell into a state of

hypochondria, which compelled him to relinquish his art, and soon

brought him to the grave. His works are not very numerous. He generally

painted in a small size, although there are a few pictures by him as

large as life. He died in Florence in January 1686, leaving a daughter

(Agnese), who arrived at some degree of excellence in copying the works

of her father.

Carlo Dolci holds somewhat the same rank in the Florentine that

Sassoferrato does in the Roman school. Without the possession of much

genius, invention or elevation of type, both these artists produced

highly wrought pictures, extremely attractive to some tastes. The works

of Dolci are easily distinguishable by the delicacy of the composition,

and by an agreeable tint of colour, improved by judicious management of

the chiaroscuro, which gives his figures a striking relief; he affected

the use of ultramarine, much loaded in tint. "His pencil," says

Pilkington, "was tender, his touch inexpressibly neat, and his colouring

transparent; though he has often been censured for the excessive labour

bestowed on his pictures, and also for giving his carnations more of the

appearance of ivory than the look of flesh." All his best productions

are of a devout description; they frequently represent the patient

suffering of Christ or the sorrows of the Mater Dolorosa. Dolci was, in

fact, from early youth, exceedingly pious; it is said that during

passion week every year he painted a half-figure of the Saviour. His

sacred heads are marked with pathetic or at least strongly sentimental

emotion. There is a want of character in his pictures, and his grouping

lacks harmonious unison, but the general tone accords with the idea of

the passion portrayed. Among the best works of this master are the "St

Sebastian"; the "Four Evangelists," at Florence; "Christ Breaking the

Bread," in the marquess of Exeter's collection at Burleigh; the "St

Cecilia" in Dresden; an "Adoration of the Magi"; and in especial "St

Andrew praying before his Crucifixion," in the Pitti gallery, his most

important composition, painted in 1646; also several smaller pictures,

which are highly valued, and occupy honourable places in the richest

galleries. (W. M. R.)

DOLDRUMS (a slang term, _dol_ = dull; cf. tantrum), the region of calms

near the equator where the trade-winds die away, a region of constant

precipitation in which the weather is close, hot, vaporous and extremely

dispiriting. In the old days of sailing vessels, a becalmed ship

sometimes lay helpless for weeks. A letter from this region saying "we

are in the doldrums" ("in the dumps") seems to have been regarded as

written from "The Doldrums," which thus became the name of this

undesirable locality.

DOLE, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the

department of Jura, 29 m. S.E. of Dijon on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop.

(1906) 11,166. It occupies the slope of a hill overlooking the forest of

Chaux, on the right bank of the Doubs, and of the canal from the Rhone

to the Rhine which accompanies that river. The streets, which in general

are steep and narrow, contain many old houses recalling, in their

architecture, the Spanish occupation of the town. The principal

buildings are the church of Notre Dame, a Gothic structure of the 16th

century; the college, once a Jesuit establishment, which contains the

library and a museum of paintings and has a chapel of the Renaissance

period; the Hotel-Dieu and hotel de ville, both 17th-century buildings;

and the law court occupying an old convent of the Cordeliers. In the

courtyard of the hotel de ville there stands an old tower dating from

the 15th century. The birth of Louis Pasteur (1822) in the town is

commemorated by a monument, and there is also a monument to Jules Grevy.

Dole is the seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance

and of commerce and a communal college. Metal-founding and the

manufacture of fire-pumps, kitchen-ranges and other iron goods, chemical

products, machinery, leather, liqueurs and pastry, are among the

industries. There is a good trade in agricultural produce and live

stock, and in wood, iron, coal and the stone of the vicinity. Wine is

largely grown in the district.

Dole, the ancient _Dola_, was in Roman times the meeting place of

several roads, and considerable remains have been found there; in the

later middle ages and till 1648 it was the capital of Franche Comte and

seat of a parlement and a university; but in the year 1479 the town was

taken by the forces of Louis XI., and so completely sacked that only the

house of Jean Vurry, as it is still called, and two other buildings were

left standing. It subsequently came into the hands of Maximilian of

Austria, and in 1530 was fortified by Charles V. In 1668 and 1674 it was

captured by the French and lost its parlement and its university, both

of which were transferred by Louis XIV. to Besancon.

DOLE (from Old Eng. _dal_, cf. mod. "deal"), a portion, a distribution

of gifts, especially of food and money given in charity. The derivation

from O. Fr. _doel_, Late Lat. _dolium_, "grief," suggested by the custom

of funeral doles, is wrong. In early Christian days, St Chrysostom says:

"doles were used at funerals to procure the rest of the soul of the

deceased, that he might find his judge propitious." The distribution of

alms to the local poor at funerals was a universal custom in the middle

ages. The amount of doles was usually stated in the will. Thus in 1399

Eleanor, duchess of Gloucester, ordered that fifteen poor men should

carry torches at her funeral, "each having a gown and hood lined with

white, breeches of blue cloth, shoes and a shirt, and twenty pounds

amongst them." Later doles usually took the form of bequests of land or

money, the interest or rent of which was to be annually employed in

charity. Often the distribution took place at the grave of the donor.

Thus one William Robinson of Hull at his death in 1708 left money to buy

annually a dozen loaves, costing a shilling each, to be given to twelve

poor widows at his grave every Christmas. Lenten doles were also

formerly common. A will of 1537 bade a barrel of white herrings and a

case of red herrings be given yearly to the poor of Clavering, Essex, to

help them tide over the fast. One or two London doles are still

distributed, e.g. that of St Peter's, Walworth, where a Christmas dinner

is each year served to 300 parish poor in the crypt. No one under sixty

is eligible, and the dinner is unique in that it is cooked in the

church. A pilgrim's dole of bread and ale can be claimed by all

wayfarers at the Hospital of St Cross, Winchester. This is said to have

been founded by William of Wykeham. Emerson, when visiting Winchester,

claimed and received the dole. What were known as _Scrambling Doles_, so

called because the meat and bread distributed were thrown among the poor

to be scrambled for, were not uncommon in England. Such a dole existed

at St Briavel's, Gloucestershire, baskets of bread and cheese cut into

small squares being thrown by the churchwardens from the gallery into

the body of the church on Whit Sunday. At Wath near Ripon a testator in

1810 ordered that forty penny loaves should be thrown from the church

leads at midnight on every Christmas eve. The best known dole in the

United States is the "Leake Dole of Bread." John Leake, a millionaire

dying in 1792, left L1000 to Trinity Church, New York, the income to be

laid out in wheaten loaves and distributed every Sabbath morning after

service. The dole still survives, though the day has been altered to

Saturday, each week sixty-seven loaves being given away.

DOLERITE (from Gr. [Greek: doleros], deceptive), in petrology, the name

given by Hauy to those basaltic rocks which are comparatively coarse

grained and nearly, if not quite, holocrystalline. As may be inferred

from their highly crystalline state they are very often intrusive, and

occur as dikes and sills, but many of them form lava flows. Their

essential minerals are those of basalt, viz. olivine, augite and

plagioclase felspar, while hornblende, ilmenite, apatite and biotite are

their commonest accessory ingredients. The chemical and microscopic

features of these minerals agree generally with those presented in the

basalts, and only their exceptional peculiarities need be mentioned

here. Many dolerites are porphyritic and carry phenocrysts of olivine,

augite and plagioclase felspar (or of one or more of these). Others,

probably the majority, are non-porphyritic, and these are generally

coarser grained than the ground-mass of the former group, though

lacking their large conspicuous phenocrysts. The commonest type of

structure in dolerite is the ophitic, which results from the felspar of

the rock having crystallized before the augite; the latter mineral forms

shapeless masses in which the idiomorphic felspars lie. The augite

enclosing the felspars is well crystallized, though its continuity is

interrupted more or less completely by the numerous crystals of felspar

which it envelops, and in polarized light the former often behaves as a

single individual over a considerable area, while the latter mineral

consists of independent crystals. This structure may be so coarse as to

be easily detected by the unaided eye, or so fine that it cannot be seen

except in microscopic sections. Some of the porphyritic dolerites have

ophitic ground-masses; in others this structure is imperfect

(subophitic); while in many the augite, like the felspar, occurs as

small and distinct individuals, which react differently on polarized

light, and have the outlines of more or less perfectly shaped crystals.

Ophitic structure is commonest in olivine-dolerites, though the olivine

takes no part in it.

The quartz-dolerites are an important group, hardly less common than the

olivine-dolerites. They contain a small amount of quartz, and often

micropegmatite, as the last element to consolidate, filling up little

angular interspaces between the felspars and pyroxenes, which had

previously crystallized. They rarely contain olivine, but pleochroic

hypersthene is by no means rare in them (hypersthene-dolerites). Some

contain larger individuals of pale green, rather pleochroic augite (the

so-called sahlite), and a little brown mica, and brownish-green

hornblende may also be present.

Allied to these are olivine-free dolerites with more or less of

interstitial glassy base (tholeites, &c.). In the rocks of this group

ophitic structure is typically absent, and the presence of an

interstitial finely crystalline or amorphous material gives rise to the

structure which is known as "intersertal." Transitions to the

porphyritic dolerites and basalts arise by increase in the proportion of

this ground-mass. The edges of dolerite sills and dikes often contain

much dark brown glass, and pass into tachylytes, in which this material

preponderates.

Another interesting group of doleritic rocks contains analcite. They may

be ophitic, though often they are not, and they usually contain olivine,

while their augite has distinctly purple shades, and a feeble dichroism.

Their characteristic feature is the presence of a small amount of

analcite, which never shows crystalline outlines but fills up the

interspaces between the other minerals. Some writers held that this

mineral has resulted from the decomposition of nepheline; others regard

it as a primary mineral. Usually it can be clearly shown to be secondary

to some extent, but there is reason to suppose that it is really a

pneumatolytic deposit. These rocks are known as teschenites, and have a

wide distribution in England, Scotland, on the continent and in America.

Often they are comparatively rich in brown hornblende. This last-named

mineral is not usually abundant in dolerites, but in a special group,

the proterobases, it to a large extent replaces the customary augite. A

few dolerites contain much brown mica (mica-dolerites). Nepheline may

appear in these rocks, as in the basalts. Typical nepheline-dolerites

are scarce, and consist of idiomorphic augite, surrounded by nepheline.

Examples are known from the Tertiary volcanic districts of the Rhine.

Dolerites have a very wide distribution, as they are found wherever

basalts occur in any number. It is superfluous to cite localities for

them as they are among the commonest of igneous rocks. They are much

employed for road-mending and for kerbstones, though their dark colour

and the tendency they have to weather with a dingy brown crust make them

unsuitable for the better classes of architectural work. (J. S. F.)

DOLET, ETIENNE (1509-1546), French scholar and printer, was born at

Orleans on the 3rd of August 1509. A doubtful tradition makes him the

illegitimate son of Francis I.; but it is evident that he was at least

connected with some family of rank and wealth. From Orleans he was taken

to Paris about 1521; and after studying under Nicolas Berauld, the

teacher of Coligny, he proceeded in 1526 to Padua. The death of his

friend and master, Simon de Villanova, led him, in 1530, to accept the

post of secretary to Jean de Langeac, bishop of Limoges and French

ambassador to the republic of Venice; he contrived, however, to attend

the lectures of the Venetian scholar Battista Egnazio, and found time to

write Latin love poems to some Venetian Elena. Returning to France soon

afterwards he proceeded to Toulouse to study law; but there he soon

became involved in the violent disputes between the different "nations"

of the university, was thrown into prison, and finally banished by a

decree of the parlement. In 1535 he entered the lists against Erasmus in

the famous Ciceronian controversy, by publishing through Sebastien

Gryphe (Gryphius) at Lyons a _Dialogus de imitatione Ciceroniana_; and

the following year saw the appearance of his two folio volumes

_Commentariorum linguae Latinae_. This work was dedicated to Francis I.,

who gave him the privilege of printing during ten years any works in

Latin, Greek, Italian or French, which were the product of his own pen

or had received his supervision; and accordingly, on his release from an

imprisonment occasioned by his justifiable homicide of a painter named

Compaing, he began at Lyons his typographical and editorial labours.

That he was not altogether unaware of the dangers to which he was

exposed from the bigotry of the time is shown not only by the tone of

his mottoes--_Preserve moi, Seigneur, des calomnies des hommes_, and

_Durior est spectatae virtutis quam incognitae conditio_--but also by

the fact that he endeavoured first of all to conciliate his opponents by

publishing a _Cato christianus_, or Christian moralist, in which he made

profession of his creed. The catholicity of his literary appreciation,

in spite of his ultra-Ciceronianism, was soon displayed by the works

which proceeded from his press--ancient and modern, sacred and secular,

from the New Testament in Latin to Rabelais in French. But before the

term of his privilege expired his labours were interrupted by his

enemies, who succeeded in imprisoning him (1542) on the charge of

atheism. From a first imprisonment of fifteen months Dolet was released

by the advocacy of Pierre Duchatel, bishop of Tulle; from a second

(1544) he escaped by his own ingenuity; but, venturing back from

Piedmont, whither he had fled in order that he might print at Lyons the

letters by which he appealed for justice to the king of France, the

queen of Navarre and the parlement of Paris, he was again arrested,

branded as a relapsed atheist by the theological faculty of the

Sorbonne, and on the 3rd of August 1546 put to the torture, strangled

and burned in the Place Maubert. On his way thither he is said to have

composed the punning pentameter--_Non dolet ipse Dolet, sed pia turba

dolet_.

Whether Dolet is to be classed with the representatives of Protestantism

or with the advocates of anti-Christian rationalism has been frequently

disputed; by the principal Protestants of his own time he was not

recognized, and by Calvin he is formally condemned, along with Agrippa

and his master Villanova, as having uttered execrable blasphemies

against the Son of God; but, to judge by the religious character of a

large number of the books which he translated or published, such a

condemnation is altogether misplaced. His repeated advocacy of the

reading of the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue is especially noticeable.

A statue of Dolet was erected on the Place Maubert in 1889.

See J. F. Nee de la Rochelle, _Vie d'Etienne Dolet_ (1779); Joseph

Boulmier, _E. Dolet, sa vie, ses oeuvres, son martyre_ (1857); A. F.

Didot, _Essai sur la typographie_ (1852) and article in the _Nouvelle

Biographie generale_; L. Michel. _Dolet: sa statue, place Maubert: ses

amis, ses ennemis_ (1889); R. C. Christie, _Etienne Dolet, the Martyr

of the Renaissance_ (2nd ed., 1889), containing a full bibliography of

works published by him as author or printer; O. Galtier, _Etienne

Dolet_ (Paris, 1908). The _proces_, or trial, of Dolet was published

(1836) by A. H. Taillandier from the registers of the parlement of

Paris.

DOLGELLEY (_Dolgellau_, dale of hazels), a market town and the county

town of Merionethshire, North Wales, situated on the streams Wnion and

Aran at the north base of Cader Idris, on the Cambrian and Great Western

railways, 232 m. from London. Pop. of urban district (1901) 2437. It

consists of small squares and narrow streets, with a free grammar school

(1665), market hall, assize hall, county gaol, &c. The so-called

parliament house (1404) of Owen Glendower's members has been demolished.

There is some trade in coarse flannel and tweed. Glendower's treaty

with Charles of France (_Owinus D.G. princeps Walliae ... Datum apud

Dolguelli ..._) was dated here. The families of county rank in the

neighbourhood include those of Nannau, Hengwrt (the famous Hengwrt Welsh

MSS. are at Peniarth), Caerynwch, Fronwnion, Bron-y-gadair, Brynygwin,

Brynadda, Abergwynnant, Garthangharad. The county family, Vaughan,

claims descent from Rodric Fawr, king of North Wales, Glendower's

kinsman and enemy lived at Nannau. Scott (_Marmion_, vi. canto, note)

refers to the demon oak at Nannau in 1813. Among neighbouring hills are

Moel Offrwm (or _Orthrwm_--of sacrifice or of oppression) and Moel

Cynwch.

DOLGORUKI, VASILY LUKICH, COUNT (1672-1739), Russian diplomatist and

minister, was one of the first batch of young Russians whom Peter the

Great sent abroad to be educated. From 1687 to 1700 he resided at Paris,

where he learned thoroughly the principal European languages, acquired

the superficial elegance of the court of Versailles, and associated with

the Jesuits, whose moral system he is said to have appropriated. On his

return home he entered the diplomatic service. From 1706 to 1707 he

represented Russia in Poland; and from 1707 to 1720 he was her minister

at Copenhagen, where he succeeded in persuading King Frederick IV. to

join the second coalition against Charles XII. At the end of 1720 he was

transferred to Versailles, in order to seek the mediation of France in

the projected negotiations with Sweden and obtain the recognition of

Peter's imperial title by the French court. In 1724 he represented

Russia at Warsaw and in 1726 at Stockholm, the object of the latter

mission being to detach Sweden from the Hanoverian alliance, in which he

did not succeed. During the reign of Peter II. (1727-1730) Dolgoruki was

appointed a member of the supreme privy council, and after procuring the

banishment of Menshikov he appropriated the person of the young emperor,

whom he would have forced to marry his niece Catherine but for Peter's

untimely death. He then drew up a letter purporting to be the last will

of the emperor, appointing Catherine Dolgoruki his successor, but

shortly afterwards abandoned the nefarious scheme as impracticable, and

was one of the first to support the election of Anne of Courland to the

throne on condition that she first signed nine "articles of limitation,"

which left the supreme power in the hands of the Russian council. Anne,

who repudiated the "articles" on the first opportunity, never forgave

Dolgoruki for this. He was deprived of all his offices and dignities on

the 17th of April 1730, and banished first to his country seat and then

to the Solovetsky monastery. Nine years later the charge of forging the

will of Peter II. was revived against him, and he was tortured and then

beheaded at Novgorod on the 8th of November 1739.

See Robert Nisbet Bain, _The Pupils of Peter the Great_ (London,

1895). (R. N. B.)

DOLHAIN, the most eastern town of Belgium, situated on the Vesdre, N. E.

of Verviers and close to the Prussian frontier. Pop. (1904) 4757. It is

quite a modern town, occupying the site of the lower town of the ancient

city of Limburg, which was destroyed by Louis XIV. in 1675. On a rocky

eminence above Dolhain are still to be seen the fine ruins of the old

castle of Limburg, the cradle of the ancient family of that name from

which sprang the Luxemburg family and several emperors of Germany. The

Gothic church of St George of the 13th century has been restored. At a

short distance from Dolhain is the famous dam of the Gileppe, the vast

reservoir constructed to supply Verviers with water free from lime for

its cloth manufactures. The aqueduct from Gileppe to Verviers is nearly

5-1/2 m. in length.

DOLICHOCEPHALIC (long-headed), a term invented by Andreas Retzius to

denote (as opposed to "brachycephalic") those skulls the diameter of

which from side to side, or the transverse diameter, is small in

comparison with the longitudinal diameter or that from front to back.

Retzius, though inventing the term, did not define it precisely. Paul

Broca applied it to skulls having a cephalic index of seventy-five and

under, and this limit is generally adopted. Dolichocephaly, according to

Retzius, was the distinctive cranial feature of the earliest inhabitants

of Europe. To-day it is characteristic of the negro races, of the

Papuans, the Polynesians and the Australians, though among the negritos

and some of the pigmy races of Africa brachycephalic skulls are the

rule. Of the yellow races the Eskimo is the most dolichocephalic. Of

white races the Arabs and Kabyles of Algeria, and the Guanchos of the

Canary Islands, are most notable for dolichocephalic tendency.

Dolichocephaly is sometimes frontal, as among adult whites, sometimes

occipital or confined to the back of the head, as among inferior

negro-races, Australians, Papuans and newly-born whites.

DOLL, a child's plaything in the shape of a human figure or taken as

representing one. The word "doll" was not in common use in the middle

ages, "children's babies" and other terms being substituted for it; the

commonly accepted view is that it is abbreviated from the name Dorothy

(cf. Scottish "Doroty"). "Idol" has also been connected with it; but the

accent is held to tell against this. Another derivation is from Norse

_daul_ (woman), with which may be compared O.H.G. _toccha_, M.H.G.

_docke_, a girl, doll, used also in the sense of butterfly, nightmare,

&c., thus connecting the doll with magic and superstition. The same

connexion is found in Asia Minor, South India, among the Pueblo peoples

and in South Africa; philology apart, therefore, the derivation from

"idol" has much to recommend it, and some side influence from this word

may well have caused the selection of the form "doll." Dolls proper

should be distinguished from (a) idols, (b) magical figurines, (c)

votive offerings, (d) costume figures. The festival figures of Japan,

like the bambino of Italy, given to the child only on certain saints'

days, hardly come within the category of dolls.

Dolls were known in ancient Egypt (XVIIIth Dynasty) and Asia Minor; they

were common both in Greece and Rome; Persius mentions that girls vowed

them to Venus when they got married; dolls found in the catacombs are

preserved in the Vatican and the Museum Carpegna. The [Greek:

neurospaston] (Lat. _crepundia_) of Greek finds of the 6th and later

centuries B.C. was a marionette. Dolls were in use among the Arabs at

the time of Mahomet, and the prophet's nine-year-old wife Ayesha is said

to have induced him to join her in her play with them. Although

Mahommedanism prohibits the making of figures in human shape, dolls do

not seem to have disappeared from Mahommedan countries, though

substitutes for them are perhaps more common there than elsewhere.

Dolls are extremely common in Africa. There seem to be forms peculiar to

different regions, such as the flat, spade-shaped figure on the Gold

Coast. Among the Wasaramo the girls carry from the age of puberty till

the birth of their first child an object indistinguishable from the

ordinary doll; it is called _mwana ya kiti_ (stool-child) because it is

placed on a stool at home; it probably has a magical significance. The

same may be said of the Australian figurines; others, made of cane, are

undoubtedly children's dolls; excellently moulded wax figures are also

found. In Asia dolls properly so-called are apparently rare; but there

are specimens in museums from the Malay peninsula, Persia and South

India, and in Asia Minor children use cushions, &c., as surrogates. They

are found in Alaska among the Eskimo. Most Red Indian tribes had them; a

mother who has lost her child carries its dolls and other playthings.

Cortes is said to have found Montezuma and his court playing with

elaborate dolls; they have been dug up from prehistoric Peruvian graves.

In the Gran Chaco metacarpal bones of the rhea are in use, wrapped in a

blanket when they represent male, in a petticoat when they are female.

But little attention has been paid to the psychological side of dolls.

Though many boys play with them, dolls are mainly confined to girls; and

female dolls predominate in the proportion of twelve to one. The

culmination of the doll instinct is between the age of eight and nine;

but they are not entirely dropped till much later; in fact unmarried and

childless women sometimes keep it up for years. In children it is said

by Hall to be by no means always a manifestation of the maternal

instinct; for dolls are not always regarded as children, and the

proportion of adults increases with the age of the children. But the

important point is whether the child regarded itself as older or younger

than the doll. There is, on the other hand, a tendency to neglect dolls

for babies and a reverse current of love of dolls which arises out of

love of babies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For a list of works see A. MacDonald, _Man and Abnormal

Man_ (U. S. Senate Document, 1905, vol. ix. No. 187, p. 275); see

also Andree, _Ethnographische Parallelen_ N. F.; Schlegel, _Indische

Bibliothek_. i. 139; _Brandenburgia_, xi. 28; _Delineator_, lviii.

927; _Globus_, lxxv. 354, lxxx. 205; _Internat. Archiv f. Ethnog._

vii. 45; _Ladies' Home Journ._ xvi.; _Westermann's Monatshefte_ (Feb.

1899, &c.); _Man_ (1903, No. 22). For the psychological side see

_Paedagogical Seminary_, iv. 129, discussed in _Contemporary Rev._

lxxv. 58; Mrs F. H. Burnett, "The One I know best of all"; Sully,

_Studies of Childhood_; G. Sand, _Histoire de ma vie_. (N. W. T.)

DOLLAR, a town of Clackmannanshire, Scotland, 6 m. N.E. of Alloa by the

North British railway, not far from the Devon. Pop. (1901) 1619. The

village, which is beautifully situated, contains several handsome stone

villas occupied by families attracted to the town by its educational

facilities. The academy, housed in a fine mass of buildings of the

Grecian order (opened about 1819), was founded by Captain John McNab

(1732-1802), a native who began life as a herdboy, and afterwards became

a rich shipowner. From the burn of Dollar (or Dolour), which runs

through the ravine of Dollar Glen, the town draws its water-supply. On

an isolated hill above the junction of the parent streams, named Sorrow

and Care, stands the ruin of Castle Campbell, known also as Gloom

Castle, an old stronghold of the Argyll family. The castle was burned by

the Macleans in 1644, in the interest of the marquess of Montrose, and

not again restored. Although a ruin it is carefully preserved. The Rev.

Dr James Aitken Wylie (1808-1890), the historian of Protestantism, was a

minister in Dollar for several years. Patrick Gibson, the etcher and

landscape-painter, was drawing-master at the academy from 1824 to 1829,

and William Tennant, the author of _Anster Fair_, was a teacher of

classics from 1819 till 1834, when he was appointed to the chair of

Hebrew in St Andrews University. Harviestoun Castle, about midway

between Dollar and Tillicoultry, once belonged to the Tait family, and

here Archibald Campbell Tait, archbishop of Canterbury, spent some of

his boyhood.

DOLLAR, a silver coin at one time current in many European countries,

and adopted under varying forms of the name elsewhere. The word "dollar"

is a modified form of _thaler_, which, with the variant forms (daler,

dalar, daalder, tallero, &c.), is said to be a shortened form of

_Joachimsthaler_. This _Joachimsthaler_ was the name given to a coin

intended to be the silver equivalent of the gold gulden, a coin current

in Germany from the 14th century. In 1516 a rich silver mine was

discovered in Joachimsthal (Joachim's dale), a mining district of

Bohemia, and the count of Schlitz, by whom it was appropriated, caused a

great number of silver coins to be struck (the first having the date

1518), bearing an effigy of St Joachim, hence the name. The

_Joachimsthaler_ was also sometimes known as the _Schlickenthaler_. The

first use of the word dollar in English was as applied to this silver

coin, the thaler, which was current in Germany at various values from

the 16th century onwards, as well as, more particularly, to the unit of

the German monetary union from 1857 to 1873, when the mark was

substituted for the thaler. The Spanish piece-of-eight (_reals_) was

also commonly referred to as a dollar. When the Bank of England

suspended cash payments in 1797, and the scarcity of coin was very

great, a large number of these Spanish coins, which were held by the

bank, were put into circulation, after having been countermarked at the

Mint with a small oval bust of George III., such as was used by the

Goldsmiths' Company for marking plate. Others were simply overstamped

with the initials G.R. enclosed in a shield. In 1804 the Maundy penny

head set in an octagonal compartment was employed. Several millions of

these coins were issued. These Spanish pieces-of-eight were also current

in the Spanish-American colonies, and were very largely used in the

British North American colonies. As the reckoning was by pounds,

shillings and pence in the British-American colonies, great

inconveniences naturally arose, but these were to some extent lessened

by the adoption of a tariff list, by which the various gold and silver

coins circulating were rated. In 1787 the dollar was introduced as the

unit in the United States, and it has remained as the standard of value

either in silver or gold in that country. For the history of the various

changes in the weights and value of the coin see NUMISMATICS. The

Spanish piece-of-eight was also the ancestor of the Mexican dollar, the

Newfoundland dollar, the British dollar circulating in Hong Kong and the

Straits Settlements, and the dollar of the South American republics,

although many of them are now dollars only in name.

DOLLING, ROBERT WILLIAM RADCLYFFE (1851-1902), English divine, known as

Father Dolling, was born at Magheralin, Co. Down, and educated at Harrow

and Cambridge. From 1878 to 1882 he was warden of one of the houses of

the Postmen's League, started by Father Stanton of St Alban's, Holborn.

He was ordained in 1883 to a curacy at Corscombe, Dorset, but resided in

London as head of St Martin's mission, Stepney. In 1885 a difficulty as

to the relation of his mission to Holy Trinity parish, Stepney, led to

his resignation, and he next accepted the charge of St Agatha's,

Landport, the Winchester College mission. The remarkable reforms he

accomplished there may be ascertained from his _Ten years in a

Portsmouth slum_ (London 1896). In 1885 he again resigned, owing to the

bishop of Winchester's refusal to sanction the extreme ritual used in

the service at St Agatha's. In 1897 he visited America, where his

preaching made a great impression. He returned to England in the

following year as vicar of St Saviour's, Poplar, and retained that

living until his death.

An account of Dolling's person and missionary work among the poor is

given in _The Life of Father Dolling_ (London, 1903), by the Rev. C.

E. Osborne.

DOLLINGER, JOHANN JOSEPH IGNAZ VON (1799-1890), German theologian and

church historian, was born at Bamberg, Bavaria, on the 28th of February

1799. He came of an intellectual stock, his grandfather and father

having both been physicians of eminence and professors of one or other

of the branches of medical science; his mother too belonged to a family

not undistinguished in intellectual power. Young Dollinger was first

educated in the gymnasium at Wurzburg, and then began to study natural

philosophy at the university in that city, where his father now held a

professorship. In 1817 he began the study of mental philosophy and

philology, and in 1818 turned to the study of theology, which he

believed to lie beneath every other science. He particularly devoted

himself to an independent study of ecclesiastical history, a subject

very indifferently taught in Roman Catholic Germany at that time. In

1820 he became acquainted with Victor Aime Huber (1800-1869), a fact

which largely influenced his life. On the 5th of April 1822 he was

ordained priest, after studying at Bamberg, and in 1823 he became

professor of ecclesiastical history and canon law in the lyceum at

Aschaffenburg. He then took his doctor's degree, and in 1826 became

professor of theology at Munich, where he spent the rest of his life.

About this time Dollinger brought upon himself the animadversion of

Heine, who was then editor of a Munich paper. The unsparing satirist

described the professor's face as the "gloomiest" in the whole

procession of ecclesiastics which took place on Good Friday.

It has been stated that in his earlier years Dollinger was a pronounced

Ultramontane. This does not appear to have been altogether the case;

for, very early in his professorial career at Munich, the Jesuits

attacked his teaching of ecclesiastical history, and the celebrated J.

A. Mohler (q.v.) who afterwards became his friend, on being appealed to,

pronounced on the whole in his favour. He also entered into relations

with the well-known French Liberal Catholic Lamennais, whose views on

the reconciliation of the Roman Catholic Church with the principles of

modern society had aroused much suspicion in Ultramontane circles. In

1832 Lamennais, with his friends Lacordaire and Montalembert, visited

Germany, and obtained considerable sympathy in their attempts to bring

about a modification of the Roman Catholic attitude to modern problems.

Dollinger seems to have regarded favourably the removal, by the Bavarian

government, in 1841, of Professor Kaiser from his chair, because he had

taught the infallibility of the pope. On the other hand, he published a

treatise in 1838 against mixed marriages, and in 1843 wrote strongly in

favour of requiring Protestant soldiers to kneel at the consecration of

the Host when compelled officially to be present at Mass. Moreover, in

his works on _The Reformation_ (3 vols. Regensburg, 1846-1848) and on

_Luther_ (1851, Eng, tr., 1853) he is very severe on the Protestant

leaders, and he also accepts, in his earlier works, the Ultramontane

view then current on the practical condition of the Church of England, a

view which in later days he found reason to change. Meanwhile he had

visited England, where he was well received; and he afterwards travelled

in Holland, Belgium and France, acquainting himself with the condition

and prospects of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1842 he entered into

correspondence with the leaders of the Tractarian movement in England,

and some interesting letters have been preserved which were exchanged

between him and Pusey, Gladstone and Hope Scott. When the last-named

joined the Church of Rome he was warmly congratulated by Dollinger on

the step he had taken. He, however, much regretted the gradual and very

natural trend of his new English allies towards extreme Ultramontane

views, of which Archdeacon, afterwards Cardinal, Manning ultimately

became an enthusiastic advocate. In 1845 Dollinger was made

representative of his university in the second chamber of the Bavarian

legislature. In 1847, in consequence of the fall from power of the Abel

ministry in Bavaria, with which he had been in close relations, he was

removed from his professorship at Munich, but in 1849 he was invited to

occupy the chair of ecclesiastical history. In 1848, when nearly every

throne in Europe was shaken by the spread of revolutionary sentiments,

he was elected delegate to the national German assembly at Frankfort,--a

sufficient proof that at this time he was regarded as no mere narrow and

technical theologian, but as a man of wide and independent views.

It has been said that his change of relations to the Papacy dated from

the Italian war in 1859, but no sufficient reason has been given for

this statement. It is more probable that, like Grosseteste, he had

imbibed in early youth an enthusiastic sentiment of attachment to the

Papacy as the only centre of authority, and the only guarantee for

public order in the Church, but that his experience of the actual

working of the papal system (and especially a visit to Rome in 1857) had

to a certain extent convinced him how little correspondence there was

between his ideal and the reality. He may also have been unfavourably

impressed with the promulgation by Pius IX. in 1854 of the dogma of the

Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin. But whatever may have been

his reasons, he ultimately became the leader of those who were

energetically opposed to any addition to, or more stringent definition

of, the powers which the Papacy had possessed for centuries. In some

speeches delivered at Munich in 1861 he outspokenly declared his view

that the maintenance of the Roman Catholic Church did not depend on the

temporal sovereignty of the pope. His book on _The Church and the

Churches_ (Munich, 1861) dealt to a certain extent with the same

question. In 1863 he invited 100 theologians to meet at Malines and

discuss the question which Lamennais and Lacordaire had prematurely

raised in France, namely, the attitude that should be assumed by the

Roman Catholic Church towards modern ideas. His address to the assembled

divines was "practically a declaration of war against the Ultramontane

party." He had spoken boldly in favour of freedom for the Church in the

Frankfort national assembly in 1848, but he had found the authorities of

his Church claiming a freedom of a very different kind from that for

which he had contended. The freedom he claimed for the Church was

freedom to manage her affairs without the interference of the state; the

champions of the papal monarchy, and notably the Jesuits, desired

freedom in order to put a stop to the dissemination of modern ideas. The

addresses delivered in the Catholic congress at Malines were a

declaration in the direction of a Liberal solution of the problem of the

relations of Church and State. The pope for a moment seemed to hesitate,

but there could be little doubt what course he would ultimately pursue,

and after four days' debate the assembly was closed at his command. On

the 8th of December 1864 Pius IX. issued the famous _Syllabus_, in

which he declared war against modern science and progress (see

SYLLABUS). It was in connexion with this question that Dollinger

published his _Past and Present of Catholic Theology_ (1863) and his

_Universities Past and Present_ (Munich, 1867).

We now approach the critical period of Dollinger's life. It was about

this time that some of the leading theologians of the Roman Catholic

Church, conceiving that the best way of meeting present perils was to

emphasize, as well as to define more clearly, the authority of the pope,

advised him to make his personal infallibility a dogma of the Church,

and urged strenuously on him the necessity of calling a council for that

purpose. There was considerable opposition in various quarters. Many

bishops and divines considered the proposed definition a false one.

Others, though accepting it as the truth, declared its promulgation to

be inopportune. But the headquarters of the opposition was Germany, and

its leader was Dollinger, whose high reputation and vast stores of

learning placed him far above any other member of the band of the

theological experts who now gathered around him. Among them were his

intimate friends Johann Friedrich (q.v.) and J. N. Huber, in Bavaria. In

the rest of Germany he found many supporters, chiefly professors in the

Catholic faculty of theology at Bonn: among these were the famous

canonist von Schulte, Franz Heinrich Reusch, the ecclesiastical

historian Joseph Langen, as well as J. H. Reinkens, afterwards bishop of

the Old Catholic Church in Germany, Knoodt, and other distinguished

scholars. In Switzerland, Professor Edward Herzog, who became Old (or,

as it is sometimes called, Christ-) Catholic bishop in Switzerland, and

other learned men supported the movement. Early in 1869 the famous

_Letters of Janus_ (which were at once translated into English; 2nd ed.

_Das Papsttum_, 1891) began to appear. They were written by Dollinger in

conjunction with Huber and Friedrich, afterwards professor at Munich. In

these the tendency of the _Syllabus_ towards obscurantism and papal

despotism, and its incompatibility with modern thought, were clearly

pointed out; and the evidence against papal infallibility, resting, as

the _Letters_ asserted, on the False Decretals, and accepted without

controversy in an age of ignorance, was ably marshalled for the guidance

of the council. When, on the 8th of December 1869, it had actually

assembled, the world was kept informed of what was going on in the

_Letters of Quirinus_, written by Dollinger and Huber while the debates

of the council were proceeding. Some of these letters appeared in the

German newspapers, and an English translation was published by

Rivington. Augustin Theiner, the librarian at the Vatican, then in

disgrace with the pope for his outspoken Liberalism, kept his German

friends well informed of the course of the discussions. The proceedings

of the council were frequently very stormy, and the opponents of the

dogma of infallibility complained that they were not unfrequently

interrupted, and that endeavours were made to put them down by clamour.

The dogma was at length carried by an overwhelming majority, and the

dissentient bishops, who--with the exception of two--had left the

council before the final division, one by one submitted (see VATICAN

COUNCIL). Dollinger, however, was not to be silenced. He headed a

protest by forty-four professors in the university of Munich, and

gathered together a congress at Nuremberg, which met in August 1870 and

issued a declaration adverse to the Vatican decrees. An immense ferment

took place. In Bavaria, where Dollinger's influence was greatest, the

strongest determination to resist the resolutions of the council

prevailed. But the authority of the council was held by the archbishop

of Munich to be paramount, and he called upon Dollinger to submit.

Instead of submitting, Dollinger, on the 28th of March 1871, addressed a

memorable letter to the archbishop, refusing to subscribe the decrees.

They were, he said, opposed to Holy Scripture, to the traditions of the

Church for the first 1000 years, to historical evidence, to the decrees

of the general councils, and to the existing relations of the Roman

Catholic Church to the state in every country in the world. "As a

Christian, as a theologian, as an historian, and as a citizen," he

added, "I cannot accept this doctrine."

The archbishop replied by excommunicating the disobedient professor.

This aroused fresh opposition. Dollinger was almost unanimously elected

rector-magnificus of the university of Munich, and Oxford, Edinburgh and

Marburg universities conferred upon him the honorary degree of doctor of

laws and Vienna that of philosophy. The Bavarian clergy invited Bishop

Loos of the Jansenist Church in Holland, which for more than 150 years

had existed independent of the Papacy and had adopted the name of "Old

Catholic," to hold confirmations in Bavaria. The offer was accepted, and

the bishop was received with triumphal arches and other demonstrations

of joy. The three Dutch Old Catholic bishops declared themselves ready

to consecrate a bishop, if it were desired. The momentous question was

discussed at a meeting of the opponents of the Vatican decrees, and it

was resolved to elect a bishop and ask the Dutch bishops to consecrate

him. Dollinger, however, voted against the proposition, and withdrew

from any further steps towards the promotion of the movement. This was

the critical moment in the history of the resistance to the decrees. Had

Dollinger, with his immense reputation as a scholar, as a divine and as

a man, allowed himself to be consecrated bishop of the Old Catholic

Church, it is impossible to say how wide the schism would have been. But

he declined to initiate a schism. His refusal lost Bavaria to the

movement; and the number of Bavarian sympathizers was still further

reduced when the seceders, in 1878, allowed their priests to marry, a

decision which Dollinger, as was known, sincerely regretted. The Old

Catholic Communion, however, was formally constituted, with Reinkens at

its head as bishop, and it still continues to exist (see OLD CATHOLICS).

Dollinger's attitude to the new community was not very clearly defined.

It may be difficult to reconcile the two declarations made by him at

different times: "I do not wish to join a schismatic society; I am

isolated," and "As for myself, I consider that I belong by conviction to

the Old Catholic community." The latter declaration was made some years

after the former, in a letter to Pastor Widmann. The nearest approach to

a reconciliation of the two statements would appear to be that while, at

his advanced age, he did not wish to assume the responsibility of being

head of a new denomination, formed in circumstances of exceptional

difficulty, he was unwilling to condemn those who were ready to hazard

the new departure. "By conviction" he belonged to the Old Catholics, but

he never formally joined them. Yet at least he was ready to meet their

leaders, to address them, and to discuss difficult problems with them.

His addresses on the reunion of the Churches, delivered at the Bonn

Conference of 1872, show that he was by no means hostile to the newly

formed communion, in whose interests these conferences were held. In

1874 and again in 1875, he presided over the Reunion Conferences held at

Bonn and attended by leading ecclesiastics from the British Isles and

from the Oriental Church, among whom were Bishop Christopher Wordsworth

of Lincoln; Bishop Harold Browne of Ely; Lord Plunket, archbishop of

Dublin; Lycurgus, archbishop of Syros and Tenos; Canon Liddon; and

Professor Ossinine of St Petersburg. At the latter of these two

conferences, when Dollinger was seventy-six years of age, he delivered a

series of marvellous addresses in German and English, in which he

discussed the state of theology on the continent, the reunion question,

and the religious condition of the various countries of Europe in which

the Roman Catholic Church held sway. Not the least of his achievements

on this occasion was the successful attempt, made with extraordinary

tact, ability, knowledge and perseverance, to induce the Orientals,

Anglicans and Old Catholics present to accept a formula of concord,

drawn from the writings of the leading theologians of the Greek Church,

on the long-vexed question of the Procession of the Holy Spirit. This

result having been attained, he passed the rest of his days in

retirement, emerging sometimes from his retreat to give addresses on

theological questions, and also writing, in conjunction with his friend

Reusch, his last book, _Geschichte der Moralstreitigkeiten in der

romisch-katholischen Kirche seit dem sechzehnten Jahrhundert mit

Beitragen zur Geschichte und Charakteristik des Jesuitenordens_

(Nordlingen, 1889), in which he deals with the moral theology of St

Alfonso de' Liguori. He died in Munich, on the 14th of January 1890, at

the age of ninety-one. Even _in articulo mortis_ he refused to receive

the sacraments from the parish priest at the cost of submission, but the

last offices were performed by his friend Professor Friedrich.

In addition to the works referred to in the foregoing sketch, we may

mention _The Eucharist in the First Three Centuries_ (Mainz, 1826); a

_Church History_ (1836, Eng. trans. 1840); _Hippolytus and Callistus_

(1854, Eng. trans., 1876); _First Age of Christianity_ (1860);

_Lectures on the Reunion of the Churches_; _The Vatican Decrees;

Studies in European History_ (tr. M. Warre, 1890); _Miscellaneous

Addresses_ (tr. M. Warre, 1894).

See _Life_ by J. Friedrich (3 vols. 1899-1901); obituary notice in

_The Times_, 11th January 1890; L. von Kobell, _Conversations of Dr

Dollinger_ (tr. by K. Gould, 1892). (J. J. L.*)

DOLLOND, JOHN (1706-1761), English optician, was the son of a Huguenot

refugee, a silk-weaver at Spitalfields, London, where he was born on the

10th of June 1706. He followed his father's trade, but found time to

acquire a knowledge of Latin, Greek, mathematics, physics, anatomy and

other subjects. In 1752 he abandoned silk-weaving and joined his eldest

son, Peter Dollond (1730-1820), who in 1750 had started in business as a

maker of optical instruments. His reputation grew rapidly, and in 1761

he was appointed optician to the king. In 1758 he published an "Account

of some experiments concerning the different refrangibility of light"

(_Phil. Trans._, 1758), describing the experiments that led him to the

achievement with which his name is specially associated, the discovery

of a means of constructing achromatic lenses by the combination of crown

and flint glasses. Leonhard Euler in 1747 had suggested that achromatism

might be obtained by the combination of glass and water lenses. Relying

on statements made by Sir Isaac Newton, Dollond disputed this

possibility (_Phil. Trans._, 1753), but subsequently, after the Swedish

physicist, Samuel Klingenstjerna (1698-1765), had pointed out that

Newton's law of dispersion did not harmonize with certain observed

facts, he began experiments to settle the question. Early in 1757 he

succeeded in producing refraction without colour by the aid of glass and

water lenses, and a few months later he made a successful attempt to get

the same result by a combination of glasses of different qualities (see

TELESCOPE). For this achievement the Royal Society awarded him the

Copley medal in 1758, and three years later elected him one of its

fellows. Dollond also published two papers on apparatus for measuring

small angles (_Phil. Trans._, 1753, 1754). He died in London, of

apoplexy, on the 30th of November 1761.

An account of his life, privately printed, was written by the Rev.

John Kelly (1750-1809), the Manx scholar, who married one of his

granddaughters.

DOLMAN (from Turk. _d[=o]l[=a]m[=a]n_), originally a long and loose

garment left unfastened in front, and with narrow sleeves. It is worn

generally by the Turks, and is not unlike a cassock in shape. The name

was given to the uniform jacket, worn by hussars, and slung from the

shoulders with the sleeves hanging loose; and it is also used for a

similar garment worn by ladies, with wide cape-like arrangements instead

of sleeves.

DOLNJA TUZLA, or DONJI SOLI, the capital of the Dolnja Tuzla district,

in Bosnia, beautifully situated on the Jala or Julla, a small stream

flowing into the Spreca, which joins the Bosna at Doboj, 39 m. W.N.W.;

and on a branch railway from Doboj. Pop. (1895) 10,227; almost all,

including a permanent colony of gipsies, being Moslems. Dolnja Tuzla is

the seat of a district court and an Orthodox bishop; with several

churches, many mosques, a hospital, gymnasium and commercial school.

Besides large alkali works, it has a vigorous trade in grain, livestock,

timber and coal, from the surrounding hills, where there is a colony of

Hungarian miners; while the salt springs, owned by the state both at

Dolnja, or Lower, and Gornja, or Upper Tuzla, 6 m. E., are without a

rival in the Balkan Peninsula.

Dolnja Tuzla was called by the Romans _Ad Salinas_. Constantine

Porphyrogenitus mentions it, in the 10th century, as _Salenes_; in other

medieval documents it appears as _Sou_, _Sow_ or _Soli_. Its modern name

is derived from the Turkish _tuz_, "salt." In 1690 the Austrians routed

the Turks at Gornja Tuzla, and removed the Franciscan friars, with about

3000 other Roman Catholics, into Slavonia.

DOLOMIEU, DEODAT GUY SILVAIN TANCREDE GRATET DE (1750-1801), French

geologist and mineralogist, was born at Dolomieu, near Tour-du-Pin, in

the department of Isere in France, on the 24th of June 1750. He was

admitted in his infancy a member of the Order of Malta. In his

nineteenth year he quarrelled with a knight of the galley on which he

was serving, and in the duel that ensued killed him. He was condemned to

death for his crime, but in consideration of his youth the grand master

granted him a pardon, which, at the instance of Cardinal Torrigiani, was

confirmed by Pope Clement XIII., and after nine months' imprisonment he

was set at liberty. Throughout that period he had solaced himself with

the study of the physical sciences, and during his subsequent residence

at Metz he continued to devote himself to them. In 1775 he published his

_Recherches sur la pesanteur des corps a differentes distances du centre

de la terre_, and two Italian translations of mineralogical treatises by

A. F. Cronstedt (1702-1765) and T. O. Bergman (1735-1784). These works

gained for him the honour of election as a corresponding member of the

Academie des Sciences at Paris. To obtain leisure to follow his

favourite pursuits Dolomieu now threw up the commission which, since the

age of fifteen, he had held in the carabineers, and in 1777 he

accompanied the _bailli_ (afterwards Cardinal L. R. E.) de Rohan to

Portugal. In the following year he visited Spain, and in 1780 and 1781

Sicily and the adjacent islands. Two months of the year 1782 were spent

in examining the geological structure of the Pyrenees, and in 1783 the

earthquake of Calabria induced him to go to Italy. The scientific

results of these excursions are given in his _Voyage aux iles de Lipari_

(1783); _Memoire sur le tremblement de terre de la Calabre_ (1784);

_Memoire sur les iles Ponces, et catalogue raisonne des produits de

l'Etna_ (1788) and other works. In 1789 and 1790 he busied himself with

an examination of the Alps, his observations on which form the subject

of numerous memoirs published in the _Journal de physique_. The mineral

_dolomite_, which was named after him, was described by Dolomieu in

1791. He returned to France in that year, bringing with him rich

collections of minerals. On the 14th of September 1792 the duc de la

Rochefoucauld, with whom he had been for twenty years on terms of the

closest intimacy, was assassinated at Forges, and Dolomieu retired with

the widow and daughter of the duke to their estate of Roche Guyon, where

he wrote several important scientific papers. The events of the 9th

Thermidor (July 27, 1794) having restored the country to some

tranquillity, Dolomieu recommenced his geological tours, and visited

various parts of France with which he had been previously unacquainted.

He was in 1796 appointed engineer and professor at the school of mines,

and was chosen a member of the Institute at the time of its formation.

At the end of 1797 he joined the scientific staff which in 1798

accompanied Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt. He had proceeded up the

Nile as far as Cairo when ill-health made his return to Europe

necessary, and on the 7th of March 1799 he set sail from Alexandria. His

ship proving unseaworthy put into Taranto, and as Naples was then at war

with France, all the French passengers were made prisoners. On the 22nd

of May they were carried by ship to Messina, whence, with the exception

of Dolomieu, they embarked for the coast of France. Dolomieu had been an

object of the hatred of the Neapolitan court since 1783, when he

revealed to the grand master of his order its designs against Malta, and

the calumnies of his enemies on that island served now as a pretext for

his detention. He was confined in a pestilential dungeon, where, clothed

in rags, and having nothing but a little straw for a bed, he languished

during twenty-one months. Dolomieu, however, did not abandon himself to

despair. Deprived of writing materials, he made a piece of wood his pen,

and with the smoke of his lamp for ink he wrote upon the margins of a

Bible, the only book he still possessed, his treatise _Sur la

philosophie mineralogique et sur l'espece minerale_ (1801). Friends

entreated, but in vain, for his liberty; it was with difficulty that

they succeeded in furnishing him with a little assistance, and it was

only by virtue of a special clause in the treaty between France and

Naples that, on the 15th of March 1801, he was released. On his arrival

in France he commenced the duties of the chair of mineralogy at the

museum of natural history, to which, after the death of Daubenton, he

had been elected in January 1800. His course of lectures concluded, he

revisited Switzerland. Returning thence he reached the residence of his

brother-in-law at Chateau-Neuf, in the department of Saone-et-Loire,

where he was seized with a fever, to which in a few days he succumbed,

on the 26th of November 1801.

Dolomieu's geological theories are remarkable for originality and

boldness of conception. The materials constituting the primordial globe

he held to have arranged themselves according to their specific

gravities, so as to have constituted a fluid central sphere, a solid

crust external to this, next a stratum of water, and lastly the

atmosphere. Where water penetrated through the crust, solidification

took place in the underlying fluid mass, which enlarging in consequence

produced rifts in the superincumbent rocks. Water rushing down through

the rifts became decomposed, and the resulting effervescence occasioned

submarine volcanoes. The crust of the earth he believed to be

continually increasing in thickness, owing to the deposition of aqueous

rocks, and to the gradual solidification of the molten interior, so that

the volcanic eruptions and other geological phenomena of former must

have been of far greater magnitude and frequency than those of recent

times.

See Lacepede, "Eloge historique de Dolomieu," in _Memoires de la

classe des sciences de l'Institut_ (1806); Thomson, in _Annals of

Philosophy_, vol. xii. p. 161 (1808).

DOLOMITE, a mineral species consisting of calcium and magnesium

carbonate, CaMg(CO3)2, and occurring as rhombohedral crystals or large

rock-masses. Analyses of most well-crystallized specimens correspond

closely with the above formula, the two carbonates being present in

equal molecular proportions (CaCO3, 54.35; MgCO3, 45.65%). Normal

dolomite is thus not an isomorphous mixture of calcium and magnesium

carbonates, but a double salt; and any variations in composition are to

be explained by the isomorphous mixing of this double salt with

carbonates of calcium, iron, magnesium, manganese, and rarely of zinc

and cobalt.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

In crystalline form dolomite is very similar to calcite, belonging to

the same group of rhombohedral carbonates; the primitive rhombohedron,

_r_ (100), parallel to the faces of which there are perfect cleavages,

has interfacial angles of 73 deg. 45', the angle of the cleavage

rhombohedron of calcite being 74 deg. 55'. A specially characteristic

feature is that this rhombohedron is frequently the only form present on

the crystals (in calcite it is rare except in combination with other

forms); the faces are also usually curved (fig. 1), sometimes to an

extraordinary degree giving rise to saddle-shaped crystals (fig. 2).

Crystals with plane faces are usually twinned, there being an

interpenetration of two rhombohedra with the vertical axes parallel. The

secondary twin-lamination, parallel to the obtuse rhombohedron _e_

(110), so common in calcite, does not exist in dolomite. In the degree

of symmetry possessed by the crystals there is, however, an important

difference between calcite and dolomite; the former has the full number

of planes and axes of symmetry of a rhombohedral crystal, whilst the

latter is hemihedral with parallel faces, having only an axis of triad

symmetry and a centre of symmetry. This lower degree of symmetry, which

is the same as that of dioptase and phenacite, is occasionally shown by

the presence of an obliquely placed rhombohedron, and also by the want

of symmetry in the etching and elasticity figures on the faces of the

primitive rhombohedron.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

Dolomite is both harder (H. = 3-1/2-4) and denser (sp. gr. 2.85) than

calcite. The two minerals may also be readily distinguished by the fact

that dolomite is not acted upon by cold, dilute acids (see below,

_Dolomite Rock_). Crystals of dolomite vary from transparent to

translucent, and often exhibit a pearly lustre, especially when the

faces are curved; the colour is usually white or yellowish.

The crystallized mineral was first examined chemically by P. Woulfe in

1779, and was named compound-spar by R. Kirwan in 1784; other early

names are bitter-spar, rhomb-spar and pearl-spar (but these included

other rhombohedral carbonates). The name dolomite (_dolomie_ of N. T. de

Saussure, 1792) is in honour of the French geologist, D. G. Dolomieu,

who in 1791 noted that certain Tyrolese calcareous rocks and Italian

marbles effervesce only slightly in contact with acid; this name was for

many years applied to the rock only, but was later extended to the

crystallized mineral, first in the form dolomite-spar.

In the white crystalline dolomite-rock of the Binnenthal near Brieg in

Switzerland beautiful water-clear crystals of dolomite are found; and

crystallized masses occur embedded in serpentine, talc-schist and other

magnesian silicate rocks. The best crystallized specimens are, however,

usually found in metalliferous deposits; for example, in the iron mines

of Traversella near Ivrea in Piedmont (as large twinned rhombohedra) and

Cleator Moor in Cumberland; in the deposits of lead and zinc ores at

Alston in Cumberland, Laxey in the Isle of Man, Joplin in Missouri; and

in the silver veins of Schemnitz in Hungary and Guanajuato in Mexico.

Several varieties of dolomite have been distinguished, depending on

differences in structure and chemical composition. Miemite is a

crystallized or columnar variety, of a pale asparagus-green colour, from

Miemo near Volterra in Tuscany; taraspite is a similar variety from

Tarasp in Switzerland. Gurhofite, from Gurhof near Aggsbach in Lower

Austria, is snow-white, compact and porcellanous. Brossite, from the

Brosso valley near Ivrea in Piedmont, and tharandite, from Tharand in

Saxony, are crystallized varieties containing iron. Closely related is

the species ankerite (q.v.). (L. J. S.)

_Dolomite Rock._--The rock dolomite, also known as dolomitic or

magnesian limestone, consists principally of the mineral of the same

name, but often contains admixture of other substances, such as calcite,

quartz, carbonate and oxides of iron, argillaceous material, and chert

or chalcedony. Dolomites when very pure and well crystallized may be

snowy white (e.g. some examples from the eastern Alps), but are commonly

yellow, creamy, brownish or grey from the presence of impurities. They

tend to be crystalline, though on a fine scale, and appear under the

microscope composed of small sharply angular rhombohedra, with a perfect

cleavage and very strong double refraction. They can be often recognized

by this, but are most certainly distinguished from similar limestones or

marbles by tests with weak acid. Dolomite dissolves only very slowly in

dilute hydrochloric acid in the cold, but readily when the acid is

warmed; limestones are freely attacked by the acid in either state.

Magnesian limestones, which contain both dolomite and calcite, may be

etched by exposing polished surfaces for a brief time to cold weak acid;

the calcite is removed, leaving small pits or depressions. The

distribution of the calcite may be rendered more clear by using ferric

chloride solution. This is decomposed, leaving a yellow stain of ferric

hydrate where the calcite occurred. Alternatively, a solution of

aluminium chloride will serve; this precipitates gelantinous alumina on

contact with calcite and the film can be stained with aniline dyes

(Lemberg's solution). The dolomite is not affected by these processes.

Dolomites of compact structure have a higher specific gravity than

limestones, but they very often have a cavernous or drusy character, the

walls of the hollows being lined with small crystals of dolomite with a

pearly lustre and rounded faces. They are also slightly harder, and for

these and other reasons they last better as building stones and wear

better when used for paving or road-mending. Dolomites are rarely

fossiliferous, as the process of dolomitization tends to destroy any

organic remains originally present. As compared with limestones they are

less frequently well bedded, but there are exceptions to this rule. Many

dolomites, particularly those of the north of England, show a very

remarkable concretionary structure. The beds look as if made up of

rounded balls of all sizes from a foot or two in diameter downwards.

Often they are stuck together like piles of shot or bunches of grapes.

They are composed of fibrous radiate calcite crystals, which by some

kind of concretionary action have segregated from the dolomitic material

and grouped themselves together in this way. Other concretions from

these beds resemble bunches of corals, tufts of plants, or present

various strange imitative forms.

Dolomite, unlike calcite, is not secreted by marine animals to build up

the hard parts of their skeletons, and it is generally agreed also that

dolomite is only very rarely and under exceptional conditions deposited

directly from solution in water. On the other hand, there is much

evidence to show that limestones may absorb or be partly replaced by

magnesium carbonate, and the double salt dolomite substituted for

calcite by one of those processes which are described as "metasomatic."

Thus the Carboniferous limestones of various parts of Britain pass into

dolomites along lines of joint, fissure or fault, or occasionally along

certain bedding planes. At the same time the rock becomes crystalline,

its minute structure is altered, its fossils are effaced, and as

dolomite has a higher specific gravity than limestone, contraction

results and cavities are formed. The prevalence of crystalline,

concretionary and drusy structures in dolomite can thus be simply

explained. The process may actually be studied in many "magnesian

limestones," in which by means of the microscope we may trace the

gradual growth of dolomite crystals taking place simultaneously with the

destruction of the original features of the limestone. Recent

investigations in coral reefs show that these changes are going on at

the present day at no considerable depths and in rocks which have not

long consolidated.

All this goes to prove that the double carbonate of calcium and

magnesium is under certain conditions a more stable salt than either of

the simple carbonates, and that these conditions recur in nature with

considerable frequency. Experiments have proved that at moderately high

temperatures (100 deg. to 200 deg. C.) solutions of magnesium salts will

convert calcite into dolomite in the laboratory, and that aragonite is

even more readily affected than calcite. The analogy with dolomitization

of limestones is strong but not complete, as the latter process must

take place at ordinary temperatures and approximately under atmospheric

pressures. No completely satisfactory explanation of the change, from

the standpoint of the geologist, has as yet been advanced, though much

light has been thrown upon the problem. Many limestones are rich in

aragonite, but this in course of time tends to recrystallize as calcite.

Magnesium salts are abundant in sea-water, and in the waters of

evaporating enclosed coral lagoons and of many bitter lakes. Calcite is

more soluble than dolomite in water saturated with carbonic acid and

would tend to be slowly removed from a limestone, while the dolomite

increased in relative proportion. Dolomite also being denser than

calcite may be supposed to replace it more readily when pressure is

increased. These and many other factors probably co-operate to effect

the transmutation of limestones into dolomites.

Examples of dolomitization may be obtained in practically every

geological formation in which limestones occur. The oldest rocks are

most generally affected, e.g. the Cambrian limestones of Scotland, but

the change occurs, as has already been stated, even in the upraised

coral reefs of the Indian and Pacific oceans which are very recent

formations. It is very interesting to note that dolomites are very

frequent among rocks which indicate that desert or salt-lake conditions

prevailed at the time of their deposit. The dolomite or magnesian

limestone of the English Permian is an instance of this. The explanation

may be found in the fact that the waters of bitter lakes are usually

rich in magnesium salts which, percolating through beds of limestone,

would convert them into dolomite. Among the most famous dolomites are

those of the Dolomite Alps of Tirol. They are of Triassic age and yield

remarkably picturesque mountain scenery; it is believed that some were

originally coral reefs; they are now highly crystalline and often

contain interesting minerals and ores. The galena limestone of the

North American Trenton rocks is mostly a dolomite.

Dolomites furnish excellent building stones, and those of the north-east

of England (Mansfield stone, &c.) have long been regarded with great

favour on account of their resistance to decomposition. They vary a good

deal in quality, and have not all proved equally satisfactory in

practice. Part of the Houses of Parliament at Westminster is built of

dolomite. (J. S. F.)

DOLOMITES, THE, a mountain district in the South Tirolese Alps, though

sometimes it is erroneously considered to form part of some other chain

than the Alps. The distinguishing feature of this district is that it is

composed of magnesian limestone, which rises in peaks of a most singular

degree of sharpness and streaked by veins of the most startling colours.

Nowadays it has become well known to tourists, who, however, keep mainly

to a few great centres, though most of the more striking peaks were

first ascended in the late sixties and early seventies of the 19th

century by English mountaineers. Roughly speaking the Dolomite region

lies between the Brenner railway from Franzensfeste to Trent (W.) and

the road over the Monte Croce Pass from Innichen in the Drave valley by

way of the Sexten glen and the Piave valley to Belluno and Feltre (E.).

On the north it is limited by the railway line from Innichen to

Franzensfeste, and on the south by the railway and road from Trent to

Feltre. The highest summit is the Marmolata (10,972 ft.), but far more

typical are the Sorapiss, the Cimon della Pala, the Langkofel, the

Pelmo, the Drei Zinnen, the Sass Maor and the Rosengarten (see ALPS).

Among the chief tourist resorts are St Ulrich (in the Groden valley),

San Martino di Castrozza (near Primiero), Caprile and Cortina d'Ampezzo.

Besides the Dolomites included in the above region there are several

other Dolomite groups (though less extensive) in the Alps. N.W. of Trent

rises the Tosa group, while in Switzerland there are the Piz d'Aela

group, S.W. of Bergun on the Albula Pass route, and the curious little

group N. of the village of Splugen, besides other isolated peaks between

the St Gotthard and Lukmanier Passes. In Dauphine itself (the home of

the geologist Dolomieu) the mountain districts of the Royannais, of the

Vercors, and of the Devoluy (all S.W. of Grenoble) are more or less

Dolomitic in character.

See J. Gilbert and G. C. Churchill, _The Dolomite Mountains_ (London,

1864); Miss L. Tuckett, _Zigzagging among Dolomites_ (London, 1871);

P. Grohmann, _Wanderungen in den Dolomiten_ (Vienna, 1877); L.

Sinigaglia, _Climbing Reminiscences of the Dolomites_ (London, 1896);

_The Climbs of Norman-Neruda_ (London, 1899); V. Wolf von Glanvell,

_Dolomitenfuhrer_ (Vienna, 1898); J. Ball, _Western Alps_ (new ed.,

London, 1898, section 9, Rte. P. French Dolomites). (W. A. B. C.)

DOLPHIN, a name properly belonging to the common cetacean mammal known

as _Delphinus delphis_, but also applied to a number of more or less

nearly allied species. The dolphins, bottle-noses, or, as they are more

commonly called, "porpoises," are found in abundance in all seas, while

some species are inhabitants of large rivers, as the Amazon. They are

among the smaller members of the cetacean order, none exceeding 10 ft.

in length. Their food is chiefly fish, for the capture of which their

long narrow beaks, armed with numerous sharp-pointed teeth, are well

adapted, but some also devour crustaceans and molluscs. They are mostly

gregarious, and the agility and grace of their movements in the water

are themes of admiration to the spectators when a "school of porpoises"

is playing round the bows of a vessel at sea.

[Illustration: The Common Dolphin (_Delphinus delphis_).]

The type of the group is the common dolphin (_D. delphis_) of the

Mediterranean and Atlantic, which usually measures 6 to 8 ft. in length,

and is thickest near the centre, where the back fin rises to a height

of 9 or 10 in., and whence the body tapers towards both extremities. The

forehead descends abruptly to the base of the slightly flattened beak,

which is about 6 in. long, and is separated from the forehead by a

transverse depression. The mouth is armed with sharp, slightly curved

teeth, of uniform size, varying in number from forty to fifty on each

side of both jaws. The aperture of the ear is exceedingly minute; the

eyes are of moderate size and the blow-hole is crescent-shaped. The

colour of the upper surface is black, becoming lighter on the flanks,

and perfectly white below. Dolphins are gregarious, and large herds

often follow ships. They exhibit remarkable agility, individuals having

been known to leap to such a height out of the water as to fall upon the

deck. Their gambols and apparent relish for human society have attracted

the attention of mariners in all ages, and have probably given rise to

the many fabulous stories told of dolphins. Their appearance at sea was

regarded as a good omen, for although it presaged a tempest, yet it

enabled the sailors to steer for a place of safety. The dolphin is

exceedingly voracious, feeding on fish, cuttlefishes and crustaceans. On

the south coast of England it lives chiefly on pilchard and mackerel,

and when in pursuit of these is often taken in the nets. The female

brings forth a single young one, which she nurses most carefully. Her

milk is abundant and rich, and during the operation of suckling, the

mother floats in a slightly sidelong position, so as to allow of the

necessary respiration in herself and her young. The dolphin was formerly

supposed to be a fish, and allowed to be eaten by Roman Catholics when

the use of flesh was prohibited, and it seems to have been esteemed as a

delicacy by the French. Among the seafaring population of Britain the

name "dolphin" is most usually given to the beautifully coloured fish

_Coryphaena hippuris_--the dorado of the Portuguese, and it is to the

latter the poet is alluding when he speaks of "the dying dolphin's

changing hues."

Many other allied genera, such as _Prodelphinus_, _Steno_,

_Lagenorhynchus_, &c., are also included in the family _Delphinidae_,

some of which live wholly in rivers.

Beside these there is another group of largely freshwater species,

constituting the family _Platanistidae_, and typified by the susu

(_Platanista gangetica_), extensively distributed throughout nearly the

whole of the river-systems of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Indus,

ascending as high as there is water enough to swim in, but never passing

out to sea. It is about 8 ft. long, blind and feeds on small fish and

crustaceans for which it gropes with its long snout in the muddy waters

at the bottom. _Inia geoffroyensis_, the single species of its genus,

frequents the Amazon, and reaches an extreme length of 8 ft. It is

wholly pink or flesh-coloured, or entirely black, or black above and

pink beneath. A third is the La Plata dolphin, _Stenodelphis

blainvillei_, a species about 5 ft. in length. Its colour is palish

brown, which harmonizes with the brown-coloured water of the estuary of

the Rio de la Plata. See CETACEA. (R. L.*)

DOMAT, or DAUMAT, JEAN (1625-1696), French jurisconsult, was born at

Clermont in Auvergne, on the 30th of November 1625. He was closely in

sympathy with the Port-Royalists, was intimate with Pascal, and at the

death of that celebrated philosopher was entrusted with his private

papers. He is principally known from his elaborate legal digest, in

three volumes 4to, under the title of _Lois civiles dans leur ordre

naturel_ (1689),--an undertaking for which Louis XIV. settled on him a

pension of 2000 livres. A fourth volume, _Le Droit public_, was

published in 1697, a year after his death. This is one of the most

important works on the science of law that France has produced. Domat

endeavoured to found all law upon ethical or religious principles, his

motto being _L'homme est fait par Dieu et pour Dieu_. Besides the _Lois

Civiles_, Domat made in Latin a selection of the most common laws in the

collections of Justinian, under the title of _Legum delectus_ (Paris,

1700; Amsterdam, 1703); it was subsequently appended to the _Lois

civiles_. His works have been translated into English. Domat died in

Paris on the 14th of March 1696.

In the _Journal des savants_ for 1843 are several papers on Domat by

Victor Cousin, giving much information not otherwise accessible.

DOMBES, a district of eastern France, formerly part of the province of

Burgundy, now comprised in the department of Ain, and bounded W. by the

Saone, S. by the Rhone, E. by the Ain and N. by the district of Bresse.

The region forms an undulating plateau with a slight slope towards the

north-west, the higher ground bordering the Ain and the Rhone attaining

an average height of about 1000 ft. The Dombes is characterized by an

impervious surface consisting of boulder clay and other relics of

glacial action. To this fact is due the large number of rain-water

pools, varying for the most part from 35 to 250 acres in size which

cover some 23,000 acres of its total area of 282,000 acres. These pools,

artificially created, date in many cases from the 15th century, some to

earlier periods, and were formed by landed proprietors who in those

disturbed times saw a surer source of revenue in fish-breeding than in

agriculture. Disease and depopulation resulted from this policy and at

the end of the 18th century the Legislative Assembly decided to reduce

the area of the pools which then covered twice their present extent.

Drainage works were continued, roads cut, and other improvements

effected during the 19th century. Large numbers of fish, principally

carp, pike and tench are still reared profitably, the pools being

periodically dried up and the ground cultivated.

The Dombes (Lat. _Dumbae_) once formed part of the kingdom of Arles. In

the 11th century, when the kingdom began to break up, the northern part

of the Dombes came under the power of the lords of Bauge, and in 1218,

by the marriage of Marguerite de Bauge with Humbert IV. of Beaujeu,

passed to the lords of Beaujeu. The southern portion was held in

succession by the lords of Villars and of Thoire. Its lords took

advantage of the excommunication of the emperor Frederick II. to assert

their complete independence of the Empire. In 1400, Louis II., duke of

Bourbon, acquired the northern part of the Dombes, together with the

lordship of Beaujeu, and two years later bought the southern part from

the sires de Thoire, forming the whole into a new sovereign principality

of the Dombes, with Trevoux as its capital. The principality was

confiscated by King Francis I. in 1523, along with the other possessions

of the Constable de Bourbon, was granted in 1527 to the queen-mother,

Louise of Savoy, and after her death was held successively by kings

Francis I., Henry II. and Francis II., and by Catherine de' Medici. In

1561 it was granted to Louis, duke of Bourbon-Montpensier, by whose

descendants it was held till, in 1682, "Mademoiselle," the duchess of

Montpensier, gave it to Louis XIV.'s bastard, the duke of Maine, as part

of the price for the release of her lover Lauzun. The eldest son of the

duke of Maine, Louis Auguste de Bourbon (1700-1755), prince of Dombes,

served in the army of Prince Eugene against the Turks (1717), took part

in the War of the Polish Succession (1733-1734), and in that of the

Austrian Succession (1742-1747). He was made colonel-general of the

Swiss regiment, governor of Languedoc and master of the hounds of

France. He was succeeded, as prince of Dombes, by his brother the count

of Eu (q.v.), who in 1762 surrendered the principality to the crown. The

little principality of Dombes showed in some respects signs of a

vigorous life; the prince's mint and printing works at Trevoux were long

famous, and the college at Thoissey was well endowed and influential.

See A. M. H. J. Stokvis, _Manuel d'histoire_ (Leiden, 1889);

Guichenon, _Histoire de Dombes_ (1863, 1872); and various works by M.

C. Guigue, including _Bibliotheca Dumbensis_ (with Valentin Smith)

(1856-1885).

DOMBROWSKI, JAN HENRYK (1755-1818), Polish general, was born at

Pierszowice in the palatinate of Cracow, on the 29th of August 1755.

Brought up in Saxony, he served for some years in the Saxon army; but

when, in 1791, the Polish diet recalled all Poles serving abroad, he

returned to his native land. Under Poniatowski, he took part in the

campaign of 1792 against the Russians. In 1794 he distinguished himself

under Kosciusko in the defence of Warsaw. For two years thereafter he

lived in retirement, declining the offers of high ranks in their armies

made to him by Russia and Prussia. He then went to Paris, and in January

1797 was authorized by the government of the Cisalpine Republic to

organize a Polish legion. This task he executed at Milan. In command of

his legion he played an important part in the war in Italy, entered Rome

in May 1798, and distinguished himself greatly at the Trebbia (June 19,

1799), and in other battles and combats of 1799-1801. After the peace of

Amiens he passed, as general of division, into the service of the

Italian republic. Summoned by Napoleon in 1806 to promote a rising in

Poland, he organized several divisions of Poles, and distinguished

himself at Danzig and at Friedland. In 1809 he served in the Polish

campaign and in 1812 he commanded a Polish division in the _Grande

Armee_, being wounded at the passage of the Beresina. He fought under

Marmont at the battle of Leipzig (1813), and in the following year

returned to Poland. He was one of the generals entrusted by the tsar

with the reorganization of the Polish army, and was named in 1815

general of cavalry and senator palatine of the new kingdom of Poland. He

retired, however, in the following year, to his estates in Posen.

General Dombrowski died at his seat of Wina-Gora in Posen on the 26th of

June 1818. He wrote several military historical works in the Polish

language.

DOME (Lat _domus_, house; Ital. _duomo_, cathedral), an architectural

term, derived from a characteristic feature of Italian cathedrals,

correctly applied only to a spherical or spheroidal vault, the

horizontal plan of which is always a circle. It may be supported on a

circular wall, as in the Pantheon at Rome; or on a drum, as in the later

Byzantine churches and generally so in the Renaissance styles; or be

carried over a square or polygonal area, in which case the base of the

dome is connected to the lines of the main wall by pendentives,

squinches, corbels or a series of concentric arches, or two of these

combined. Its section may be semicircular, pointed, ovoid or segmental;

in the latter case it is usually termed a cupola, although the

pendentives which carry it continue, on the diagonal lines, the complete

spherical dome, as in the entrance vestibule on the south side of the

Sanctuary at Jerusalem, attributed to Herod, or in those crowning the

bays of the Golden Gateway by Justinian. The dome may be constructed in

horizontal courses, as in the "beehive" tombs at Mycenae, with joints

radiating to the centre, or a compromise between the two, in a series of

small segments of circles, as in the Temple of Jupiter in Diocletian's

palace at Spalato, or again with the lower portion in horizontal courses

and the upper portion with arches, as in the Pantheon at Rome.

The dome is probably one of the earliest forms of covering invented by

man, but owing probably to its construction in ephemeral materials, such

as the unburnt bricks in Chaldaea, there are no examples existing. But

in a bas-relief (see ARCHITECTURE, fig. 10), brought by Layard from

Kuyunjik, are representations of semicircular and ovoid domes, which

show that the feature was well known in Assyria, and as they build domes

of the same nature down to the present day and without centring of any

kind, it suggests that they may have existed from the remotest ages. The

most ancient examples in Europe are those of the "beehive" tombs at

Mycenae and elsewhere in Greece, ascribed generally to the 11th century

B.C. In a sense, they are not true domes, because they are built in

horizontal courses of stone, which act like the voussoirs of an arch in

resisting the thrust of the earth at the back. This did not exist in the

Choragic Monument of Lysicrates or other circular buildings in Greece,

because their vertical sections were not portions of circles. For this

reason, the conical vault of the Baths in Pompeii is not a dome. The

circular Laconicon in the Baths of Titus (A.D. 72) may have been domed,

and the great hemicycles in the Thermae must certainly have been roofed

with semi-domes.

The earliest Roman domes are those of the great circular halls at Baiae

near Naples, described as temples, but really forming part of the

immense bathing establishments there, the favourite place of resort of

the Romans during the latter part of the Republic. The largest on the

east side of the Lake of Avernus, known as the Temple of Apollo, is a

circular hall with an internal diameter of 100 ft. Those of Diana,

Mercury and Venus at Baiae, were 96, 66 and 60 ft. respectively. The

vaults were all built in tufa with horizontal courses in brick and

cement. Half of the dome of the Temple of Mercury had fallen down,

showing the section to have been nearly that of an equilateral arch.

From the fact that there were pierced openings or windows in all these

domes, they probably constituted the _frigidaria_ of the baths.

The first example still existing in Rome is that of the Pantheon (A.D.

112), where a circular dome, 142 ft. in diameter, rests on a circular

wall, its height being about equal to its diameter. The lower courses of

this dome, built in the Roman brick or tile, were, up to the top of the

third coffer, all laid in horizontal courses; above that, the

construction is not known for certain; externally a series of small

arches is shown, but they rested on a shell already built. The so-called

Temple of Minerva Medica (now recognized as the Nymphaeum of the Baths

of Gallienus, A.D. 366) is the next dated example. The Nymphaeum was

decagonal on plan, so that small pendentives were required to carry the

brick dome.

The domed Laconicon of the Thermae of Diocletian (A.D. 302) still exists

as the vestibule of the church of Santa Maria degli Angeli. Of

Constantine's time there are two small domed examples in the tomb of S.

Costanza and the Baptistery of the Lateran, both in Rome, and one in the

tomb of Galla Placidia at Ravenna (c. A.D. 450). From these we pass to

the Sassanian domes at Serbistan and Firuzabad, of the 4th and 5th

centuries respectively. These were built in brick and rested on square

pendentives. In section they were ovoid. In Syria, the dome over the

octagonal church at Esra, built in stone and dated A.D. 515, is also

ovoid, its height being equal to its diameter, i.e. 28 ft. This, as well

as the Sassanian domes, was built without centring. The next example is

that of the church of Sta Sophia at Constantinople, the finest example

existing, both in its conception and execution. It was built by

Justinian (537-552) from the designs of Anthemius of Tralles and

Isidorus of Miletus. The dome is 104 ft. in diameter, and is carried on

pendentives over a square area. The construction is of brick and stone

in alternate courses, and the lower part of the dome is pierced with

forty windows, which give it an extraordinary lightness. The height from

the pavement of the church to the soffit of the dome is 179 ft. No dome

of similar dimensions was ever again attempted by the Byzantine

architects, and the principal difference in later examples was the

raising of the dome on a circular drum pierced with windows.

In order to lighten the dome erected over the church of San Vitale, at

Ravenna, it was constructed with hollow cylindrical jars, fitted, the

end of one into the mouth of the other; a similar contrivance was

adopted in the tomb of the empress Helena (the Torre Pignatiara), the

vaults of the Circus of Maxentius on the Via Appia, and the outer aisles

of San Stefano, all at Rome, thus dispensing with the buttresses of Sta

Sophia.

The domes of the earlier mosques in Cairo were built on the model of Sta

Sophia, with windows pierced round the base of the dome and external

buttresses between them; these domes were all built in brick coated over

with cement or stucco. At a later date, and when built in stone, the

upper portion was raised in height and terminated with a point on which

a finial was placed. These are the domes inside and outside Cairo, which

are carved with an infinity of geometrical patterns interwoven with

conventional floral decoration. The upper portion of the dome is very

thin, so that there is little weight and comparatively no thrust, and it

is to these facts that we probably owe their preservation.

In India, in the "great mosque" of Jama Masjid (A.D. 1560) and the Gol

Gumbaz, or tomb of Mahommed Adil Shah (A.D. 1630) at Bijapur, the domes

are carried on pendentives consisting of arches crossing one another and

projecting inwards, and their weight counteracts any thrust there may be

in the dome. It is possibly for a similar reason that in the Jama Masjid

of Shah Jahan at Delhi (1632-1638) and the Taj Mahal (A.D. 1630) the

domes assume a bulbous form, the increased thickness of the dome below

the haunches by its weight served as a counterpoise to any thrust the

upper part of the dome might exert. The form is not much to be admired,

and when exaggerated, as it is in the churches of Russia, where it was

introduced by the Tatars, at times it became monstrous.

From these we pass to the domes of Perigord and La Charente, the

earliest of which date from the commencement of the 11th century. Of the

western dome of St Etienne at Perigueux (A.D. 14) only the pendentives

remain, sufficient, however, with later examples, to show that these

French domes were different from the Byzantine both in construction and

form. The pendentives are built on horizontal courses of stone, and the

voussoirs of the pointed arches which carried them form part of the

pendentives; a few feet above the top of the arches is a moulding and a

ledge, above which the dome, ovoid in section, is built. The principal

examples following St Etienne are those of S. Jean-de-Cole, Cahors,

Souillac, Solignac, Angouleme, Fontevrault, and lastly St Front at

Perigueux, built about 1150, in imitation of St Mark's at Venice. The

domes of the latter church were introduced into the old basilica about

1063, and were based on the church of the Apostles at Constantinople,

which was pulled down in the 15th century, so that we have only the

clear description of Procopius to go by. The domes over the north and

south transepts and the choir of St Mark's are smaller than those over

the nave and crossing, because they had to be fitted in between more

ancient structures. The construction of the domes of St Mark's is not

known, but at St Front the general design only was copied, and they

built them in the Perigordian manner. The masons from Perigord are also

responsible for the domes of the Crusaders' churches in Palestine and

for some of the early churches still remaining in Cyprus. The domes of

San Cyriaco at Ancona and Sant' Antonio at Padua were based upon those

of St Mark's at Venice.

In central Italy we have the dome (elliptical in plan) of the cathedral

of Pisa, and it was a favourite feature over the crossing of the

churches throughout Italy, being generally carried on squinch

pendentives. The domes of the baptisteries of Florence, Parma, Trieste

and Piacenza, are only internal, being enclosed with vertical walls and

a sloping roof. In Sicily, on account of the strong Saracenic influence,

the squinches are simple versions of the stalactite pendentives

described under ARCHITECTURE: _Mahommedan_ (q.v.), the earliest example

being found in the church of San Giovanni-dei-Leprosi (A.D. 1072), all

the domes being ovoid in section.

Except in Perigord and La Charente, domes are not found in the churches

in France, but in Spain they were introduced over the crossing at

Burgos, Tarragona and Salamanca cathedrals, and were made architectural

features externally. This is rarely found in Germany, for although in

the cathedrals of Worms, Spires and Mainz, and in the churches of St

Martin and Sankt Maria im Capitol at Cologne, the crossings are covered

by domes, always carried on squinch pendentives, externally they built

lanterns round them.

In the Renaissance styles, the dome was at once accepted as the

principal characteristic feature, and its erection over the crossing of

Santa Maria del Fiore at Florence was the first important work entrusted

to Brunelleschi. The dome was begun in 1422, and finished in 1431, with

the exception of the lantern, begun the year of his death in 1444, and

completed in 1471. The dome, which is octagonal on plan, is 139 ft. in

diameter, and is built with an inner and outer casing, concentric one

with the other, tied together by ribs between them: the lower portion is

stone, the upper part is brick.

The double shell was also employed by Michelangelo in the dome of St

Peter's at Rome, the outer shell being raised higher than the lower and

connected by ribs one with the other. The diameter is 140 ft. and the

construction in brick, similar to that at Florence, but the ribs are in

stone from Tivoli. In both these cases the weight of the lantern was a

very important consideration, and is responsible for the repeated

repairs required and the introduction of additional ties.

In this respect Sir Christopher Wren solved the difficulty at St Paul's

cathedral, London, in another way: he provided three shells, the lower

one with an eye in the centre forming the inner dome as seen from the

interior; the middle one of conical form, and the outer one framed in

timber and covered with lead. The conical shell carries the lantern, the

weight of which is carried direct to the base, bound with iron ties,

with such additional strength as may be given by the portico round.

In all these cases these domes are built on lofty drums, so that

externally they present quite a different appearance to those of the

Pantheon at Rome, or Sta Sophia in Constantinople.

Of other examples, the domes of the Invalides in Paris, by Mansard

(1706), and of the Pantheon by Soufflot (1735), have each three shells,

the former having a graceful outline. In Spain the dome of the cathedral

at Granada (1530) and the Escurial (1563); in Italy those of Sta Maria

della Salute at Venice, the small example of Bramante at Todi (1480) and

of the Carignano at Genoa, are worth recording, as also the dome of the

Suleimanie mosque at Constantinople (1550). See plates illustrating

ARCHITECTURE; and INDIAN ARCHITECTURE. (R. P. S.)