of any kind which are offered for acceptance, in order to find out
whether they correspond to reality or not. The critical faculty is a
product of education and training. It is a mental habit and power. It is
a prime condition of human welfare that men and women should be trained
in it. It is our only guarantee against delusion, deception,
superstition, and misapprehension of ourselves and our earthly
circumstances. It is a faculty which will protect us against all harmful
suggestion. "We are all critical against the results reached by others
and uncritical against our own results."[2214] To act by suggestion or
autosuggestion is to act by impulse. Education teaches us to act by
judgment. Our education is good just so far as it produces
well-developed critical faculty. The thirteenth century had no critical
faculty. It wandered in the dark, multiplying errors, and starting
movements which produced loss and misery for centuries, because it dealt
with fantasies, and did not know the truth about men or their position
in the world. The nineteenth century was characterized by the
acquisition and use of the critical faculty. A religious catechism never
can train children to criticism. "Patriotic" history and dithyrambic
literature never can do it. A teacher of any subject who insists on
accuracy and a rational control of all processes and methods, and who
holds everything open to unlimited verification and revision is
cultivating that method as a habit in the pupils. In current language
this method is called "science," or "scientific." The critical habit of
thought, if usual in a society, will pervade all its mores, because it
is a way of taking up the problems of life. Men educated in it cannot be
stampeded by stump orators and are never deceived by dithyrambic
oratory. They are slow to believe. They can hold things as possible or
probable in all degrees, without certainty and without pain. They can
wait for evidence and weigh evidence, uninfluenced by the emphasis or
confidence with which assertions are made on one side or the other. They
can resist appeals to their dearest prejudices and all kinds of
cajolery. Education in the critical faculty is the only education of
which it can be truly said that it makes good citizens. The operation of
the governmental system and existing laws is always "educating" the
citizens, and very often it is making bad ones. The existing system may
teach the citizens to war with the government, or to use it in order to
get advantages over each other. The laws may organize a big "steal" of
the few from the many, and they may educate the people to believe that
the way to get rich is to "get into the steal." "Graft" is a reaction of
the mores on the burdens and opportunities offered by the laws, and
graft is a great education. It educates faster and deeper than all the
schools. The people who believe that there is a big steal, and that they
must either get into it or be plundered by it, have nothing to learn
from political economy or political science.
+703. Reactions of the mores and education on each other.+ Every one
admits that education properly means much more than schooling or book
learning. It means a development and training of all useful powers which
the pupil possesses, and repression of all bad prepossessions which he
has inherited. The terms "useful" and "bad" in this proposition never
can mean anything but the currently approved and disapproved traits and
powers; that is, what is encouraged or discouraged by the mores. The
good citizen, good husband and father, good business man, etc., are only
types which are in fashion at the time. In New England they are not the
same now as fifty years ago. The mores and the education react on each
other. They are not as likely to settle into grooves in a new country as
in old countries. In Spain and Portugal, and to a less extent in Italy
and Russia, the mores have taken rigid form, and they control schools
and universities so that the types of educated men vary little from
generation to generation. When the schools are not too rigidly
stereotyped they become seats of new thought, of criticism of what is
traditional, and of new ideas which remold the mores. The young men are
only too ready to find fault with what they find existing and
traditional, and the students of all countries have been eager
revolutionists. Of course they make mistakes and do harm, but the
alternative is the reign of old abuse and consecrated error. The
folkways need constant rejuvenation and refreshment if they are to be
well fitted to present cases, and it is far better that they be
revolutionized than that they be subjected to traditional
changelessness. In the organization of modern society the schools are
the institutional apparatus by which the inheritance of experience and
knowledge,--the whole mental outfit of the race,--is transmitted to the
young. Through these institutions, therefore, the mores and morality
which men have accepted and approved are handed down. The transmission
ought to be faithful, but not without criticism. The reaction of free
judgment and taste will keep the mores fresh and active, and the schools
are undoubtedly the place where they should be renewed through an
intelligent study of their operation in the past.
+704. The limitations on the historian.+ If the schools are to prosecute
this study, history is the chief field for it. No historian ever gets
out of the mores of his own society of origin. He may adopt a party in
church, politics, or social philosophy. If he does, his standpoint will
be set for him, and it is sure to be sectarian. Even if he rises above
the limitations of party, he does not get outside of the patriotic and
ethical horizon in which he has been educated, especially when he deals
with the history of other countries and other times than his own. Each
historian regards his own nation as the torchbearer of civilization; its
mores give him his ethical standards by which he estimates whatever he
learns of other peoples. All our histories of antiquity or the classical
nations show that they are written by modern scholars. In modern Russian
literature may be found passages about the "civilizing mission" of
Russia which might be translated, _mutatis mutandis_, from passages in
English, French, or German literature about the civilizing mission of
England, France, or Germany. Probably the same is true of Turkish,
Hindoo, or Chinese literature. The patriotism of the historian rules his
judgment, especially as to excuses and apologies for things done in the
past, and most of all as to the edifying omissions,--a very important
part of the task of the historian. A modern Protestant and a Roman
Catholic, or an American and a European, cannot reach the same view of
the Middle Ages, no matter how unbiased and objective each may aim to
be. There is a compulsion on the historian to act in this way, for if he
wrote otherwise, his fellow-countrymen would ignore his work. It follows
that a complete and unbiased history hardly exists. It may be a moral
impossibility. Every student during his academic period ought to get up
one bit of history thoroughly from the ultimate sources, in order to
convince himself what history is not. Any one who ever lived through a
crisis in the history of a university must have learned how impossible
it is to establish in memory and record a correct literary narrative of
what took place, the forces at work, the participation of individuals,
etc. Monuments, festivals, mottoes, oratory, and poetry may enter
largely into the mores. They never help history; they obscure it. They
protect errors and sanctify prejudices. The same is true of literary
commonplaces which gain currency. It is commonly believed in the United
States that at some time in the past Russia showed sympathy and extended
aid to the United States when sympathy and aid were sorely needed. This
is entirely untrue. No specification of the time and circumstances can
be made which will stand examination. Nevertheless the popular belief
cannot be corrected.
+705. Overvaluation of history.+ Never was history studied as it is now.
Amongst scholars there is a disposition to overvalue it, and to develop
out of it something which must be called "historyism." Jurisprudence has
passed through the dominion of this tendency. Political economy is now
lost in it. When has anybody ever been governed by "the teachings of
history" when he was philosophizing or legislating? The teachings of
history can always be set aside, if they are a hindrance, by alleging
that the times have changed and that new conditions exist. This
allegation may be true, and the possibility that it is true must always
be taken into account. No two cases in history ever are alike.
+706. Success and the favor of God.+ Sects and parties have claimed
God's favor and power. They have boldly declared that they would accept
success or failure as proof of his approval on their doctrines and
programme. No one of them ever stood by the test. There were some in the
crusades who argued that the Moslems must be right on account of their
successes. The Templars were charged with making this deduction when
grounds for burning them were sought. It was a heresy. If the Christians
had any success, the deduction might be made against the Moslems, but
not contrariwise. All nations have treated in this way the deductions
about the approval of the superior powers. If there are any superior
powers which meddle with history, it is certain that men have never yet
found out how their ways and human ways react on each other, nor any
means of interpreting their ways.
+707. Philosophic faiths and the study of history.+ In a similar manner
other philosophic faiths interfere with the study of history. The mores
impose the faiths on the historian, and the faiths spoil his work. "It
is not difficult to understand how a people imbued with the idea that
the world is an illusion should have neglected all historical
investigations. No such thing as genuine history or biography exists in
Sanskrit literature. Historical researches are, to a Hindoo, simple
foolishness."[2215]
+708. Democracy and history.+ Democracy is almost equally indifferent to
history, and the dogmas of democracy make history unimportant. If "the
people" always know what is right and wise, then we have the supreme
oracle always with us and always up to date. In the report of a
civil-service examination which got into the newspapers, it was said
that one candidate for a position on the police answered the question,
Who was Abraham Lincoln? by saying that he was a distinguished general
on the Southern side in the Civil War. Nevertheless, if appointed, he
might have made an excellent policeman. His ludicrous ignorance of
American biography proved nothing to the contrary. The question brought
into doubt the intelligence of the examiners. If all policemen were
examined on American history, it is fair to believe that incredible
ignorance and errors would be displayed. No amount of study of American
history would make them better policemen. The same may be said of the
masses as a whole. A knowledge of history is a fine accomplishment, but
ignorance of it does not hinder the success of men in their own lines
of industry. They do not, therefore, care about history or appreciate
it. Its rank in school studies is an inheritance of European tradition.
Popular opinion does not recognize its position as fit and just. Its
effect on the minds and mores of the pupils is almost _nil_, unless the
history deals directly with the mores.
+709. The study of history and the study of the mores.+ There is,
therefore, great need for a clearer understanding of the relation
between the study of history and the study of the mores. Abraham
Lincoln's career illustrated in many ways the mores of his time, and the
knowledge of some of the facts about the mores would have been by no
means idle or irrelevant for a policeman. In like manner it may well be
that other branches of study pursued in our schools contain valuable
instruction or discipline, but it does not lie on the surface, and it is
an art to get it out and bring it to the attention of the scholar.
+710. The most essential element in education.+ A man's education never
stops as long as he lives. All the experience of life is educating him.
In school days he is undergoing education by the contact of life, and by
what he does or suffers. This education is transferring to him the
mores. He learns what conduct is approved or disapproved; what kind of
man is admired most; how he ought to behave in all kinds of cases; and
what he ought to believe or reject. This education goes on by minute
steps, often repeated. The influences make the man. All this constitutes
evidently the most essential and important education. If we understand
what the mores are, and that the contact with one's fellows is all the
time transmitting them, we can better understand, and perhaps regulate
to some extent, this education.
+711. The history of the mores is needed.+ The modern historians turn
with some disdain away from the wars, intrigues, and royal marriages
which the old-fashioned historians considered their chief interest, and
many of them have undertaken to write the history of the "people."
Evidently they have perceived that what is wanted is a history of the
mores. If they can get that they can extract from the history what is
most universal and permanent in its interest.
[2210] _Smithson. Rep._, 1895, 596.
[2211] _Pacific Tales._
[2212] Schallmeyer, _Vererbung und Auslese_, 265.
[2213] According to a German newspaper the parliament of Bavaria,
in 1897, expressed a wish that the government of that state would
not appoint any more Darwinians to chairs in the universities of
the kingdom.
[2214] Friedmann, _Wahnideen im Völkerleben_, 219.
[2215] Monier-Williams, _Brahmanism and Hinduism_, 39.
CHAPTER XX
LIFE POLICY. VIRTUE VS. SUCCESS
Life policy.--Oaths; truthfulness vs. success.--The clever
hero.--Odysseus, Rother, Njal.--Clever heroes in German
epics.--Lack of historic sense amongst Christians.--Success
policy in the Italian Renaissance.--Divergence between
convictions and conduct.--Classical learning a fad.--The
humanists.--Individualism.--Perverted use of words.--
Extravagance of passions and acts.--The sex relation and the
position of women.--The cult of success.--Literature on the
mores.--Moral anarchy.
+712. Life policy.+ Some primitive or savage groups are very truthful,
both in narrative and in regard to their promises or pledged word. Other
groups are marked by complete neglect of truthfulness. Falsehood and
deceit are regarded as devices by which to attain success in regard to
interests. The North American Indians generally regarded deceit by which
an enemy was outwitted as praiseworthy; in fact it was a part of the art
of war. It is still so regarded in modern civilized warfare. It is,
however, limited by rules of morality. There was question whether the
deception by which Aguinaldo was captured was within the limit. In sport
also, which is a sort of mimic warfare, deception and "jockeying" are
more or less recognized as legitimate. Samoan children are taught that
it is "unsamoan" to tell the truth. It is stupid, because it sacrifices
one's interest.[2216] It does not appear that the experience of life
teaches truthfulness on any of the lower stages. The truthful peoples
are generally the isolated, unwarlike, and simple. Warfare and strength
produce cunning and craft. It is only at the highest stage of
civilization that deceit is regarded with contempt, and is thought not
to pay. That honesty is the best policy is current doctrine, but not
established practice now. It is a part of a virtue policy, which is
inculcated as right and necessary, but whether it is a success policy
is not a closed question.
+713. Oaths. Truthfulness vs. success.+ It is evident that truthfulness
or untruthfulness, when either is a group characteristic, is due to a
conviction that societal welfare is served by one or the other.
Truthfulness is, therefore, primary in the mores. It does not proceed
from the religion, but the religion furnishes a sanction for the view
which prevails in the mores. Oaths and imprecations are primitive means
of invoking the religious sanction in promises and contracts. They
always implied that the superior powers would act in the affairs of men
in a proposed way, if the oath maker should break his word. This
implication failed so regularly that faith in oaths never could be
maintained. Since they have fallen into partial disuse the expediency of
truthfulness has been perceived, and the value of a reputation for it
has been recognized. Thus it has become a question whether a true
success policy is to be based on truth or falsehood. The mores of groups
contain their answer, which they inculcate on the young.
+714. The clever hero. Krishna.+ The wily and clever hero, who knows
what to do to get out of a difficulty, or to accomplish a purpose, is a
very popular character in the great epics. In the _Mahabharata_ Krishna
is such a hero, who invents stratagems and policies for the Panduings in
their strife with the Kuruings. The king of the latter, when dying,
declares that the Panduings have always been dishonorable and tricky,
while he and his party have always adhered to honorable methods.
However, he is dying and his party is almost annihilated. The victors
are somewhat affected by his taunts, which refer to Krishna's inventions
and suggestions, but Krishna shows them the booty and says: "But for my
stratagems you would have had none of these fine things. What do you
care that you got them by tricks? Do you not want them?" They applaud
and praise him. Then the surviving Kuruings, weary of virtue and defeat,
surprise and murder the Panduings in the night, an act which was
contrary to the code of honorable war. The antagonism of a virtue
policy and a success policy could not be more strongly presented.[2217]
In the same poem Samarishta says that five lies are allowed when one's
life or property is in danger. The wicked lie is one uttered before
witnesses in reply to a serious question, and the only real lie is one
uttered of set purpose for selfish gain. Yayati, however, says, "I may
not be false, even though I should be in direst peril."[2218] The heroes
fear to falsify, and the Vedas are quoted that a lie is the greatest
sin.[2219] The clever hero has remained the popular hero. At the present
day we are told that Ganesa, or Gana-pati, son of Siva, really
represents "a complex personification of sagacity, shrewdness, patience,
and self-reliance,--of all those qualities, in short, which overcome
hindrances and difficulties, whether in performing religious acts,
writing books, building houses, making journeys, or undertaking
anything. He is before all things the typical embodiment of success in
life, with its usual accompaniments of good living, plenteousness,
prosperity, and peace."[2220] The Persians, from the most ancient times,
have been noted liars. They used truth and falsehood as instruments of
success. The relation of king and subject and of husband and wife
amongst them were false. They were invented and maintained for a
purpose.[2221]
+715. Odysseus.+ The Greeks admired cunning and successful stratagem.
Odysseus was wily. He was a clever hero. His maternal grandfather
Autolykos was, by endowment of Hermes (a god of lying and stealing), a
liar and thief beyond all men.[2222]
+716. Clever hero in German epics.+ In the German poems of the twelfth
century Rother is a king who accomplishes his ends by craft. In the
_Nibelungen_, Hagen is the efficient man, who, in any crisis, knows what
to do and can accomplish it by craft and strength combined. The heroes
are noteworthy for tricks, stratagems, ruses, and perfidy.[2223] In all
the epic poems the princes have by their side mentors who are crafty,
fertile in resource, and clever in action.[2224] In the Icelandic saga
of Burnt Njal, Njal is the knowing man, peaceful and friendly. His
crafty devices are chiefly due to his knowledge of the law, which was
full of chicane and known to few. These clever heroes, developed out of
the mores of one period and fixed in the epics, became standards and
guides for the mores of later times, in which they were admired as types
of what every one would like to be.
+717. Lack of historic sense amongst Christians.+ In the first centuries
of the Christian era no school of religion or philosophy thought that it
was an inadmissible proceeding to concoct edifying writings and
attribute them to some great authority of earlier centuries, or to
invent historical documents to advance a cause or support the claims of
a sect. This view came down to the Middle Ages. The lack of historic
feeling is well shown by the crusaders who, after Antioch was taken, in
the next few days and on the spot, began to write narratives of the
deeds of their respective commanders which were not true, but were
exaggerated, romantic, and imaginary. They were not derived from
observation of facts, but were fashioned upon the romances of
chivalry.[2225] This was not myth making. It was conscious reveling in
poetic creation according to the prevailing literary type. It was not
falsehood, but it showed an entire absence of the sense of historic
truth. In the case of the canon law, "the decretals were intended to
furnish a documentary title, running back to apostolic times, for the
divine institution of the primacy of the pope, and for the teaching
office of bishops; a title which in truth did not exist."[2226] There
was probably lacking in the minds of the men who invented the decretals
all consciousness of antagonism between fact and their literary work. If
they could have been confronted with the ethical question, they would
probably have said that they knew that the doctrines in question were
true, and that if the fathers had had occasion to speak of them they
would have said such things as were put in their mouths. Mediæval
history writing was not subject to canons of truth or taste. It included
what was edifying, to the glory of God and the church. Legends and
history were of equal value, since both were used for edification. The
truth of either was unimportant.
+718. Success policy in the Italian Renaissance.+ The historical period
in which the success policy was pursued most openly and unreservedly was
the Italian Renaissance. The effect on all virtue, especially on
truthfulness of speech and character, was destructive, and all the mores
of the period were marked by the choice of the code of conduct which
disregards truth. The most deep-lying and far-reaching cause of societal
change was the accumulation of capital and the development of a
capitalistic class. New developments in the arts awakened hope and
enterprise, and produced a "boundless passion for discovery" in every
direction.[2227] The mediæval church system did not contain as much
obscurantism in Italy as in some other countries, and the interests of
the Italians were intertwined with the hierarchical interests of Rome in
many ways. It flattered Italian pride and served Italian interests that
Rome should be the center of the Christian world. Every person had ties
with the church establishment either directly or by relatives. In spite
of philosophic freedom of thought or moral contempt for the clergy, "it
was a point of good society and refined taste to support the church."
"It was easy for Germans and Englishmen to reason calmly about
dethroning the papal hierarchy. Italians, however they might loathe the
temporal power, could not willingly forego the spiritual primacy of the
civilized world." Thus the Renaissance pursued its aims, which were
distinctly worldly, with a superficial good-fellowship towards the
church institution.[2228] "The attitude of the upper and middle classes
of Italy towards the church, at the height of the Renaissance, is a
combination of deep and contemptuous dislike with accommodation towards
the hierarchy as a body deeply interwoven with actual life, and with a
feeling of dependence on sacraments and ritual. All this was crossed,
too, by the influence of great and holy preachers."[2229]
+719. Divergence between convictions and conduct.+ This means that faith
in Christian doctrine was gone, but that the ecclesiastical system was a
tolerated humbug which served many interests. Burckhardt quotes[2230] a
passage from Guicciardini in which the latter says that he had held
positions under many popes, which compelled him to wish for their
greatness, on account of his own advantage. Otherwise he would have
loved Martin Luther, not in order to escape the restraints of the
current church doctrine, but in order to see the corrupt crew brought to
order, so that they must have learned to live either without power or
without vices. Thus the conduct of men was separated from their most
serious convictions by considerations of interest and expediency, and a
moral inconsistency was developed in character. Churches were built and
foundations were multiplied, so that the masses seemed more zealous than
the popes, but at the beginning of the sixteenth century there were
bitter complaints of the decline of worship and the neglect of the
churches.[2231] We have all the phenomena of a grand breaking up of old
mores and the beginning of new ones. "It required the unbelief of the
fifteenth century to give free rein to the rising commercial energies,
and the craving for material improvement, that paved the way for the
overthrow of ascetic sacerdotalism."[2232] The new class of burghers
with capital produced a new idea of liberty to be set against the feudal
idea of liberty of nobles and ecclesiastics, and that new class became
the founders of the modern state.
+720. Classical learning a fad.+ Whatever may have been the origin of
the zeal for classical study of the late Middle Ages, it was a
remarkable example of a fad which became the fashion and very strongly
influenced the mores. It was strengthened by the revolt against the
authority of the church, and the humanism which it produced took the
place of the mental stock which the church had offered. "Humanism
effected the emancipation of intellect by culture. It called attention
to the beauty and delightfulness of nature, restored man to a sense of
his dignity, and freed him from theological authority. But in Italy, at
any rate, it left his conscience, his religion, his sociological ideas,
the deeper problems which concern his relation to the universe, the
subtler secrets of the world in which he lives, untouched."[2233] That
means that it was a fad and was insincere. There were men who were great
scholars within the standards of humanism, but the enthusiasm for art,
the zeal for Latin and Greek literature, the coöperative struggle for
exhumations and specimens, were features of a reigning fad. The
Renaissance was an affair of the upper and middle classes. It never
could spread to the masses. Classical learning came to be valued as a
caste mark. Then it became still more truly an affectation, and was
tainted with untruth. The masses were superior in the sincerity and
truthfulness of their mores by the contrast. The humanists were pagan
and profane, but did not follow their doctrines into a reformation of
the church. They exaggerated the knowledge of the ancients and the
prestige of classical opinion until it seemed to them that anything
ancient must be true and authoritative. They transferred to what was
ancient the irrational reverence which had been paid to the doctrines of
the church, and paid to the great classical authors the respect which
had been paid to saints.[2234] In the sixteenth century they fell into
discredit for their haughtiness, their shameful dissipation, and for
their unbelief.[2235]
+721. The humanists.+ The humanists of Italy are a class by themselves,
without historical relations. They had no trade or profession and could
make no recognized career. Their controversies had a large personal
element. They sought to exterminate each other. Three excuses have been
suggested for them. The excessive petting and spoiling they met with
when luck favored them; the lack of a guarantee for their physical
circumstances, which depended on the caprice of patrons and the malice
of rivals; and the delusive influence of antiquity, or of their notions
about it. The last destroyed their Christian morality without giving
them a substitute. Their careers were such generally that only the
strongest moral natures could endure them without harm. They plunged
into changeful and wearing life, in which exhaustive study, the duties
of a household tutor, a secretary, or a professor, service near a
prince, deadly hostility and danger, enthusiastic admiration and
extravagant scorn, excess and poverty, followed each other in confusion.
The humanist needed to know how to carry a great erudition and to endure
a succession of various positions and occupations. To these were added
on occasion stupefying and disorderly enjoyment, and when the basest
demands were made on him he had to be indifferent to all morals.
Haughtiness was a certain consequence in character. The humanists needed
it to sustain themselves, and the alternation of flattery and hatred
strengthened them in it. They were victims of subjectiveness. The
admiration of classical antiquity was so extravagant and mistaken that
all the humanists were subject to excessive suggestion which destroyed
their judgment.[2236]
+722. "Individualism."+ Recent writers on the period have emphasized the
individualism which was produced. By this is meant the emancipation of
men of talent from traditional morality, and the notion that any man
might do anything which would win success for his purposes. There was no
grinding of men down to an average.[2237] This code was very widely
applied in statecraft and social struggles. A smattering knowledge of
Plutarch, Plato, and Virgil furnished heroic examples which could
justify anything.[2238] Machiavelli's _Prince_ was only a text-book of
this school of action for statesmen. Given the existing conditions in
Italy, he assumed a man of ability and asked how he should best act. "He
said that, to such a man, undertaking such a task, moral considerations
were of subsidiary importance, and success was the one criterion by
which he was to be judged. The conception was one forced on him by the
actual facts of Italian history in his own time. The methods which he
codified were those which he saw being actually employed."[2239]
Gobineau[2240] supposes a dialogue between Michael Angelo, Machiavelli,
and Granacci about Francis I, Henry VIII, Charles V, and Leo X, in which
the speakers attempt to foresee the development of events. They do not
rightly estimate the royal personages, do not foresee the Reformation,
and do not at all correctly judge the future. It was impossible that any
one could do the last at a time when great historical movements and
efforts of personal vanity and desire were mixing in gigantic struggles
to control the world's history. Italy offered a narrower arena for
personal ambition. Creighton[2241] describes Gismondo Malatesta of
Rimini. He "thoroughly mastered the lesson that to man all things are
possible. He trusted to himself, and to himself only. He pursued his
desires, whatever they might be. His appetites, his ambition, his love
of culture, swayed his mind in turns, and each was allowed full scope.
He was at once a ferocious scoundrel, a clear-headed general, an
adventurous politician, a careful administrator, a man of letters and of
refined taste. No one could be more entirely emancipated, more free from
prejudice, than he. He was a typical Italian of the Renaissance,
combining the brutality of the Middle Ages, the political capacity which
Italy early developed, and the emancipation brought by the new
learning." This might serve as a description of any one of the great
secular men of the period. "Capacity might raise the meanest monk to the
chair of St. Peter, the meanest soldier to the duchy of Milan. Audacity,
vigor, unscrupulous crime, were the chief requisites of success."[2242]
"In Italy itself, where there existed no time-honored hierarchy of
classes and no fountain of nobility in the person of a sovereign, one
man was a match for another, provided he knew how to assert himself....
In the contest for power, and in the maintenance of an illegal
authority, the picked athletes came to the front."[2243]
+723. Perverted use of words.+ Many words were given a peculiar and
technical meaning in the use of the period. _Tristezza_ often meant
wickedness. It was a duty to be cheerful and gay.[2244] "Terribleness
was a word which came into vogue to describe Michael Angelo's grand
manner. It implied audacity of imagination, dashing draughtsmanship,
colossal scale, something demonic and decisive in execution."[2245]
_Virtù_ meant the ability to win success. Machiavelli used it for force,
cunning, courage, ability, and virility. "It was not incompatible with
craft and dissimulation, or with the indulgence of sensual vices."[2246]
Cellini used _virtuoso_ to denote genius, artistic ability, and
masculine force.[2247] "The Italian _onore_ consisted partly of the
credit attaching to public distinction and partly of a reputation for
_virtù_" in the above sense.[2248] It was objective,--"an addition
conferred from without, in the shape of reputation, glory, titles of
distinction, or offices of trust."[2249] "The _onesta_ of a married
woman is compatible with secret infidelity, provided she does not expose
herself to ridicule and censure by letting her amour be known."[2250] A
_virago_ meant a bluestocking, but was a term of respect for a learned
woman. Modesty was "the natural grace of a gifted woman increased by
education and association."[2251] The tendency of words to special uses
is an index of the character of the mores of a period. The development
of equality, when the restraints of traditional morality are removed,
ought not to be passed without notice.
+724. Extravagance of passions and acts.+ It followed from the "ways" of
the period that the human race "was bastardized" "by the physical
calamities, the perpetual pestilences, the constant wars, the moral
miseries, the religious conflicts, and the invasion of ancient ideas
only half understood." The men died young in years, old in vice,
decrepit and falling to pieces when not beyond the years of youth.[2252]
The emancipation of men with inordinate ambition and lust meant a grand
chance of crime. Pope Paul III (Farnese) said that men like Cellini,
"unique in their profession, are not bound by the laws." Cellini had
committed a murder. He committed several others, to say nothing of minor
crimes. After he escaped from St. Angelo, he was in the hands and under
the protection of Cardinal Cornaro. The pope, Clement VII, wanted to get
possession of him and Cornaro wanted a bishopric for a friend, so the
pope and cardinal made a bargain and Cellini was surrendered.[2253]
"Italian society admired the bravo almost as much as imperial Rome
admired the gladiator. It also assumed that genius combined with force
of character released men from the shackles of ordinary morality."[2254]
Cellini was a specimen man of his age. He kept religion and morality far
separated from each other.[2255] Varchi wrote a sonnet on him which is
false in fact and in form, and displays the technical and conventional
insincerity of the age.[2256] The augmentative form of the name
Lorenzaccio expresses the notion that he was great, awful, and
wicked.[2257] His biographer says that he was a "mattoid."[2258] He
missed success because his antagonists were stronger than he, but his
career was typical of the age. He was in part a victim of the classical
suggestion. He expected to be glorified as a tyrannicide. This taste for
the imaginative element was an important feature in the Italian
Renaissance and helped to make it theatrical and untrue. "In gratifying
his thirst for vengeance [the Italian] was never contented with mere
murder. To obtain a personal triumph at the expense of his enemy by the
display of superior cunning, by rendering him ridiculous, by exposing
him to mental as well as physical anguish, by wounding him through his
affections or his sense of honor, was the end which he pursued."[2259]
"However profligate the people might have been, they were not contented
with grossness unless seasoned with wit. The same excitement of the
fancy rendered the exercise of ingenuity, or the avoidance of peril, an
enhancement of pleasure to the Italians. This is perhaps the reason why
all the imaginative compositions of the Renaissance, especially the
_novellae_, turn upon adultery."[2260] The false standards, aims, codes,
and doctrines required this play of the fantasy to make them seem worth
while. The fantastic element gave all the zest. When the mediæval
imaginative element failed the classical learning furnished a new one
with suggestions, examples for imitation, and unlimited maxims and
doctrines. Hence the passions become violent and upon occasion
criminal,[2261] that is to say, they violated the code recognized by all
men in all ages. "Force, which had been substituted for Law in
government, became, as it were, the mainspring of society. Murders,
poisoning, rapes, and treasons were common incidents of private as of
public life. In cities like Naples blood guilt could be atoned for at an
inconceivably low rate. A man's life was worth scarcely more than that
of a horse. The palaces of the nobles swarmed with professional
cutthroats, and the great ecclesiastics claimed for their abodes the
right of sanctuary. Popes sold absolution for the most horrible
excesses, and granted indulgences beforehand for the commission of
crimes of lust and violence. Success was the standard by which acts were
judged; and the man who could help his friends, intimidate his enemies,
and carve a way to fortune for himself by any means he chose was
regarded as a hero."[2262] If we should follow the manners and morals of
the age into detail we should find that they were all characterized by
the same fiction and conventional affectation, and by the same
unrestrainedness of passion. Caterina Sforza avenged the murder of her
lover with such atrocities that she shocked the Borgia pope.[2263] The
artists of the late Renaissance were absorbed in admiration of carnal
beauty. There was vulgarity and coarseness on their finest work.
Cellini's work is marked by "blank animalism."[2264] There was a great
lack of all sentiment. "Parents and children made a virtue of repressing
their emotions." "No period ever exhibited a more marked aversion from
the emotional or the pathetic."[2265] There was no shame at perfidy or
inconsistency, and very little notion of loyalty. It shocks modern taste
that Isabella d'Este should have bought eagerly the art treasures of her
dearest friend when they had been stolen and put on the market, and that
after warm adherence to her brother-in-law, Ludovico il Moro, until he
was ruined, she should have turned to court the victor.[2266] It is not
strange that the age became marked by complete depravity of public and
private morals, that the great men are enigmas as to character and
purpose, and that they are demonic in action. The sack of Rome put an
end to the epoch by a catastrophe which was great enough to strike any
soul with horror, however hardened it might be.[2267] That event seems
to show how the ways of the time would be when practiced by brutal
soldiers.
+725. The sex relation and position of women.+ In such a period the sex
relation is sure to be degraded and the position of woman is sure to be
compromised. They can only be defined by the restraints which are
observed or enforced. When all restraints are set aside sensuality is
set free. Women were not suppressed. They took their place by the men
and only demanded for themselves a liberty equal to that assumed by the
men. The opinion has been expressed that Isabella d'Este "may be
regarded as the most splendid realization of the Renaissance ideal of
woman."[2268] Vittoria Colonna has been more generally accorded that
position. She is doubly interesting for her Platonic relation to Michael
Angelo, who was fifteen years her senior,[2269] and for her personal
character. The title "bastard" was often worn with pride. In royal
houses it happened often that the illegitimate branch took the throne on
the failure of the other, so that the existence of the former was a
recognized and useful fact, not a shameful one.[2270] Although it was
true that woman "occupied a place by the side of man, contended with him
for intellectual prizes, and took part in every spirited movement,"
although many of them became celebrated for humanistic attainments, and
were intrusted with the government of states,[2271] yet it was not
possible that they could maintain womanly honor and dignity side by
side with the concubines and bastards of their husbands. The love of men
for men was a current vice which was hardly concealed and which degraded
the sex relation.[2272] The individualism of the period is interpreted
as a motive for making love to the wife of another, that is, to another
fully developed individual.[2273] Adultery also appealed to the love of
intrigue and the appreciation of the imaginative element. Lewd stories
and dramas were produced in great numbers in which the cunning and
deception of adultery were developed in all imaginable combinations of
circumstances. In real life a woman's relatives showed great ferocity in
enforcing against her all the current conventions about her conduct.
That was because she might bring disgrace and ridicule on them by
marrying beneath her, or by a liaison which was known and avenged by her
husband. The assassination of the husband in such cases was only a
trifling necessity which might be called for.[2274] A physician having
married a widowed duchess, born a princess of Aragon, her brothers
murdered her and her children and caused the physician to be
assassinated by hired bravos.[2275] In the comedies marriage was derided
and marital honor treated with contempt. Downright obscenity was not
rare. Some of the comedies would not now be tolerated anywhere before an
audience of men only.[2276] It seems trifling that objection was made to
the nakedness of some figures in Michael Angelo's "Last Judgment." "As
society became more vicious, it grew nice."[2277]
+726. The cult of success.+ This deep depravation of all social
interests by the elevation of success to a motive which justified itself
has the character of an experiment. Amongst ourselves now, in politics,
finance, and industry, we see the man-who-can-do-things elevated to a
social hero whose success overrides all other considerations. Where that
code is adopted it calls for arbitrary definitions, false conventions,
and untruthful character.
+727. Literature.+ There were several books published in the Renaissance
period which aimed to influence the mores. In the middle of the
fifteenth century was written Pandolfini's _Governo della Famiglia_. An
old man advises his two sons and three grandsons on the philosophy and
policy of life. He urges thrift and advises to stay far removed from
public life. It is, he says, a "life of insults, hatreds,
misrepresentations, and suspicions." He advises not to come into the
intimacy of great nobles and not to lend them money. He has a low
opinion of all women and would not trust a wife with secrets. Della
Casa, in the first half of the sixteenth century, wrote _Il Galateo_, a
treatise on manners and etiquette. He lays great stress on cleanliness
of person and house, and he forbids all impropriety, for which he has a
very positive code. Castiglione's _Courtier_ inculcates what the age
considered sound ideas on all social relations, rights, and duties. In
the dialogue different views are put forward and discussed, from which
it results that the views to be regarded as correct often lack point and
definiteness. Symonds thinks that the type presented with approval
differs little from the modern gentleman.[2278] Cornaro wrote at the age
of eighty-three a book called _Discorsi della Vita sobria_, which is
said to set forth especially the diet by which the writer overcame
physical weakness and reached a hale old age. When ninety-five he wrote
another book to boast of the success of the first. He died in 1565, over
a hundred years old.[2279]
+728. Moral anarchy.+ The antagonism between a virtue policy and a
success policy is a constant ethical problem. The Renaissance in Italy
shows that although moral traditions may be narrow and mistaken, any
morality is better than moral anarchy. Moral traditions are guides which
no one can afford to neglect. They are in the mores and they are lost in
every great revolution of the mores. Then the men are morally lost.
Their notions, desires, purposes, and means become false, and even the
notion of crime is arbitrary and untrue. If all try the policy of
dishonesty, the result will be the firmest conviction that honesty is
the best policy. The mores aim always to arrive at correct notions of
virtue. In so far as they reach correct results the virtue policy proves
to be the only success policy.
[2216] _Globus_, LXXXIII, 374.
[2217] Holtzmann, _Indische Sagen_, I, 170.
[2218] Holtzmann, _Indische Sagen_, I, 105.
[2219] _Ibid._, 23, 37, 119.
[2220] Monier-Williams, _Brahmanism and Hinduism_, 216.
[2221] Hartmann, _Ztsft. d. V. f. Volkskunde_, XI, 247.
[2222] _Od._, XIX, 394.
[2223] Lichtenberger, _Nibelungen_, 334, 354.
[2224] Uhland, _Dichtung und Sage_, 232.
[2225] Kugler, _Kreuzzüge_, 52.
[2226] Eicken, _Mittelalterl. Weltanschauung_, 656.
[2227] Symonds, _Renaissance_, III, 320.
[2228] _Ibid._, I, 390-405.
[2229] Burckhardt, _Renaissance_, 458.
[2230] Burckhardt, _Renaissance_, 465.
[2231] _Ibid._, 490.
[2232] Lea, _Sacerd. Celibacy_, 364.
[2233] Symonds, _Catholic Reaction_, II, 137.
[2234] Burckhardt, 184.
[2235] _Ibid._, 267.
[2236] Burckhardt, _Renaissance_, 268-271.
[2237] Symonds, _Renaissance_, I, 423.
[2238] Gauthiez, _Lorenzaccio_, 71.
[2239] Creighton, _Hist. Essays and Reviews_, 336.
[2240] _La Renaissance_, 377.
[2241] _Hist. Essays and Reviews_, 138.
[2242] Symonds, _Renaissance_, I, 52.
[2243] _Ibid._, 53.
[2244] Gauthiez, _Lorenzaccio_, 92.
[2245] Symonds, _Catholic Reaction_, II, 392.
[2246] Symonds, _Renaissance_, I, 416.
[2247] Symonds, _Autobiog._, I, 74.
[2248] Symonds, _Renaissance_, I, 416.
[2249] _Ibid._, 420.
[2250] _Ibid._, 420.
[2251] Gregorovius, _Lucretia Borgia_, 28.
[2252] Gauthiez, _Lorenzaccio_, 230.
[2253] Symonds, _Renaissance_, III, 467.
[2254] Symonds, _Autobiog. of Cellini_, I, XI, 196.
[2255] _Ibid._, XIV.
[2256] _Ibid._, 227.
[2257] Gauthiez, _Lorenzaccio_, 104.
[2258] _Ibid._, 79.
[2259] Symonds, _Renaissance_, I, 413.
[2260] _Ibid._, 410.
[2261] Burckhardt, 175, 432, 445.
[2262] Symonds, _Renaissance_, I, 101.
[2263] Creighton, _Essays_, 344.
[2264] Symonds, _Renaissance_, III, 453-455.
[2265] Müntz, _Leonardo da Vinci_, I, 12.
[2266] Cartwright, _Isabella d'Este_, I, 145.
[2267] Geiger, _Renaissance_, 318.
[2268] Opdyke, trans. of Castiglione, _Courtier_, 398.
[2269] Lannau-Rolland, _Michel Ange et Vittoria Colonna_, Chap.
VI.
[2270] Heyck, _Die Mediceer_, 70; Symonds, _Renaissance_, I, 37.
[2271] Gregorovious, _Lucretia Borgia_, 27.
[2272] Gauthiez, _Lorenzaccio_, 65.
[2273] Burckhardt, _Renaissance_, 455.
[2274] _Ibid._, 441.
[2275] _Ibid._, 442.
[2276] Gregorovius, _Lucretia Borgia_, 96.
[2277] Symonds, _Renaissance_, III, 425.
[2278] _Renaissance_, I, 118.
[2279] Burckhardt, 335, 338.
LIST OF BOOKS CITED
Full titles of all books cited are given below in the alphabetical order
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Ameer Ali, The Influence of Woman in Islam (Nineteenth Century,
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American Anthropologist, 17, 121, 142, 149, 305, 315, 326, 339, 460,
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American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literature, 536
American Journal of Sociology, 112
Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Gestarum (libri 18, out of 31), 418, 586
Ammon, O., Die Gesellschaftsordnung und ihre natürlichen Grundlagen
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d'Ancona, A., Le Origini del Teatro in Italia (2 tomes. Firenze, 1877 e
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Angerstein, W., Volkstänze im Deutschen Mittelalter (2te Aufl. Berlin,
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l'Année Sociologique, 482.
See Durkheim
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See Bulletins
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316
Appianus, Historia Romana, 281
Apuleius, Metamorphoses, 364, 571
Arabian Nights, 287, 434.
See Lane
Archiv für Anthropologie, 329, 447, 536-537, 543, 548-549, 563, 577-578
Archiv für Kunde der OEsterreichischen Geschichtsquellen, 443
Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, 525
Ashton, J., Social Life in the Reign of Queen Anne (London, 1883), 523
Athenæus, Deipnosophistorum libri, 15, 436, 529, 542
Athenagoras, Apologia (on the resurrection of the dead), 390
Augustine, Opera (Paris, 1635), 290, 348, 360-361, 390-391, 529, 542,
585
d'Aussy. See Legrand
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d'Avenel, G., Histoire Economique de la Propriété, des Salaires, des
Denrées, et de tous les Prix en général, depuis l'an 1200 jusqu'en
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Babelon, E. C. F., Les Origines de la Monnaie (Paris, 1897), 154
Bancroft, H. H., The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America
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Barthold, F. W., Die Geschichte der Hansa (Leipzig, 1862), 370, 524
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Bastian, A., Die Deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste (Jena, 1874),
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Becker, W. A., und Hermann, K. F., Charikles (3 Bände. Leipzig, 1854),
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Bent, J. T., The Sacred City of the Ethiopians (London, 1893), 459
Bergel, J., Die Eheverhältnisse der alten Juden im Vergleiche mit den
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de Bethencourt, J., Le Canarien livre de la Conquête et Conversion des
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Tertullian, de Anima, 100;
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Umschau, Die, 91, 189, 358, 425, 483, 531
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Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 25, 269, 314, 332, 435, 440
Zeitschrift für Vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft, 368, 454
Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie, 4
Zeitschrift für Volkskunde, 82
Zimmer, H., Altindisches Leben (Berlin, 1879), 315, 326, 353, 388, 428,
486
INDEX
_A posteriori_, 519
Abandonment, of infants, 320;
of old things, 324, 326;
of the weak, 327
Abduction, 365, 384
Abelard, 228
Aberrations, 100, 102, 115, 149, 219, 220, 260, 534, 547, 579, 611
Abolition, 89-90, 92-93, 99, 111, 114, 165, 168, 178, 211, 478
Abomination, 109, 230, 233, 235, 238, 240, 314, 329, 336, 339, 357, 373,
430, 451, 473, 480, 487, 490, 530, 539, 556, 567, 628
Aborigines, 109, 112, 121, 126, 128, 139, 140, 314, 433, 440, 445, 501
Abortion, 106, 308-320, 327-328
Abuse, 58, 77, 92, 99, 102, 105-106, 114, 167, 170-171, 209, 218, 223,
238, 252, 259-260, 355, 367, 388, 471, 521-524, 634
Accident, 9, 24, 68, 135, 441, 445, 489, 573
Accursed man, 245
Accused, the, 250, 254, 523
Achievement, 99, 101, 106, 118, 132, 162, 478
Adaptation, 58, 73, 90, 95, 100, 120-121, 127
Adjustment, 58-59, 78-79, 81, 83, 100, 113, 312, 396, 419, 539;
of inbreeding and outbreeding, 350
Admired, desire to be, 426;
not to be, 428
Adoption, 12, 110, 118, 122, 615
Adultery, 69, 190, 334, 358, 360, 369, 378, 380-381, 390, 403, 424, 467,
501, 529, 574, 581-582, 652;
of man, 378, 403, 413
Advance, 100-102, 604, 630;
or decline, 99, 102
Affectation, 57, 93, 175, 194, 197, 199-200, 220
Affection, 182, 219, 268, 284, 320, 331, 358, 422, 523;
conjugal, 361-366, 371, 403, 461
Affinity, 397, 480, 488
Aged, the, 308-309, 322-327, 460;
two mores as to, 321-323;
respect for, 321, 326;
beg for death, 325;
beg for delay, 325-326;
are spared, 328
Agency, 25, 432, 501, 519, 537
Agitation, 51-52, 76, 113-114, 178
Aleatory element, the, 6, 11, 144, 313, 321-322, 396, 509, 519
Alexander of Macedon, 236, 504, 577
Alexander Severus, 288, 443
Alexander II, 89-90
Alexander IV, 254
Alexander VI, 11, 255, 598, 650
Ambassador, 189.
See Alberi in List of Books Cited
America, 111, 113, 126, 167, 271, 275, 382, 434, 454, 460, 528, 549
Amulets, 142, 146, 148, 155, 429, 437-438, 446, 449, 512, 516-517, 546
Amusement, 35, 84, 100, 116, 193, 195, 470, 533, 545, 560, 572-573, 577,
583-586, 599, 600, 603-605;
a pitfall, 603;
and religion, 607;
renounced, 609;
vicious, 583
Ancestors, 13, 35, 55, 79, 85, 88, 101, 116, 134, 235, 382, 385, 430,
476, 561-563
Andamanese, 149, 316, 322, 421, 453, 459, 461
Anglo-American colonies, 304, 393
"Animalism, blank," 650
Animals, 181-182, 190, 357;
sacred, 336;
trained for the chase, 120
Antagonistic coöperation, 16-18, 49, 346
Antidivorce, 115
Anti-hero, 597
Antiochus Epiphanes, 615
Antipolygamy, 115
Antisensuality, 538
Antisocietal, 500
Apostles, 215, 221, 224, 243, 469, 524, 626
Appetite, 21, 31, 99, 329-330, 346, 545, 550, 552, 607-608, 612, 647
Arabs, 14, 188, 264-265, 334, 340, 350, 358, 363, 386, 391, 398, 423,
428, 455, 459, 462, 488, 495, 505, 507, 512, 517, 555, 557, 562
Arbitrariness, 92, 94, 107, 113, 115, 426
Arguments, fashion in, 193
Aristocracy, 45, 77, 94-95, 163-164, 168, 176, 183-184, 188, 286, 302,
376, 387, 505, 564
Aristotle, 51, 278-279, 299, 315, 359, 424, 602
Armengol, 152, 422-423
Arms swinging, 192
Art, 5, 24, 39, 41, 70, 93, 97, 101-104, 117-118, 124-128, 131-132, 201,
206, 232, 266, 638, 645;
æsthetic, 426, 447, 450, 474, 516;
of living, 45, 81, 418, 451-452;
of criticism, 47;
of the theater, 565
Artifacts, 119, 123-124, 126-127, 132-133, 450
Artisans, 35, 47, 73, 83, 95, 100, 168, 276, 283, 285, 288-289, 291, 294
Arts, 111, 121, 131-133, 160, 175-176, 193-194, 224, 589, 598, 609, 643;
lost, 126;
mechanic, 112, 604;
fine, 135604, 627;
of fishing, 123;
the stage of the, 311-312;
advance in the, 321, 327;
ecclesiastical, 617
Asceticism and Ascetics, 101, 116, 160, 204-205, 212, 219-220, 224-225,
242, 294-295, 340, 378, 380, 390, 401, 604, 606, 608, 610-622, 626-627
Association, 57, 60-62, 110, 171, 288, 435, 493, 499, 526, 566, 593,
613, 648
Atellan, 234, 447, 569, 578, 581
Augustinian Hermits, 216, 624
Augustus, 101, 199, 280, 283, 288, 378, 543
Australia and Australian, 109, 119, 121, 124, 131, 187, 316, 322, 330,
332, 339, 346, 421, 436, 483, 497
Autocracy, 77, 88-89, 192, 244
Autos-de-fe, 252
Auto-suggestion, 19, 24, 201, 219, 633
Babylon, 465, 538, 541, 551, 575
Bagdad, 249, 430
Baluchistan, 499
Banishment, 209, 232, 333, 482, 486, 502, 507
Banking, 54, 169, 178, 193, 195
Barbarian, 14, 54, 100-101, 111, 116, 125, 397, 425-426, 445, 460,
467-468, 474, 487, 534, 562, 576, 586, 629
Barbaro, 186, 211, 257, 264-265, 276, 292, 295. See Alberi in List of
Books Cited
Barbers of Bombay, 172
Bareheaded, improper for women, 456
Barter, 142-144, 147, 149, 155
Basivis. See Fawcett in List of Books Cited
Basochiens, 594
Bastardizing, 648
Bath, Bathing, 70, 100, 185, 420, 430, 436, 440, 442-445, 451-452, 454,
511, 514
"Beasts," 546
Beat wives, 364, 370
Beauty, 159, 187-189, 191-192, 343, 365, 394, 446, 455, 518, 627, 644,
650;
attracts evil eye, 517
Beget, compelled to, 399
Beghards, 217
"Benefit of marriage," 390
Bernard Delicieux, 217
Berry jam, 140
Betrothal, 358, 360, 382-383, 389, 398-399, 406, 410-412, 454
Bible, 68-69, 81, 94, 109-110, 117, 154, 175-176, 234, 236, 277, 313,
335, 340, 356, 363-364, 377, 391, 398-399, 401, 414, 430-431, 455-456,
487, 499, 502-503, 513, 515, 518, 526, 540, 542-543, 551, 553-555,
565, 567, 614-616
Bigamy, 414
Biologs, 578-580, 582, 588, 596
Birth, 67, 196, 317, 320, 354, 383, 389, 432, 434
Bishops, 226, 237, 242, 249, 460, 616, 642
Black Death, 213
Blood, 218, 235, 243, 254, 337-338, 353-354, 451, 469, 472, 479-480,
484, 491, 496, 502, 505, 511, 541, 555, 570, 575, 583, 607, 650;
lust of, 247, 250;
seat of the soul or life, 336;
avenger of, 502;
nuptial, 511, 541;
atonement, 506;
feud, 499, 501-502, 504-508;
guilt, 333, 502, 505, 650;
money, 502;
revenge, 334, 467, 496, 498-500, 501-502, 504-508
Bloodthirst, 182, 464, 570
Body, the, 103-104, 189, 315, 424, 428-429, 431-434, 440, 443, 445-446,
451, 455, 515, 582, 612-613
_Bombaria_, 599
Bonaventura, 217, 247, 624
Bond, 352, 357
Boniface VIII, 259, 625
Book of Covenants, 277
Book of Henoch, 431
Book of Jubilees, 431
Books of beggars, 598
Borgia (see Alexander VI, 586);
Cesare, 64, 519, 598;
Lucrezia, 598
Borneo, 150, 269, 274, 304, 439, 442, 446
Boss, 48, 180
Boys, 354, 367;
vs. girls, 456, 518
Brazil, 122, 138-139, 271, 323, 325, 332, 446, 501
Breed in and out, 116, 492
Breeding, 17, 60, 106-108, 192, 316, 350, 421, 431, 454, 461, 472, 481,
490
Bride, 188-189, 366, 367, 397-398, 408, 410, 413, 456, 484-486, 516,
518;
must weep, 367-368;
attendants of the, 366;
blows on a, 516;
her mother killed and eaten, 338
Bridegroom, 366, 370, 397-398, 408, 410, 518;
is ashamed, 367
Bride-price, 154, 311-312, 317
Brothels, 208, 256, 370, 529-530
Brothers of the Free Spirit, 218
Buckley, 128
Buddhism, 73, 111, 117, 149, 159, 318, 510
Bull-baiting, 560, 586
Bulls of popes, 248-249, 259, 590
Bundling, 525-529
Burlesque, 572-573, 578, 582, 590, 594;
opera, 185
Burning, as penalty, 59, 212, 233-234, 237-239, 243-247, 254, 290, 336,
470-471, 486, 524, 555, 637;
the dead, 332;
widows, 388
Bushmen, 24-26, 137, 264, 268-269, 326, 346, 422
Bustle, 190, 428
Byzantine empire, 99-100, 239, 449, 571, 587
_Cacare_, 445
Cæsar, Julius, 286, 288, 519
Calamity, 100, 210-211, 213, 235, 239, 300, 313, 482, 486, 515, 519,
552, 555, 608, 610, 617, 648
_Calandra_, 596
Caligula, 234, 286
Caliphs, 430, 504-505
_Calisto e Meliboea_, 596
Cannibalism, 13, 316, 325-326, 329, 336-341, 418, 451, 480, 546
Cantelupe, Walter de, 411
_Cantica_, 586
Capital, 8, 9, 26, 83, 89, 162-163, 169, 184, 285, 310, 352, 376-377,
439, 643-644
Carolina, the, 254
Caroline Archipelago, 123, 340, 516, 533
Carthage, 62, 81, 148, 183, 282, 541-543, 556, 559, 586
Cat knight, 599
Catholicity, 15, 221-222, 244, 258, 503, 531