I hold the following to be important and undeniable troths: That every
man has a natural right both to receive and convey a knowledge of all
the facts and discoveries of every art and science, excepting such only
as may be secured to some particular person or persons by copyright or
patent; that a physical truth in its general effect cannot be a moral
evil; that no fact in physics or in morals ought to be concealed from
the inquiring mind.
Some may make a misuse of knowledge, but that is their fault; and it is
not right that one person should be deprived of knowledge, of spirits,
of razors, or of anything else which is harmless in itself and may be
useful to him, because another may misuse it.
The subject on generation is not only interesting as a branch of
science, but it is so connected with the happiness of mankind that it is
highly important in a practical point of view. Such, to be sure, is
the custom of the age, that it is not considered a proper subject to
investigate before a popular assembly, nor is it proper to attend the
calls of nature in a like place; yet they must and ought to be attended
to, for the good, the happiness of mankind require it; so, too, for like
reason, the subject of generation ought to be investigated until it be
rightly understood by all people, but at such opportunities as the
good sense of every individual will easily decide to be proper. This,
I presume to say, not simply upon the abstract principle that
all knowledge of Nature's workings is useful, and the want of it
disadvantageous, but from the known moral fact that ignorance of this
process has in many instances proved the cause of a lamentable "mishap,"
and more especially as it is essential to the attainment of the great
advantage, which it is the chief object of this work to bestow upon
mankind.
People generally, as it was the case with physicians until late years,
entertain a very erroneous idea of what takes place in the conception.
Agreeably to this idea the "check" which I consider far preferable
to any other, would not be effectual, as would be obvious to all.
Consequently, entertaining this idea, people would not have due
confidence in it. Hence, it is necessary to correct a long-held and
widely extended error. But this I cannot expect to do by simply saying
it is an error. Deeply rooted and hitherto undisputed opinions are not
so easily eradicated. If I would convince any one that the steps in one
of the most recondite processes of nature are not such as he has always
believed, it will greatly serve my purpose to show what these steps are.
I must first prepare him to be reasoned with, and then reason the
matter all over with him. I must point out the facts which disprove his
opinion, and show that my own is unattended with difficulties.
But what can be more obvious than that it is absolutely impossible
to explain any process or function of the animal economy, so as to be
understood, before the names of the organs which perform this function
have been defined, that is, before the organs themselves have been
described. Now it is well known to every anatomist, and indeed it may
be obvious to all, that in describing any organ or system of organs,
we must always begin with some external and known parts, and proceed
regularly, step by step, to the internal and unknown. As in arithmetic,
"everything must be understood as you go along."*
* This is an Americanism, which appears to us to convey a
false idea. If it refers to the cases used as illustrations,
Dr. Knowlton is more sparing in his use of them than either
Dr. Bull or Dr. Chavasse.--Publishers' Note.
Fully to effect the objects of this work, it is, therefore, a matter of
necessity that I give an anatomical description of certain parts--even
external parts--which some, but imagine what I have just said, might
think it useless to mention. It is not to gratify the idle curiosity of
the light-minded that this book is written; it is for _utility_ in the
broad and truly philosophical sense of the term; nay, farther, it shall
with the exception of here and there a little spicing*, have confined
to _practical utility_. I shall, therefore, endeaver to treat of the
subject in this chapter so as to be understood, without giving any
description of the male organs of generation; though I hold it an
accomplishment for one be able to speak of those organs, as diseases
often put them under the necessity of doing, without being compelled use
low and vulgar language. But I must briefly describe the female organs;
in doing which I must, of course, speak as do other anatomists and
physiologists; and whoever objects to this will discover more
affectation and prudery than good sense and good will to mankind.
The adipose, or fatty matter, immediately over the share bone, forms
a considerable prominence in females, which, at the age of puberty, is
covered with hair, as in males. This prominence is called Mons Veneris.
The exterior orifice commences immediately below this. On each side of
this orifice is a prominence continued from the mons veneris, which
is largest above and gradually diminishes as it descends. These two
prominences are called the Labia Externa, or external lips. Near the
latter end of pregnancy they become somewhat enlarged and relaxed, so
that they sustain little or no injury during parturition. Just within
the upper or anterior commissure, formed by the junction of these lips,
a little round oblong body is situated. The body is called the clitoris.
Most of its length is bound down, as it were, pretty closely to the
bone; and it is of very variable size in different females. Instances
have occurred where it was so enlarged as to allow the female to have
venereal commerce with others; and in Paris this fact was once made a
public exhibition to the medical faculty. Women thus formed appear to
partake in their general form of the male character, and are called
hermaphrodites. The idea of human beings, called hermaphrodites, which
could be either father or mother, is, doubtless, erroneous. The clitoris
is analogous in its structure to the penis, and like it, is exquisitely
sensitive, being, as it is supposed, the principal seat of pleasure. It
is subject to erection or distension, like the penis, from like causes.
The skin which lines the internal surface of the external lips is folded
in such manner as to form two flat bodies, the exterior edges of which
are convex. They are called the nymphse. They extend downward, one on
each side, from the clitoris to near the middle of the external orifice,
somewhat diverging from each other. Their use is not very evident The
orifice of the urethra (the canal, short in females, which leads to the
bladder) is situated an inch or more farther inward than the clitoris,
and is a little protuberant.
Passing by the external lips, the clitoris, the nymphse and the orifice
of the urethra, we come to the membrane called the hymen. It is situated
just at, or a trifle behind the orifice of the urethra. It is stretched
across the passage, and were it a complete septum, it would close up the
anterior extremity of that portion of the passage which is called the
vagina. But the instances in which the septum or partition is complete
are very rare, there being, in almost all cases, an aperture either in
its center, or frequently in its anterior edge, giving the membrane the
form of a crescent Through this aperture passes the menstrual fluid.
Sometimes, however, this septum is complete, and the menstrual fluid
is retained month after month, until appearances and symptoms much
like those of pregnancy are produced, giving rise to perhaps unjust
suspicions. Such cases require the simple operation of dividing the
hymen. In many instances the hymen is very imperfect, insomuch that some
have doubted whether it is to be found in the generality of virgins.
Where it exists it is generally ruptured in the first intercourse of
the sexes, and the female is said to lose her virginity. In some
rare instances it is so very strong as not to be ruptured by such
intercourse, and the nature of the difficulty not being understood, the
husband has sued for a divorce. But everything may be put to rights by
a slight surgical operation. The parts here described are among those
called the external parts of generation.
The internal organs of generation consist in the female of the Vagina,
the Uterus, the Ovaries and their appendages.
The Vagina is a membranous canal commencing at the hymen and extending
to the uterus. It is a little curved, and extends backward and upward
between the bladder, which lies before and above it, and that extreme
portion of the bowels called the rectum, which lies behind it. The
coat of membrane which lines the internal surface of the vagina forms a
number of transverse ridges. These are to be found only in the lower
or anterior half of the vagina, and they do not extend all round the
vagina, but are situated on its anterior and posterior sides, while
their lateral sides are smooth. I mention these ridges because a
knowledge of them may lead to a more effectual use of one of the checks
to be made known hereafter.
The uterus or womb is also situated between the bladder and the rectum,
but above the vagina. Such is its shape that it has been compared to
a pear with a long neck. There is, of course, considerable difference
between the body and the neck, the first being twice as broad as the
last. Each of these parts is somewhat flattened. In subjects of mature
age, who have been pregnant, the whole of the uterus is about two inches
and a half in length, and more than an inch and a half in breadth at the
broadest part of the body. It is near an inch in thickness. The neck of
the uterus is situated downward, and may be said to be inserted into
the upper extremity of the vagina. It extends down into the vagina the
better part of an inch. In the uterus is a cavity which approaches the
triangular form, and from which a canal passes down through the neck of
the uterus into the vagina. This cavity is so small that its sides are
almost in contact So that the uterus is a thick, firm organ for so small
a one. Comparing the cavity of the uterus to a triangle, we say the
upper side or line of this triangle is transverse with respect to the
body, and the other two lines pass downward and inward, so that they
would form an angle below, did they not before they meet take a turn
more directly downward to form the canal just mentioned. In each of the
upper angles there is an orifice of such size as to admit of a hog's
bristle. These little orifices are the mouths of two tubes, called the
Fallopian tubes, of which more will be said presently. The canal which
passes through the neck of the uterus, connecting the cavity of
this organ with that of the vagina, is about a quarter of an inch in
diameter. It is different from other ducts, for it seems to be a part
of the cavity from which it extends, inasmuch as when the cavity of the
uterus is enlarged in the progress of pregnancy, this canal is gradually
converted into a part of that cavity.
The lower extremity of the neck of the uterus is irregularly convex and
tumid. The orifice of the canal in it is oval, and so situated that it
divides the convex surface of the lower extremity of the neck in two
portions, which are called the lips of the uterus. The anterior is
thicker than the posterior. The orifice itself is called _os tincae_ or
_os uteri_, or in English, the mouth of the womb. When the parts are in
a weak, relaxed state, the mouth or neck of the uterus is quite low, and
in almost all oases it may be reached by a finger introduced into the
vagina, especially by a second person, who carries the hand behind.
The Ovaries are two bodies of a flattened or oval form, one of which is
situated on each side of the uterus at a little distance from it, and
about as high up as where the uterus becomes narrow to form its neck.
The longest diameter of the ovarium is about an inch. Each ovarium has a
firm coat of membrane. In those who have not been pregnant, it contains
from ten to twenty _vesicles_, which are little round bodies, formed of
a delicate membrane, and filled with a transparent fluid. Some of
these vesicles are situated so near the surface of the ovarium as to
be prominent on its surface. They are of different sizes, the largest
nearly a quarter of a inch in diameter.*
* The vesicles here mentioned are the so-called Graafian
vesicles, or ovisacs, each of which contains in its interior
a little ovum or egg. In the human female the ovum is
extremely minute, so as only to be visible with the aid of a
lens. The Graafian vesicles are not limited to a certain
small number, as was formerly thought, but continue to be
formed in the ovaries, and to discharge at intervals mature
ova during the whole of the fruitful period.--G. R.
In those in whom conception has ever taken place, some of these vesicles
are removed, and in their place a cicatrix or scar is formed which
continues through life. However, the number of cicatrices does not
always correspond with the number of conceptions. They often exceed
it, and are sometimes found where conception has not been known to take
place. The Fallopian Tubes are two canals four or five inches in length,
proceeding from the upper angles of the cavity of the uterus, in a
transverse direction in respect to the body. Having so proceeded
for some distance they turn downward toward the ovaries. At their
commencement in the uterus they are very small, but they enlarge as much
as they progress. The large ends, which hang loose, terminate in open
mouths, the margins of which consist of fimbriated processes, and nearly
touch the ovaria.
We are now prepared to treat of conception. Yet, as menstruation is
closely connected with it, and as a knowledge of many things concerning
menstruation may contribute much to the well-being of females, for
whom this work is at least as much designed as for males, I shall first
briefly treat of this subject.
Menstruation.--When females arrive at the age of puberty they begin to
have a discharge once every month, by way of the vagina, of the color of
blood. This discharge is termed the menses. To have it is to menstruate.
The age at which menstruation commences varies with different
individuals, and also in different climates. The warmer the climate
the earlier it commences and ceases. In temperate climates it
generally commences at the age of fourteen or fifteen, and it ceases at
forty-four, or a little later. *
Whenever it commences the girl acquires a more womanly appearance. It
is a secretion of the uterus, or, in other words, the minute vessels
distributed to the inner coat of uterus, select as it were, from the
blood, and pour out in a gradual manner the materials of this fluid. It
has one of the properties, color, of blood, but it does not coagulate,
or separate into different parts like blood, and cannot properly be
called blood.**
* Dr. Chavasse, on p. 94 of his "Advice to a Wife"
published by W. H. Smith & Son gives instances of very
early menstruation and consequent fecundity.--Publishers'
note,
** "The menstrual discharge," says Dr. Kirkes, "consists of
blood effused from the inner surface of the uterus, and
mixed with mucus from the uterus, vagina, and the external
parts of the generative apparatus. Being diluted by this
admixture, the menstrual blood coagulates less perfectly
than ordinary blood; and the frequent acidity of the vaginal
mucus tends still further to diminish its coagulability."--
Handbook of Physiology, 8th ed., p. 727, 1874.--G. R.
When this discharge is in all respects regular, it amounts in most
females to six or eight ounces, and from two to four days' continuance.
During its continuance the women is said to be unwell, or out of order.
Various unpleasant feelings are liable to attend it; but when it is
attended with severe pain, as it not infrequently is, it becomes a
disease, and the woman is not likely to conceive until it is cured.
During the existence of the "turns," or "monthlies," as they are often
called, indigestible food, dancing in warm rooms, sudden exposure
to cold or wet, and mental agitations, should be avoided as much as
possible. The "turns" do not continue during pregnancy, nor nursing,
unless nursing be continued after the "turns" recommence. Some women, it
is true, are subject to a slight hemorrhage that sometimes occurs with
considerable regularity during pregnancy, and which has led them to
suppose they have their turns at such times; but it is not so; the
discharge at such times is real blood.*
* Consult on the whole of this Dr. Chavasse's book, pp. 91-
101, where full details are given.--Publishers' note.
The use of the menstrual discharge seems to be to prepare the uterine
system for conception. For females do not become pregnant before
they commence, nor after they cease having turns; nor while they are
suppressed by some disease, by cold or by nursing. Some credible women,
however, have said that they become pregnant while nursing, without
having had any turn since their last lying-in. It is believed that in
these oases they had some discharge, colorless, perhaps, which they did
not notice, but which answered the purposes of the common one. Women
are not nearly so likely to conceive during the week before a monthly
as during the week immediately after.* But although the use of this
secretion seems to be to prepare for conception, it is not to be
inferred that the reproductive instinct ceases at the "turn of life,"
or when the woman ceases to menstruate. On the contrary, it is said that
this passion often increases at this period, and continues in a greater
or less degree to an extreme age.
* See, however, Dr. Bull's "Hints to Mothers," pp. 31-58,
and 127-129 (published by Longmans, Green & Co.)--
Publishers' note.
Conception.--The part performed by the male in the reproduction of the
species consists in exciting the organism of the female, and depositing
the semen in the vagina. Before I inquire what takes place in the
females I propose to speak of the semen.
This fluid, which is secreted by the testicles, may be said to possess
three kinds of properties, physical, chemical, physiological. Its
physical properties are known to every one--it is a thickish, nearly
opaque fluid, of a peculiar odor, saltish taste, etc. As to its chemical
properties, it is found by analysis to consist of 900 parts of water,
60 of animal muscilage, 10 of soda, 30 of phosphate of lime. Its
physiological property is that of exciting the female genital organs in
a peculiar manner.
When the semen is examined by microscope, there can be distinguished a
multitude of small animalculae, which appear to have a rounded head and a
long tail. These animalculae move with a certain degree of rapidity. They
appear to avoid the light and to delight in the shade. Leeuwenhoek, if
not the discoverer of the seminal animalculse, was the first who brought
the fact of their existence fully before the public. With respect to
their size, he remarked that ten thousand of them might exist in a space
not larger than a grain of sand. They have a definite figure, and are
obviously different from the animalculse found in any other fluid.*
* See Dr. Carpenter's "Animal Physiology," p. 558 (published
by H. G. Bonn); Nichol's "Human Physiology," pp. 253-255
(published by Trubner & Co.)--Publishers' note.
Leeuwenhoek believed them to be the beginnings of future animals--that
they are of different sexes, upon which depends the future sex of the
foetus. Be this as it may, it appears to be admitted on all hands that
the animalculae are present in the semen of the various species of
male animals, and that they cannot be detected when either from age or
disease the animals are rendered sterile. "Hence," says Bostock, "we can
scarcely refuse our assent to the position that these animalculae are
in some way or other instrumental to the production of the foetus."
The secretion of the semen commences at the age of puberty. Before this
period the testicles secrete a viscid, transparent fluid, which has
never been analyzed, but which is doubtless essentially different from
semen. The revolution which the whole economy undergoes at this period,
such as the tone of the voice, and development of hairs, the beard, the
increase of the muscles and bones, etc., is intimately connected with
the testicles and the secretion of this fluid.* "Eunuchs preserve the
same form as in childhood; their voice is effeminate, they have no
beard, their disposition is timid; and finally their physical and moral
character very nearly resembles that of females. Nevertheless, many of
them take delight in venereal intercourse, and give themselves up with
ardor to a connection which must always prove unfruitful."**
* Nichol's "Human Physiology," pp. 256-257.
--Publishers' note
** Magendic's Physiology.--Author's note.
The part performed by the female in the reproduction of the species is
far more complicated than that performed by the male. It consists, in
the first instance, in providing a substance which, in connection
with the male secretion, is to constitute the foetus; in furnishing a
suitable situation in which the foetus may be developed; in affording
due nourishment for its growth; in bringing it forth, and afterward
furnishing it with food especially adapted to the digestive organs of
the young animal. Some parts of this process are not well understood,
and such variety of hypotheses have been proposed to explain them that
Drelincourt, who lived in the latter part of the seventeenth century, is
said to have collected two hundred and sixty hypotheses of generation.
It ought to be known that women have conceived when the semen was merely
applied to the parts anterior to the hymen, as the internal surface
of the external lips, the nymphae, etc. This is proved by the fact that
several cases of pregnancy have occurred when the hymen was entire. The
fact need not surprise us, for, agreeable to the theory of absorption,
we have to account for it only to suppose that some of the absorbent
vessels are situated anterior to the hymen--a supposition by no means
unreasonable.
There are two peculiarities of the human species respecting conception
which I will notice. First, unlike other animals they are liable, and
for what has been proved to the contrary, equally liable--to conceive
at all seasons of the year. Second, a woman rarely, if ever, conceives
until after having several sexual connections; nor does one connection
in fifty cause conception in the matrimonial state, where the husband
and wife live together uninterruptedly. Public women rarely conceive,
owing probably to a weakened state of the genital system, induced by too
frequent and promiscuous intercourse.
It is universally agreed, that some time after a fruitful connection,
a vesicle (two in case of twins) of one or the other ovary becomes so
enlarged that it bursts forth from the ovary and takes the name of
ovum, which is taken up, or rather received, as it bursts forth, by the
fimbriated extremity of the Fallopian tube, and is then conducted along
the tube into the uterus, to the inner surface of which it attaches
itself.*
* Since Dr. Knowlton's work was written, the very important
fact has been discovered that ova are periodically
discharged from the ovaries in the human female and other
animals, not in consequence of fruitful connection having
taken place, as was formerly believed, but quite
independently of intercourse with the male. Such a discharge
of ova occurs in the lower animals at the time of heat or
rut, and in women during menstruation. At each menstrual
period, a Graafian vesicle becomes enlarged, bursts, and
lets the ovum which it contains escape into the Fallopian
tube, along which it passes to the uterus. "It has long been
known," says Dr. Kirke, "that in the so-called oviparous
animals, the separation of ova from the ovary may take place
independently of impregnation by the male, or even of sexual
union. And it is now established that a like maturation and
discharge of ova, independently of coition, occurs in
Mammalia, the periods at which the matured ova are separated
from the ovaries and received into the Fallopian tubes being
indicated in the lower Mammalia by the phenomena of _heat_
or _rut_; in the human female by the phenomena of
_menstruation_. Sexual desire manifests itself in the human
female to a greater degree at these periods, and in the
female of mammiferous animals at no other time. If the union
of the sexes takes place, the ovum may be fecundated, and if
no union occur, it perishes. From what has been said it may
therefore be concluded that the two states, heat and
menstruation, are analogous, and that the essential
accompaniment of both is the maturation and extrusion of
ova."--"Handbook of Physiology," page 724.--G. R.
Here it becomes developed into a full grown foetus, and is brought forth
about forty-two weeks from the time of conception by a process termed
parturition. But one grand question is, how the semen operates itself,
or any part thereof reaches the ovary, and if so, in what way it is
conveyed to them. It was long the opinion that the semen was ejected
into the uterus in the act of coition, and that it afterward, by some
unknown means, found its way into and along the Fallopian tubes to the
ovary. But there are several facts which weigh heavily against this
opinion, and some that entirely forbid it. In the first place, there are
several well attested instances in which impregnation took place while
the hymen remained entire, where the vagina terminated in the rectum,
where it was so contracted by a cicatrix as not to admit the penis. In
all these cases the semen could not have been lodged anywhere near
the mouth of the uterus, much less ejected into it. Secondly, it has
followed a connection where from some defect in the male organs, as the
urethra terminating some inches behind the end of the penis, and it is
clear that the semen could not have been injected into the uterus, nor
even near its mouth. Third, the neck of the unimpregnated uterus is so
narrow as merely to admit a probe, and is filled with a thick tenacious
fluid, which seemingly could not be forced away by any force which the
male organ possesses of ejecting the semen, even if the mouth of the
male urethra were in opposition with that of the uterus. But fourth, the
mouth of the uterus is by no means fixed. By various causes it is made
to assume various situations, and probably the mouth of the urethra
rarely comes in contact with it.
Fifth. "The tenacity of the male semen is such as renders its passage
through the small aperture in the neck of the uterus impossible, even by
a power of force much superior to that which we may rationally suppose
to reside in the male organs of generation."
Sixth. "Harvey and DeGraaf dissected animals at almost every period
after coition for the express purpose of discovering the semen, but were
never able to detect the smallest vestige of it in the uterus in any one
instance."*
* Dewees' Essay on Superfoetation.--Author's note.
Aware of the insurmountable objection to this view of the manner
in which the semen reaches the ovary, it has been supposed by some
physiologists that the semen is absorbed from the vagina into the great
circulating system, where it is mixed, of course, with the blood, and
goes the whole round of the circulation subject to the influence of
those causes which produce great changes in the latter fluid.
To this hypothesis it may be objected, that while there is no direct
evidence in support of it, it is exceedingly unreasonable, inasmuch
as we can scarcely believe that the semen can go the whole round of
circulation, and then find its way to the ovary in such a pure unaltered
state as the experiments of Spallanzani prove it must be in, that it may
impregnate.
A third set of theorists have maintained that an imperceptible
something, which they have called _aura seminalis_, passes from the
semen lodged in the vagina to the ovary, and excites those actions which
are essential to the development of an ovum. Others, again, have told us
that it is all done by sympathy. That neither the semen nor any volatile
part of it finds its way to the ovary; but that the semen excites the
parts with which it is in contact in a peculiar manner, and by the law
of animal economy, termed sympathy, or consent of parts, a peculiar
action commences in the ovary, by which an ovum is developed.
To both these conjectures it may be objected that they have no other
foundation but the supposed necessity of adopting them, to account for
the effect of impregnation; and, further, they "make no provision for
the formation of mules; for the peculiarities of, and likeness to,
parents, and for the propagation of predisposition to disease, from
parent to child; for the production of mulattoes," etc.
A fifth, and to me far more satisfactory view of the subject than any
other, is that advanced by our distinguished countryman, Dr. Dewees, of
Philadelphia. It appears to harmonize with all known facts relating
to the conception and something from analogy may also be drawn in its
favor. It is this, that there is a set of absorbent vessels, leading
directly from the inner surface of the _labia externa_ and the vagina,
to the ovaries, the whole office of which vessels is to absorb the semen
and convey it to the ovaries.* I do not know that these vessels have
yet been fully discovered, but in a note on the sixteenth page of his
"Essays on Various Subjects," the doctor says: "The existence of these
vessels is now rendered almost certain, as Dr. Gartner, of Copenhagen,
has discovered a duct leading from the ovary to the vagina."
* This view is not held at the present day. The commonly
received doctrine now is that the seminal fluid enters the
uterus, whether during the intercourse or after it, and
passes along the Fallopian tubes to the ovaries; and that
fecundation takes place at some point of this course, most
frequently in the tubes, but also at times in the ovary
itself, or even, perhaps, in the uterus. It is essentially
necessary for fecundation that the spermatozoa should come
into actual contact with the ovum. "That the spermatozoa
make their way toward the ovarium, and fecundate the ovum
either before it entirely quits the ovisac or very shortly
afterward," says Dr. Carpenter, "appears to be the general
rule in regard to the Mammalia; and their power of movement
must obviously be both vigorous and long continued to enable
them to traverse so great an extent of mucous membrane,
especially when it is remembered that they ascend in
opposition to the direction of the ciliary movement of the
epithelial cells and to the downward peristaltic action of
the Fallopian tubes. * * * There can be no doubt that it is
the contact of the spermatozoa with the ovum, and in the
changes which occur as the immediate consequence of that
contact, that the act of fecundation essentially consists."
--"Principles of Human Physiology," 8th ed., p. 961,1876.--G.R.
Another question of considerable moment relating to generation is from
which parent are the first rudiments of the foetus derived.
The earliest hypothesis with which we are acquainted, and which has
received the support of some of the most eminent of the moderns,
ascribes the original formation of the foetus to the combination of
particles of matter derived from each of the parents. This hypothesis
naturally presents itself to the mind as the obvious method of
explaining the necessity for the cooperation of the two sexes, and the
resemblance in external form, and even in mind and character, which the
offspring often bears to the male parent. "The principal objections,"
says Bostock, "to his hypothesis, independent of the want of any direct
proof of a female seminal fluid, are of two descriptions, those which
depend upon the supposed impossibility of unorganized matter forming
an organized being, and those which are derived from observations and
experiments of Haller and Spallanzani, which they brought forward in
support of their theory of pre-existent germs."
In relation to these objections I remark, first those whose experience
has been with hale females, I suspect, can have no doubt but that the
female organism increases like that of the male, until an emission of
fluid of some kind or other takes place. But whether this secretion may
properly be called semen, whether any part of it unites with the male
semen in forming the rudiments of the foetus, is another question. For
my part I am inclined to the opinion that it does not.* I rather regard
it as the result of exalted excitation, analogous to the increased
secretion of other organs from increased stimulation; and if it may be
for any object or use, as it probably is, it is that of affording
nature a means of relieving herself; or, in other words, of quieting the
venereal passion. If this passion, being once roused, could not by some
means or other be calmed, it would command by far too great a portion of
our thoughts, and with many constitutions the individuals, whether male
or female, could not conduct themselves with due decorum. One fact which
leads me to think that the female secretion in the act of coition is not
essential to impregnation is, that many females have conceived, if their
unbiased testimony may be relied on, when they experienced no pleasure.
In these cases it is more than probable that there was no orgasm, nor
any secretion or emission of fluid on the part of the female.
* With regard to this secretion in the female, which has
nothing of a seminal character, Dr. Carpenter observes: "Its
admixture with the male semen has been supposed to have some
connection with impregnation; but no proof whatever has been
given that any such admixture is necessary."--"Human
Physiology," p. 991.--G. R.
As to the objection of the supposed impossibility of unorganized matter
forming an organized being, I do not believe such a thing takes place,
even if we admit that "the original formation of the foetus is a
combination of particles of matter derived from each of the parents."
What do, or rather what ought we to mean by organized matter? Not,
surely, that it exhibits some obvious physical structure, unlike what is
to be found in inorganic matter, but that it exhibits phenomena, and of
course may be said to possess properties unlike any kind of inorganic
matter. Matter unites with matter in three ways, mechanically,
chemically and organically, and each mode of union gives rise to
properties peculiar to itself. When matter unites organically, the
substance or being so formed exhibits some phenomena essentially
different from what inorganic bodies exhibit. It is on this account that
we ascribe to organic bodies certain properties, which we call
physiological properties, such as contractility, sensibility, life, etc.
When, from any cause, these bodies have undergone such a change that
they no longer exhibit the phenomena peculiar to them, they are said to
have lost these properties, and to be dead. A substance need not possess
all the physiological properties of an animal of the higher orders to
entitle it to the name of an organized or living substance, nor need it
possess the physical property of solidity. The blood, as well as many of
the secretions, does several things, exhibits several phenomena, which
no mechanical or mere chemical combinations of matter do exhibit. We
must therefore ascribe to it certain physiological properties, and
regard it as an organized, a living fluid, as was contended by the
celebrated John Hunter. So with respect to the semen, it certainly
possesses physiological properties, one in particular peculiar to
itself, namely, the property of impregnating the female; and upon no
sound principle can it be regarded in any other light than as an
organized, and of course a living fluid. And if the female secretion or
any part of it unite with the male secretion in the formation of the
rudiments or the foetus in a different manner than any other substance
would, then it certainly has the property of doing so, whether we give
this property a name or not; and a regard to the soundest principles of
physiology compels us to class this property with the physiological or
vital, and of course to regard this secretion as an organized and living
fluid So, then, unorganized matter does not form an organized being,
admitting the hypothesis before us as correct.
That organized being should give rise to other organized beings under
favorable circumstances as to nourishment, warmth, etc., is no more
wonderful than that fire should give rise to fire when air and fuel are
present. To be sure, there are some minute steps in the processes which
are not fully known to us; still, if they ever should be known, we
should unquestionably see that there is a natural cause for every one
of them; and that they are all consonant with certain laws of the animal
economy. We should see no necessity of attempting to explain the process
of generation by bringing to our aid, or rather to the darkening of
the subject, any imaginary principle, as the _visus formaticus_ of
Blumenbach.
As to the "observations and experiments of Haller and Spallanzani," I
think, with Dr. Bostock, that they weigh but little, if any, against the
theory before us. I shall not be at the labor of bringing them forward
and showing their futility as objections to this theory, for I am far
from insisting on the correctness of it; that is, I do not insist that
any part of the female secretion, during coition, unites with the male
semen in the formation of the rudiments of the foetus.
The second hypothesis or theory, I shall notice, as to the rudiments of
the foetus, is that of Leeuwenhoek, who regarded the seminal animalculse
of the male semen as the proper rudiments of the foetus, and thought
that the office of the female is to afford them a suitable receptacle
where they may be supported and nourished until they are able to exist
by the exercise of their own functions. This is essentially the view of
the subject which I intend to give more particularly presently.
I know of no serious objections to this hypothesis, nothing but the
"extreme improbability," as its opponents say, "that these animalculae
should be the rudiments of being so totally dissimilar to them." But I
wish to know if there is more difference between a foetus and a seminal
animalcule than there is between a foetus and a few material particles
in some other form than that of such animalcule?
The third hypothesis, or that of pre-existing germs, proceeded upon a
precisely opposite view of the subject to that of Leeuwenhoek, namely,
that the foetus is properly the production of the female; that it exists
previous to the sexual congress, with all its organs, in some parts of
the uterine system; and that it receives no proper addition from the
male, but that the seminal fluid acts merely by exciting the powers of
the foetus, or endowing it with vitality.
It is not known who first proposed this hypothesis; but strange as it
may appear, it has had the support of such names as Bonnet, Haller and
Spallanzani, and met with a favorable reception in the middle of the
last century. Agreeable to this hypothesis, our common mother, Eve,
contained a number of homuncules (little men) one within another, like
a nest of boxes, and all within her ovaries, equal to all the number of
births that have ever been, or ever will be, not to reckon abortions.
Were I to bring forward all the facts and arguments that have been
advanced in support of this idea, it seems to me I should fail to
convince sound minds of its correctness; as to arguments against it,
they surely seem uncalled for. Having now presented several hypotheses
of generation, some as to the manner in which the semen reaches or
influences the ovary, and others as to the rudiments of the foetus, I
shall now bring together those views which, upon the whole, appear to me
the most satisfactory.
I believe, with Dr. Dewees, that a set of absorbent vessels extend from
the innermost surface of the _labia externa_, and from the vagina to the
ovary, the whole office of which is to take up the semen or some part
thereof, and convey it to the ovary. I believe, with Leeuwenhoek, that
the seminal animalculae are the proper rudiments of the foetus, and are
perhaps of different sexes; that in cases of impregnation one of them
is carried not only to, but into a vesicle of an ovary, which is in a
condition to receive and be duly affected by it.* It is here surrounded
by the albuminous fluid which the vesicle contains. This fluid being
somewhat changed in its qualities by its new-comer, stimulates the
minute vessels of the parts which surround it, and thus causes more of
this fluid to be formed; and while it affords the animalcule material
for its development, it puts the delicate membrane of the ovary which
retains it in its place upon the stretch, and finally bursts forth
surrounded probably by an exceedingly delicate membrane of its own. This
membrane, with the albuminous fluid it contains and the animalcule in
the center of it, constitutes the ovum or egg. It is received by the
fimbriated extremity of the Fallopian tube, which by this time has
grasped the ovary, and is by this tube slowly conveyed into the uterus,
to the inner surface of which it attaches itself, through the medium
of the membrane, which is formed by the uterus itself in the interim
between impregnation and the arriving of the ovum in the way I have just
mentioned.
* The opinion that the spermatozoa of seminal filaments are
real animalculae is now abandoned, but it is held by Dr.
Carpenter and other authorities that they actually, as here
stated, penetrate into the interior of the ovum. "The nature
of impregnation," says Dr. Hermann, "is as yet unknown. In
all probability it is, above all, essential, in order that
it should occur, that one or more spermatozoa should
penetrate the ovum. At any rate, spermatozoa have been found
within the fecundated eggs of the most diverse species of
animals."--Elements of "Human Physiology," translated from
the 5th ed., by Dr. Gamgee, p. 534, 1875.--G. R.
The idea that a seminal animalcule enters an ovum while it remains in
the ovary, was never before advanced to my knowledge; hence I consider
it incumbent upon me to advance some reason for the opinion.
First, it is admitted on all hands that the seminal animalculae are
essential to impregnation, since "they cannot be detected when either
from age or disease the animal is rendered sterile."
Second, the ovum is impregnated while it remains in the ovary. True,
those who never met with Dr. Dewees' theory, and who, consequently, have
adopted the idea that the semen is ejected into the uterus, as the least
improbable of any with which they were acquainted, have found it very
difficult to dispose of the fact that the ovum is impregnated in the
ovary, and have consequently presumed this is not generally the case.
They admit it is certainly so sometimes, and that it is difficult to
reject the conclusion that it is always so. Dr. Bostock--who, doubtless,
had not met with Dewees' theory at the time he wrote, and who admits
it impossible to conceive how the semen can find its way along the
Fallopian tubes, how it can find its way toward the ovary, farther, at
most, than into the uterus, and, consequently, cannot see how the ovum
can be impregnated into the ovary--says, "Perhaps the most rational
supposition may be that the ovum is transmitted to the uterus in the
unimpregnated state; but there are certain facts which seem almost
incompatible with this idea, especially the cases which not infrequently
occur of perfect foetuses having been found in the tubes, or where they
escaped them into the cavity of the abdomen. Hence it is demonstrated
the ovum is occasionally impregnated in the tubes (why did he not say
ovaria?), and we can scarcely resist the conclusion that it must always
be the case."..."Haller discusses this hypothesis (Bostock's 'most
natural supposition, perhaps') and decides against it."..."The
experiments of Cruikshank, which were very numerous, and appear to have
been made with the requisite degree of skill and correctness, led to
the conclusion that the rudiment of the young animal is perfected in
the ovarium."... "A case is detailed by Dr. Granville, of a foetus which
appears to have been lodged in the body of the ovarium itself, and is
considered by its author as a proof that conception always takes place
in this organ."
The above quotations are from the third volume of Bostock's Physiology.
Now, as the seminal animalculae are essential to impregnation, and as the
ovum is impregnated in the ovarium, what more probable conjecture can we
form than that an animalcule, as the real proper rudiment of the foetus,
enters the ovum, where, being surrounded with albuminous fluid with
which it is nourished, it gradually becomes developed? It may be noticed
that Leeuwenhoek estimates that ten thousand animalculae of the human
semen may exist in a space not larger than a grain of sand. There can,
therefore, be no difficulty in admitting that they may find their way
along exceedingly minute vessels from the vagina, not only to, but into
the ovum while situated in the ovarium.
I think no one can be disposed to maintain that the animalculae merely
reaches the surface of the ovum and thus impregnates it. But possibly
some may contend that its sole office is to stimulate the ovum, and
in this way set going that train of actions which are essential to
impregnation. But there is no evidence in favor of this last idea, and
certainly it does not so well harmonize with the fact that the offspring
generally partakes more or less of the character of its male parent. As
Dr. Dewees says of the doctrine of sympathy, "It makes no provision
for the formation of mules; for the peculiarities of and likeness of
parents; and for the propagation of predisposition to disease from
parent to child; for the production of mulattoes," etc.
Considering it important to do away with the popular and mischievous
error that the semen must enter the uterus to effect impregnation, I
shall, in addition to what has been already advanced, here notice the
experiments of Dr. Haighton. He divided the Fallopian tubes in numerous
instances, and that after the operation a foetus is never produced, but
that _corpora lutea_ were formed. The obvious conclusions from these
facts are that the semen does not traverse the Fallopian tubes to reach
the ovaria; yet, that the ovum becomes impregnated while in the ovarium
and, consequently, that the semen reaches the ovum in some way, except
by the uterus and Fallopian tubes. I may remark, however, that a _corpus
luteum_ is not positive proof that impregnation at some time or other
has taken place; yet they are so rarely found in virgins that they were
regarded as such proofs until the time of Blumenbach, a writer of the
present century.*
* A _corpus luteum_ is a little yellowish body, formed in
the ovary by changes that take place in the Graafian vesicle
after it has burst and discharged its contents. _Corpora
lutea_ were formerly considered a sure sign of impregnation,
as they were thought to be developed only or chiefly in
cases of pregnancy, but it is now known that they occur in
all cases where a vesicle has been ruptured and an ovum
discharged; though they attain a larger, size and are longer
visible in the ovary when pregnancy takes place than when it
does not.--G. R.
"Harvey and DeGraaf dissected animals at most every period after coition
for the express purpose of discovering the semen, but were never able
to detect the smallest vestige of it in the uterus in any one
instance."--Dewells Essay on Superfoetation. The fact of superfoetation
furnishes a very strong argument against the idea that the semen enters
the uterus in impregnation.
A woman being impregnated while she is already impregnated constitutes
superfoetation. It is established beyond a doubt that such instances
have occurred, yet those who have supposed that it is necessary for the
semen to pass through the mouth of the uterus to produce conception have
urged that superfoetation could not take place, because, say they--and
they say correctly--"so soon as impregnation shall have taken place,
the _os uteri_ closes and becomes impervious to the semen ejected in
subsequent acts of coition."
Dr. Dewees related two cases, evidently cases of superfoetation, that
occurred to his own personal knowledge. The first shows that, agreeable
to the old theory, the semen must have met with other difficulties
than a closed month of the uterus,--it must have passed through several
membranes, as well as the waters surrounding the foetus, to have reached
even the uterine extremity of a Fallopian tube. The second case I will
give in his own words:
"A white woman, servant to Mr. H., of Abington township, Montgomery
county, was delivered about five and twenty years since of twins, one of
which was perfectly white, the other perfectly black. When I resided
in that neighborhood I was in the habit of seeing them almost daily and
also had frequent conversations with Mrs. H. respecting them. She was
present at their birth, so that no possible deception could have been
practiced respecting them. The white girl is delicate, fair-skinned,
light-haired and blue eyed, and is said very much to resemble the
mother. The other has all the characteristic marks of the African; short
of stature, flat, broad-nosed, thick-lipped, woolly-headed, flat-footed,
and projecting heels; she is said to resemble a negro they had on the
farm, but with whom the woman would never acknowledge an intimacy; but
of this there was no doubt, as both he and the white man, with whom her
connection was detected, ran from the neighborhood as soon as it was
known the girl was with child."
I am aware that some have thought that they had actually discovered
semen in the uterus, while Ruysch, an anatomist of considerable
eminence, who flourished at the close of the seventeenth century,
asserted in the most unequivocal manner that he found the semen in its
gross white state in one of the Fallopian tubes of a woman, who died
very soon after, or during the act of coition; but says Dewees, "the
semen, after it has escaped from the penis, quickly loses its albuminous
appearance and becomes as thin and transparent as water. And we are
certain that Ruysch was mistaken. Some alteration in the natural
secretion of the parts was mistaken for semen. This was nowise difficult
for him to do, as he had a particular theory to support, and more
especially as this supposed discovery made so much for it. It is not
merely speculative when we say that some change in the natural secretion
of the parts may be mistaken for semen, for we have the testimony of
Morgani on our side. He tells us he has seen similar appearances in
several instances in virgins and others, who have been subject during
their lives to leucorrhae, and that it has been mistaken by some for
male semen."
On the whole I would say, that in some instances, where the mouth of the
uterus is uncommonly relaxed, the semen may, as it were, accidentally
have found its way into it; but that is not generally the case, nor is
it essential to impregnation; and further, that whatever semen may at
any time be lodged in the uterus, has nothing to do with conception. It
is not consistent with analogy to suppose that the uterus has vessels
for absorbing the semen and conveying it to the ovaria, considering the
other important functions which we know it performs.
The circumstances under which a female is most likely to conceive are,
first, when she is in health; second, between the ages of twenty-six
and thirty; third, after she has for a season been deprived of
those intercourses she had previously enjoyed; fourth, soon after
menstruating. Respect-ing this latter circumstance, Dr. Dewees remarks,
"Perhaps it is not erring greatly to say, that the woman is liable
to conceive at any part of the menstrual interval. It is generally
supposed, however, that the most favorable instant is immediately after
the catamenia have ceased." Perhaps this is so as a general rule, but
it is certainly liable to exceptions,* and he relates the following case
which occurred to his own notice:
* This view, which concerns a question of the utmost
practical importance, is held at the present day by the
great physiologists. It is believed that although conception
may occur at other times, it is much more likely to happen
from intercourse a few days before or after the menstrual
periods; that is to say, during the time when ova are in
process of being ripened and detached from the ovaries, and
before they perish and are conveyed out of the body. "There
is good reason to believe," says Dr. Carpenter, "that in the
human female the sexual feeling becomes stronger at the
period of menstruation; and it is quite certain that there
is a greater aptitude for conception immediately before and
after that epoch, than there is at any immediate period.
This question has been made the subject of special inquiry
by M. Raciborski, who affirms that the exceptions to the
rule--that conception occurs immediately before or after or
during menstruation--are not more than six or seven per
cent. Indeed, in his latest work on the subject, he gives
the details of fifteen cases, in which the date of
conception could be accurately fixed, and the time of the
last appearance of the catamenia was also known, and in all
but one of them the correspondence between the periods was
very close."--"Human Physiology," p. 959. So, too, Dr.
Kirkes remarks, that "although conception is not confined to
the periods of menstruation, yet it is more likely to occur
within a few days after cessation of the menstrual flux than
at other times."--"Handbook of Physiology," p. 725.
"The husband of a lady who was obliged to absent himself many months
in consequence of the embarrassment of his affairs, returned one night
clandestinely, his visit being only known to his wife, his mother, and
myself. The consequence of this visit was the impregnation of his wife.
The lady was at that time within a week of her menstrual period; but as
this did not fail to take place, she was led to hope that she had not
suffered by the visit of her husband. But her catamenia not appearing at
the next period, gave rise to a fear that she had not escaped! and the
birth of a child nine months and thirteen days from the night of the
clandestine visit proved her apprehensions too well grounded."
I think this case is an exception to a general rule; and, furthermore,
favors an idea which reason and a limited observation, rather than
positive knowledge, has led me to advance, the above, namely, that a
woman is more likely to conceive, other things being the same, after
being deprived for a season of those intercourses she had previously
enjoyed. Had this lady's husband remained constantly at home, she would
probably either not have conceived at all, or have done so a fortnight
sooner than she did.
This case is also remarkable for two other facts: one, "that a woman in
perfect health, and pregnant with a healthy child, may exceed the period
of nine months by several days; the other, that a check is not always
immediately given to the catamenial flow by an ovum being impregnated."
Probably it is not so generally so as many suppose.
The term of utero-gestation, or the length of time from conception to
the commencement of labor, is not precisely determined by physiologists.
"It seems, however," says Dr. Dewees, "from the best calculations that
can be made, that nine calendar months, or forty weeks, approaches the
truth so nearly that we can scarcely need or desire more accuracy, could
it be obtained." Unquestionably, however, some cases exceed this period
by many days, or even weeks, and it has been a question much agitated,
how far this period is ever exceeded. It is a question of some moment
in a legal point of view. Cases are reported where the usual period
was exceeded by five or six months; cases, too, where the circumstances
attending them and the respectability of their reporters are such as to
command our belief. Dr. Dewees has paid much attention to this subject,
and he declares himself entirely convinced "that the commonly fixed
period may be extended from thirteen days to six weeks, under the
influence of certain causes or peculiarities of constitution."*
* See tables in Dr. Bull's "Hints to Mothers," pp. 130-141.
--Publishers' note.
These occasional departures from the general rule will, perhaps, be the
more readily admitted when we consider that they are not confined to the
human species. From the experiments of Tessier, it appears that the term
of utero-gestation varies greatly with the cow, sheep, horse, swine and
other animals to which his attention was directed.
Properly connected with the subject of generation are the signs of
pregnancy. Dr. Dewees remarks that "our experience furnishes no certain
mark by which the moment conception takes place is to be distinguished.
All appeals by the women to particular sensations experienced at the
instant should be very guardedly received, for we are certain they
cannot be relied upon; for enjoyment and indifference are alike
fallacious. Nor are certain nervous tremblings, nausea, palpitation of
the heart, the sensation of something flowing from them during coition,
etc, more to be relied upon." Burns, however, says, "Some women feel,
immediately after conception, a peculiar sensation, which apprises them
of their situation, but such instances are not frequent, and generally
the first circumstances which lead a woman to suppose herself pregnant
are the suppression of the menses;" a fickle appetite, some sickness,
perhaps vomiting, especially in the morning; returning qualms, or
languor in the afternoon; she is liable to heartburn, and to disturbed
sleep. The breasts at first often become smaller and sometimes tender;
but about the third month they enlarge, and occasionally become painful.
The nipple is surrounded with an aureole or circle of a brown color, or
at least of a color sensibly deeper or darker than before. She loses her
looks, becomes paler, and the under part of the lower eyelid is often
somewhat of a leaden hue. The features become sharper, and sometimes
the whole body begins to emaciate, while the pulse quickens. In
many instances particular sympathies take place, causing salivation,
toothache, jaundice, etc. In other cases very little disturbance is
produced, and the woman is not certain of her condition until the time
of quickening, which is generally about four months from conception. It
is possible for a woman to mistake the effects of wind for the motion of
the child, especially if they have never borne children, and be anxious
for a family; but the sensation produced by wind in the bowels is not
confined to one spot, but is often felt at a part of the abdomen where
the motion of a child could not possibly be felt. Quite as frequently,
perhaps, do fleshy women think themselves dropsical, and mistake motions
of the child for movements of water within the abdominal cavity. The
motion of the child is not to be confounded with the sensation sometimes
produced by the uterus rising out of the pelvis, which produces the
feeling of fluttering. At the end of the fourth month, the uterus
becomes so large that it is obliged to rise out of the pelvis, and if
this elevation takes place suddenly, the sensation accompanying it is
pretty strong, and the woman at the time feels sick or faint, and in
irritable habits; even a hysterical fit may accompany it After this the
morning sickness and other sympathetic effects of pregnancy generally
abate, and the health improves.
Very soon after impregnation, if blood be drawn and suffered to stand
a short time undisturbed, it will become sizy, of a yellowish or bluish
color, and somewhat of an oily appearance. But we cannot from such
appearances of the blood alone pronounce a woman pregnant, for a
suppression of the menses, accompanied with a febrile state, may
give the blood a like appearance as pregnancy, so also may some local
disease. Of the above-mentioned symptoms, perhaps there is no _one_ on
which we can place more reliance than the increased color of the circle
around the nipple.*
* See "Advice to a Wife," P. H. Chavasse, pp. 115-124, where
many details are given.--Publishers' note.
Six or eight weeks after conception, the most sure way of ascertaining
pregnancy is to examine the mouth and neck of the uterus, by way of the
vagina. The uterus will be found lower down than formerly, its mouth
is not directed so much forward as before impregnation, and is more
completely closed, and the neck is felt to be thicker, or increased in
circumference. When raised on the finger it is found to be heavier or
more resisting. Whoever makes this examination must have examined the
same uterus in an unimpregnated state, and retained a tolerably correct
idea of its feeling at that time, or he will be liable to uncertainty,
because the uterus of one woman is naturally different in magnitude from
another, and the uterus is frequently lower down than natural from other
causes than pregnancy.*
* No one but a doctor, or one trained in physiology could,
of course, make any such examination with safety and
utility.--Publishers' note.
It has not been fully ascertained how long it is after a fruitful
connection before an effect is produced upon the ovaria, that is before
any alteration could be discovered, were the female to be dissected.
But Brighton's experiments have established the fact, that with
rabbits, whose term of utero-gestation is but thirty days, no effect
is propagated to the ovaria until nearly fifty hours after coition; we
should judge, therefore, that with the human species it must be several
days, and it is generally estimated by physiologists that the ovum does
not reach the uterus until the expiration of twenty days from the time
of connection.*
* "The time occupied in the passage of the ovum from the
ovary to the uterus," says Dr. Kirkes, "occupies probably
eight or ten days in the human female."--"Handbook of
Physiology," p. 741.--G. R.
It is probable that in all cases in which any matter is absorbed from
any part of the animal system, some little time is required for such
matter, after its application, to stimulate and arouse the absorbent
vessels to action; hence it is probable that after the semen is lodged
in the vagina, it is many minutes, possibly some hours, before any part
of it is absorbed.