CABET.
It is a relief to turn one’s attention to the plans of Étienne Cabet.
They, at least, have the merit of not robbing life of all poetry,
sentiment, and trust in something higher and better than food and drink.
One might find life tolerable in one of Cabet’s communes; but every noble
soul will acknowledge that if life’s ends and aims are all to centre in a
full stomach and a warm cloak, then, indeed, life is not worth the living.
Cabet, son of a cooper, was born in 1788 in Dijon. He received a good
education, became a lawyer, and practised first in his native city,
then in Paris. He was appointed attorney-general of Corsica in 1830,
but lost his place in the following year on account of his opposition
to government. He was elected member of the Chamber of Deputies shortly
after, and returned to Paris. He devoted the remainder of his life to
literature, politics, and communism. One of his principal works was a
“Popular History of the French Revolution from 1789 to 1830.”[25] In a
journal which he published at that time, _Le Populaire_, he advocated
moderate communistic principles, or Icarian principles, as they were
afterwards called. He was condemned to two years’ imprisonment for an
article in this paper, in which he attacked the king personally, but
he was fortunate enough to escape imprisonment by flight to London. It
was here he became acquainted with Sir Thomas More’s “Utopia,” from
which he drew a large part of his inspiration. He returned to France in
1839, and published his “Voyage to Icaria,”[26] which he himself called
a philosophical and social romance—_Roman philosophique et social_.
The title indicates his dreamy character. He describes in this work a
previously unknown country, not quite so large as France or England,
but as populous and a thousand times more blessed. Peace, wisdom,
joy, pleasures, and happiness reign there. Crimes are unknown. It is
Icaria; “a second Promised Land, an Eden, an Elysium, a new terrestrial
Paradise.”[27]
The writer of the “Voyage to Icaria” represents that he met in London
Lord William Carisdall, who found in Icaria the one truly happy people
he had discovered in his travels. Lord William kept a journal, in which
he described this wonder-land, and this, we are told, has been edited
and revised for the public with his consent. The object is to show that
communism is practicable and is the solution of all social problems. It
contains an account of an ideal society, but one which Cabet thought he
was able to establish. He made the attempt, choosing Texas as a place in
which his ideals were to be realized. He secured the grant of a large
tract of land on the Red River, and sent out several advance-guards of
Icarians in 1848, who were, however, attacked by the yellow fever,
and had disbanded before he arrived in New Orleans with a later
detachment. He learned on his arrival that the Mormons had abandoned
their settlement in Nauvoo, Ill., and set out for that place with his
followers. While the Icarians were in Nauvoo they numbered, all told,
at one time fifteen hundred. As Nordhoff, in his “Communistic Societies
in the United States,” justly remarks, Cabet might have done something
with such a large band, if he had had anything of a business head. But
he lacked firmness and perseverance. They met with some success in
cultivating their land, established shops, pursued trades, and set up a
printing-office; but instead of rejoicing in his prosperity, and laboring
to increase it, Cabet was dreaming what he might do if he had half a
million, as is evinced by a publication which appeared about that time,
entitled “Wenn ich $500,000 hätte”—“If I only had $500,000.” He described
the theatre and the fine houses he would build, the gas-works he would
found, the parks he would lay out, and showed, among other things, how he
could then introduce hot and cold water in the houses.
To his description of this _brochure_ Nordhoff adds: “Alas for the dreams
of a dreamer! I turned over the leaves of his pamphlet while wandering
through the present Icaria, on one chilly Sunday in March, with a keen
sense of pain at the contrast between the comfort and elegance he so
glowingly described and the dreary poverty of the life which a few
determined men and women have there chosen to follow, for the sake of
principles which they hold both true and valuable.”[28]
It is said that Cabet developed a dictatorial spirit in Nauvoo. This
may be doubted. It is possible he only attempted to enforce measures
without which he believed the commune must prove a failure. At any
rate, a division took place among the Icarians. The colony at Nauvoo
was broken up, and the members scattered, save fifty or sixty, who
emigrated to Iowa. Cabet and his followers went to St. Louis, where he
died in 1856. The emigrants to Iowa founded a settlement near Corning,
on the Burlington and Missouri Railroad, which they called Icaria. They
began with four thousand acres of land and a debt of $20,000. At first
they had a hard struggle, being obliged to content themselves even with
log-houses. When Mr. Nordhoff wrote his book, in 1874, the debt was
paid, they lived in frame houses, and enjoyed a considerable degree
of comfort. The community consisted of eleven families and sixty-five
members, comprising twenty children and twenty-three voters. They had a
good saw-mill and a grist-mill, and owned one thousand nine hundred and
thirty-six acres of land, of which three hundred and fifty were under
cultivation. They had one hundred and twenty cattle and five hundred
sheep.
A friend[29] has lately spent a week in Icaria, and has kindly written me
the following account of the present condition of the community, which
has experienced noteworthy changes since Mr. Nordhoff paid it a brief
visit a few years ago:
“GRINELL, IA., _May 7, 1883_.
“——. First, let me say that I think no one has yet done
adequate justice to Icarian history.... I was fortunate in
being received into the community in the most friendly manner,
and spent many hours in talking with the members. Especially,
I was fortunate in making the acquaintance of two old
men—original members—one of them the leader in the quarrel with
Cabet at Nauvoo, and the successor of Cabet as president.... I
have never enjoyed a visit more than this, for the Icarians,
though poor and necessarily very hampered, are highly courteous
and intelligent. To begin with their dissensions.” [For the
present purpose it is sufficient to state that the members
of the community, not being able to live together peaceably,
agreed to separate; the “Young Party” retained the old village,
and is now officially known as the “Icarian Community,” and the
“Old Party” established a new commune in the vicinity.]
“The reorganization into two groups happened just four years
ago.... The court declared the articles of incorporation
forfeited, on the technical ground that a commune incorporated
as an agricultural society was exceeding its charter in running
a grist-mill and manufacturing flour! The arbitrators divided
the property on an equitable basis. They ascertained the amount
of property each had brought into the society, the number of
years each had labored for the society, and on these principles
they declared each individual entitled to a certain proportion
of the property. The ‘Young Party’ associated themselves and
obtained new articles of incorporation.... They assumed the
original name. They were the minority in voting numbers, but,
counting children, they were more numerous than the ‘Old
Folks’ Party.’ The ‘Old Folks’ did not take out articles of
incorporation. Instead, they formed themselves into a general
partnership based on recorded articles of agreement, which I
send you (_Contrat de la Nouvelle Com. Icar._). The other party
having got possession of the name, the ‘Old Folks’ called their
society ‘The New Icarian Community.’
“At the time of the dissolution, the Icarians owned over two
thousand acres of land. The ‘Old Party’ were found entitled
to somewhat more than half the property. Both parties have
at different times made small purchases and sales of land.
At the time of the dissolution it was expected that the ‘Old
Party’ would remain in the original village, and that the
‘Young Party’ would go to the east side of the estate and build
themselves new houses; but finally the ‘Old Folks’ chose to be
the emigrants, and they have a new village nearly a mile east
of the original village (which is now occupied by the ‘Icarian
Community’).
“At present the ‘New Icarian Community’ (_i.e._, the ‘Old
Folks’) have about one thousand and eighty-five acres. About
two hundred acres is in timber (which, however, is not valuable
except for firewood, posts, etc. There are few trees left which
are valuable for lumber. Iowa timber in general is of little
value.) About three hundred acres are being cultivated this
year. They were planting corn while I was with them, and will
put in two hundred acres. One hundred acres will be in wheat,
potatoes, etc. They have eighteen horses, and about one hundred
cattle—milk about thirty cows. In summer they sell cream to the
Creamery in Corning. They will sell this year a dozen or so
beef steers. They have about two hundred hogs, and will sell
eighty this year. Last year they sold $300 worth of potatoes.
They cut from two to three hundred tons of hay annually. They
have the old mill, built in 1853 or 1854, but are not doing a
great deal with it. They make some flour, and the mill nets
them a clear profit of not more than $200 or $300 per year.
“The official inventory of the ‘New Icarian Society,’ made on
Jan. 1, 1883, gives the
Total assets $28,009.35
Total debts 5,646.50
----------
Net $22,362.85
In the above estimate the land was valued rather too low,
and a part of the indebtedness has already been paid. The
way is now pretty clear out of all financial difficulties.
They pay about $225 annual taxes. They number at the present
time thirty-four people. Their village consists of a central
two-story frame building (worth about $1500), twenty-two feet
by forty feet, perfectly plain; the first story is a common
dining-hall and kitchen, and the second story has rooms for
a family and several old men. They have also eight frame
houses, ‘story-and-a-half,’ about fourteen by twenty-two, built
uniformly, and arranged symmetrically about the dining-hall.
Each is occupied by a family. The arrangement is as follows:
[Illustration: Trees and Park.
Hall.]
Each house has a small plot for flowers, etc. The interiors are
excessively plain. The living in the common hall is frugal but
abundant. Of the thirty-four people twelve are men, of whom six
are over sixty; ten are women, of whom two are over sixty, and
two are young and unmarried; and twelve are children, ranging
in age from three weeks to twelve years. Seven children are
in school; the other five are too young. Of course everything
looks new and rather bleak about this new village, but the site
is admirably chosen. The prospect, as one looks out from the
windows of the dining-room, is beautiful, and a dozen years
hence, if fortune favors, the New Icaria will be a charming
place. In spite of bitter adversities, these New Icarians are
a bright, agreeable, vivacious people. They could talk English
well enough for my benefit, but their home-talk is entirely
French. The children are _very_ pretty and attractive, and all
are polite and superior-mannered. They have a promising young
vineyard and apple-orchard, and a good large garden for kitchen
vegetables. The people are all French except one Spaniard,
who came from Cuba many years ago. Their president, A. A.
Marchand, was one of the original sixty-nine vanguard who went
to Texas in 1848, and he has always been a prominent man. He
is a gentleman worthy of the highest regard. Another member,
Sauva, who was president the year Hinds’s book (‘American
Communities,’ 1878) was written, and whom you find mentioned in
Hinds’s account, is still with this society. He was formerly a
member of the Cheltenham branch;[30] returned to Europe, took
active part in the International and the Paris Commune, and
joined the Iowa Icarians two or three years after. He is a man
of high intelligence. A number of these members are men of good
literary ability. They have a small press, and print a monthly
paper, the _Revue Icarienne_. They have a shoemaker’s shop, but
scarcely anything in the industrial line besides their mill.
They have a fair supply of good agricultural implements, and
conduct their farming about as their neighbors in general do.
“If they maintain harmony, they can readily pay this debt
and improve their mode of life. They are somewhat chary of
admitting new members, because they already have men enough
to farm their land, and they do not feel able to make their
settlement an asylum for all who hold communistic ideas. Their
school is one of the regular district-schools of the county.
It is located between the two communities and patronized by
both. The teacher at present is a French lady, educated in
Cincinnati—an Icarian in her early days—and the school is well
conducted. At the time of the split the library was divided.
Each village has a library of more than one thousand volumes,
mainly French, and containing the works of the standard old
French authors. In both communities newspapers are taken
freely, both English and French, and the people seem more
conversant with affairs—especially with European affairs—than
the average American farmer’s family. Their family-life seems
natural and affectionate. Their life is necessarily plain,
toilsome, and monotonous, but I think it is fully as agreeable
and diversified as that of isolated American farmers. The
life in the ‘New Icarian Community’ seems more genial and
social than in the ‘Icarian Community.’ At the time of the
split a number of individuals withdrew, and did not join
either party in reorganizing. Since, also, there have been
numerous accessions and withdrawals, the latter preponderating,
especially in the ‘Icarian Community.’
“The ‘Icarian Community,’ according to Mr. Peron, now contains
thirty souls: seven are men over twenty years; five are women
over eighteen years; eighteen are children. One man, Michael
Brumme, a German, is about seventy years old. There is one
lady over sixty years old. Both these were Nauvoo members.
All the other men and women are under forty years of age. All
are French except two Germans and one Spaniard. There were
several other old members, who have withdrawn within the past
two or three years. They have seven hundred and seventy-two
acres of land; two hundred acres are timber; three hundred
acres are seeded in clover or timothy grass. This year they
are planting one hundred and twenty acres of corn—they profess
to believe in _intensive_ agriculture. They are turning
almost exclusive attention to stock-raising, and all their
agriculture is with reference to feeding cattle and hogs.
They have now about ready for the market thirty-six steers
and seventy-five hogs. Altogether they have about one hundred
and thirty head of cattle, one hundred and fifty hogs, twenty
horses and colts. They are intending to raise sheep, and are
just beginning with a flock of seventy-five, expecting to
buy a larger flock soon. They have a productive vineyard of
nine or ten acres. Last year they made fifteen barrels of
wine; they made twenty barrels the previous year. Last fall
they made seven or eight barrels of cider and fifteen barrels
of vinegar; also five barrels of sorghum molasses, of which
they will make ten barrels this year. They have ten acres of
apple orchard. They have a blacksmith shop, wagon shop, and
shoemaker shop, for their own work exclusively. They give for
their financial report for April, 1883, the following: assets,
$30,300; liabilities, $8751.80. They estimate their real estate
at two thirds and their stock at one third their assets. They
expect that the hogs and steers which they will market in a
few days will bring about $3700—about $3000 of which will be
applied to the debt. They pay an average interest of seven
per cent. on their debt. They have a central hall similar to
the one already described. They also have eight frame houses
like those in New Icaria. (The houses in New Icaria were moved
bodily from old Icaria when the new settlement was formed,
except the hall and the outbuildings.) A picturesque feature
of old Icaria is the dozen old log cabins, now used as sheds,
etc., which were the original homes. They are close by the
present habitations. For a year or two this community has
been seriously talking of leaving Iowa. If they can make an
advantageous sale of their property they say they would go.
They have prospected somewhat in the South, but have concluded
that California is the place for them. In the spring of 1881
over a dozen persons, in five or six families, withdrew from
Icaria and moved to Sonoma Co., California, where they bought
eight hundred acres of land and have formed a commune. They are
said to be prospering as fruit-growers. Icaria talks of joining
them in California with a view to the fusion of the communes.
Peron (a prominent member) says they would like the climate
better than that of Iowa, and would also find fruit-growing
more congenial than general farming. It would give more time
for mental culture, and would admit of a more agreeable style
of living. The society publishes a monthly paper called the
_Communiste-Libertaire_—which is written and printed by Peron.
If there had been harmony, and no division, I think that Icaria
would have been prosperous to-day—with perhaps several hundred
members. As things now stand it is hard to foretell the fate
of either branch. If the one goes to California, the other may
have a slow, steady growth in Iowa. A good many young people
lack the devotion to the principle of communism necessary to
keep them in the society, and they withdraw from time to time.
The difficulty of Frenchmen living harmoniously in a commune
seems the great source of disaster. Spite of his theory to the
contrary, a Frenchman has a great deal of “individualism,” and
not a great deal of patience and forbearance.... It just occurs
to me to say one thing more. The Icarians are _good American
citizens_. Cabet and all his comrades took out naturalization
papers, and were all ardent abolitionists! They voted the first
Republican ticket (Fremont) in 1856, and Mr. Marchand tells
me that he has voted for every Republican president since.
The “old folks” in New Icaria are still solidly Republican in
politics; but Mr. Peron and his friends in the other community
have been voting the _Greenback_ ticket for a year or two. They
say that it seems to them that the Greenback party represents
the laboring classes in their struggle against great corporate
and moneyed monopolies; and it is in the spirit of agitators
that they support the Greenback party, and not so much because
they expect anything definite from that party.
“Peron is very brilliant and epigrammatic in conversation....
He is a scientist, a positivist philosopher, an
internationalist, somewhat of an avowed anarchist, and a
terrible proletarian. In short, he is a character whose
acquaintance I enjoyed making—Gérard, Marchand, Peron, Fugier,
Sauva, and Bettannier are the sort of men who figure in French
history or in Hugo’s novels. Their tremendous individuality
seems to me ill at ease in an obscure little commune where,
theoretically, no man is more than his fellow-man.”
They are still governed by the essential principles of Cabet’s
constitution, the two leading ideas of which are the equality of
all and the brotherhood of man. They elect executive officers every
year, who are, however, only empowered to execute the orders of their
fellow-citizens, and may not so much as buy a bushel of corn without
being authorized to do so by the society. They have no servants, and
are too poor for the enjoyment of luxuries. The directors buy the goods
needed by the Icarians twice a year at wholesale. Each one makes known
his wants previous to the semi-annual purchases. Marriage is essential
according to Cabet’s scheme,[31] and wives are highly honored. Not
only is the strictest fidelity enjoined upon the husbands, but they are
required to render special acts of homage to their wives.[32]
Education is valued. All children are sent to school till they are
sixteen, and they regret that their poverty does not allow them to give
the young a more extended mental training.
As is evident, the community has been by no means an entire failure,
although it has been one of the poorest communistic societies in our
country. The differences which have sprung up may possibly be beneficial
to the cause, as they have led, as has been seen, to three communes
instead of one. At present, it is safe to say that the only possible way
for communism to succeed is to adopt, as the Icarians have done, the
communal or township system. This affords room for a diversity of growth
and the development of at least local individuality.
A gentleman, learning that Mr. Nordhoff had visited Icaria, wrote to
him as follows: “Please deal gently and cautiously with Icaria. The
man who sees only the chaotic village and the wooden shoes, and only
chronicles those, will commit a serious error. In that village are buried
fortunes, noble hopes, and the aspirations of good and great men like
Cabet. Fertilized by these deaths, a great and beneficent growth yet
awaits Icaria. It has an eventful and extremely interesting history, but
its future is destined to be still more interesting. It, and it alone,
represents in America a great idea—rational democratic communism.”
A good notion of Cabet’s teachings may be obtained by studying Icaria
and its constitution; but, if more complete information is desired,
it can be found in the “Voyage to Icaria”—a really fascinating book.
His principles are quite simple, and all centre in the beneficent
effects of equality, to which fraternity, as understood by Cabet,
necessarily leads. “If we are asked, ‘What is your science?’ we reply,
‘Fraternity.’ ‘What is your principle?’—‘Fraternity.’ ‘What is your
doctrine?’—‘Fraternity.’ ‘What is your theory?’—‘Fraternity.’ ‘What
is your system?’—‘Fraternity.’”[33] But how were people to be taught
to practise communism? how induce the aristocracy to renounce their
privileges? This was to be accomplished by peaceful means alone. The
apostles of Icarianism should, like Christ, whose principles they were
only carrying out, convert the world by teaching, preaching, writing,
discussing, persuading, and by setting good examples.[34] The wildness
of his dreams is shown by the fact that he allowed fifty years for a
peaceful transition from our present economic life to communism. In the
interval, various measures were to be introduced by legislation to pave
the way to the new system. Among these may be mentioned communistic
training for children, a minimum of wages, exemption of the poor from
all taxes, and progressive taxation for the rich. But “the system of
absolute equality, of community of goods and of labor, will not be
obliged to be applied completely, perfectly, universally, and definitely
until the expiration of fifty years.”[35] No one who has studied the slow
formation of social organizations could possibly hope for a radical
change in so short a period. Some are doubtless led to such anticipations
by noticing the rapid changes in the commercial and industrial world.
This is, it is said, a fast age, and in not a few respects the saying is
true. But man’s nature and society are not changing so rapidly. It is the
mere externals of our life which change speedily.
Cabet’s political organization consists of a democratic republic.[36]
Representatives and executives are allowed, but they derive their power
from the people. Those whom the Icarians choose to rule over them prepare
laws and regulations which are submitted to the citizens for approval,
provide amusements, conduct industries in large establishments, and
divide the products of common labor equally among all. Houses, villages,
provinces, communes, and farms are as nearly alike as possible. The
economies of common production enable all to enjoy every comfort and many
luxuries. Elegance and beauty are encouraged.
The only choice allowed in one’s clothes concerns their color; otherwise
all are dressed alike, save that distinctions are made for age and sex.
Marriage and family are held sacred, as might perhaps be expected from
the high honors accorded by Cabet to the fair sex. Perhaps his views
concerning the elevated position due woman were influential in drawing to
him the large number of sympathizers he found among the ladies of Paris,
who encouraged him with kind words and frequent floral gifts.
As large an amount of liberty was granted by the Icarians as was
practicable. Work was common, as has been stated, but young men and
young women were allowed to choose their own career. However, if there
existed a disproportionate number of applicants for any particular trade
or profession, competitive examination decided who should be selected for
the said pursuit. The others were obliged to make another choice.
Diligence and thrift were enjoined on all. Men worked till sixty-five
years of age and women till fifty. The length of a day’s labor was seven
hours in summer and five in winter; for women, however, only four. All
labor ceased at 1 P.M. Dirty and disagreeable work was performed by
machines.
Science and literature were held in high esteem and encouraged, though
publication was not free. Any one might write books, but only those could
be printed whose publication had been authorized by law.