UNCLEANNESS AND THE EVIL EYE
Demonism and the aleatory interest.--Universality of primitive
demonism.--Uncleanness.--Female uncleanness.--Uncleanness in
ethnography.--Uncleanness in higher religions.--Uncleanness
amongst Jews.--Uncleanness amongst Greeks.--These customs
produced modesty and the subordination of women.--Uncleanness,
holiness, devotedness.--The evil eye; _jettatura_.--The evil
eye in ethnography.--Amulets against the evil eye.--Devices
against the evil eye.--Insult and vituperation against the evil
eye.--Interaction of the mores and the evil eye.
+556. Demonism and the aleatory interest.+ Uncleanness and the evil eye
are dogmatic notions, products of demonism. The dogmas are arbitrary. A
corpse is unclean and makes any one unclean who touches it. A baby is
not unclean. The evil eye brings bad luck, not pain or disease.
Uncleanness and the evil eye have each a field. Neither is of universal
application. The mores, starting out from primitive demonism, produced
these two dogmas as an adjustment of experience and observation to
demonism. Uncleanness is a very rude and primary expression of the
unsanitary and contagious. It undoubtedly often happens that calamity
befalls in the hour of success and rejoicing. A number of people were
trodden to death on the Brooklyn bridge when it was opened. A few
centuries ago, and in all ancient times, such an incident would have
been accepted as the obvious chastisement of the superior powers on the
overweening pride of men. The same might be said of the death of Mr.
Huskisson at the opening of the first railroad. The sum of such
incidents stands in some relation to fundamental superstitions about
demons, if such are believed. The incidents can be fitted into the
doctrines very easily. The whole aleatory interest is a field for this
kind of general dogmas of the application of fundamental principles to
classes of cases. The folkways, deeply concerned in the aleatory
interest, work out the applications.
+557. Universality of primitive demonism.+ Demonism is the broadest and
most primitive form of religion. All the higher religions show a
tendency to degenerate back to it. Brahminism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism,
Mohammedanism, and mediæval Christianity show this tendency. Greek
religion is most remarkable because we find in Homer very little
demonism. It appears, therefore, that in his time primitive demonism had
been overcome. In the fifth century B.C. we find it coming in again, and
in the fourth century it became the ruling form of popular religion. It
predominated in late Greek religion, mixed with demonism from western
Asia and Egypt, and passed to Rome, where it entered into primitive
Christianity, combining with highly developed demonism from rabbinical
Judaism. Religion always arises out of the mores. Changes in religion
are produced by changes in the mores. Religious ideas, however, in the
next stage, are brought back to the mores as controlling dogmas. The
product of the first stage becomes the seed in the second. Goblinism and
demonism have great effect on the mores, probably because demonism is so
original and universal in all religions, and so popular in its hold on
the minds of all. Demonism furnishes devices of magic, sorcery,
sortilege, divination, augury, oracles, etc., by which it is believed
that men can get from the superior powers (spirits, demons, etc.) what
they want, and can learn what is to be in the future. It therefore has
the greatest apparatus by which to satisfy human needs, as they appear
under the demonistic interpretation of the world and human life.
The most important immediate and direct consequences of demonism in the
second stage, when it is brought back to the work of life as a normative
system, are the notions of uncleanness and of the evil eye.
+558. Uncleanness.+ The notion of uncleanness is ritual. It is not
entirely irrational. Contagious diseases and diseases which are the
result of ignorance and neglect of sanitation give sense to the notion.
The interpretation of those phenomena as due to the intervention of
superior powers is like the interpretation of other diseases as due to
demons. In fact, uncleanness is a step towards a rational view of
disease, because it brings in secondary causes, and puts the action of
demons one step further off. The effect of uncleanness was that it made
the affected person unfit and unable to perform ritual acts on which
human welfare was supposed to depend. The affected person became
dangerous to others, and was forced to banish himself from societal
contact with them. He was also cut off from access to the superior
powers. It was therefore indispensable that he should recover cleanness
in order to carry on his life. The recovery was accomplished through
ritual acts and devices, and chiefly through the intervention of
shamans, who were experts in the rites and devices required.
+559. Female uncleanness.+ The ritual notion of uncleanness, being a
product of deduction from demonistic world philosophy, was arbitrary,
and was capable of indefinite extension. It was not a disease, was not
held to facts by symptoms of pain, etc. Women were held to be unclean,
and causes of uncleanness by contact, at marriage, menstruation, and
childbirth. They were always possessed by demons, which accounted for
their special functions as mothers. The periods mentioned were periods
of special activity of the demonistic function. The belief was common in
the Orient that a woman was dangerous to her husband at marriage. A
demon left her at that time in the nuptial bloodshed. At menstruation
women were dangerous to men. The ritual idea of uncleanness was so
extended that women were put under a kind of imprisonment for a time,
especially in the Zoroastrian system (sec. 561), in order to remove them
from social contact. At child bearing also they were forced into
retirement for a specified period.[1767] Corpses also were unclean and
made all those unclean who came into contact with them. There are
numerous other and comparatively trifling causes of ritual
uncleanness.[1768]
+560. Uncleanness in ethnography.+ The Macusi of British Guiana
forbid women to bathe during the period, and also forbid them to
go into the forest, for they would risk bites from enamored
snakes.[1769] If a woman of the Ngumba, in Kamerun, bears a dead
child, the uncleanness is double. She may not touch the hand of
a man until she is unwell again.[1770] In Madagascar no one who
had been at a funeral might enter the palace, or approach the
sovereign, for a month, and no corpse might be buried in the
capital city. The mourners washed their dresses, or dipped a
portion of them in running water, as a ritual purification.[1771]
The Tshi peoples of West Africa cause women to retire, at the
period, to huts prepared for the purpose in the bush, because
they are at that time offensive to the deities.[1772] The
Ewe-speaking peoples think a mother and baby unclean for forty
days after childbirth.[1773] The Bechuanas, when they have
touched a corpse, dug a grave, or are near relatives of a
deceased person,--the ritual uncleanness being thus extended to a
wider circle of those in any way concerned in a burial,--purify
themselves by prescribed ritualistic washings, put on new
garments and cut their hair, or purify themselves with the smoke
of a fire into which magic-working materials have been cast. On
returning from battle they ceremonially wash themselves and their
weapons.[1774] The Karoks of California think that if a
menstruating woman approaches any medicine which is about to be
given to a sick man she will cause his death.[1775] The Tamils
think that saliva renders ritually unclean whatever it touches.
Therefore, in drinking, they pour the liquid down the throat
without touching the cup to the lips.[1776] The Romans held that
nothing else had such marvelous efficacy as, or more deadly
qualities than, the menstrual flow.[1777] Here we find that which
is, in one view, evil and contemptible, regarded, in another
view, as powerful and worthy of respect. The Arabs thought that
"a great variety of natural powers" attached themselves to a
woman during the period.[1778] The gum of the acacia was thought
to be a clot of menstrual blood. Therefore it was an amulet. The
tree is a woman.[1779] At the great feast of the dead amongst the
Eskimo on Bering Straits the feast makers make wiping motions,
stamp, and slap the thighs, in order to "cast off all uncleanness
that might be offensive to the shades," and thus to render their
sacrifices acceptable.[1780] The spirits amongst the Kwakiutl,
Chinooks, and their neighbors kill an unclean man. These people
have fastings and washings for purification.[1781]
+561. Uncleanness in higher religions.+ In the higher religions
the same notions of ritual cleanness were retained and developed.
Pious Zoroastrians could not travel by sea without great
inconvenience, because they could not help defiling the natural
element water, which they were forbidden to do.[1782] They were
forbidden to blow a fire with the breath, lest they should
defile the element fire, and they wore a covering over the mouth
when they approached the fire for any purpose. Parings of the
nails and cuttings of the hair were unclean. They would be
weapons for demons if they were not covered by rites and spells.
The menses of women were caused by the evil god Ahriman. A woman,
during the period, was "unclean and possessed by the demon. She
must be kept confined and apart from the faithful, whom her touch
would defile, and from the fire, which her very look would
injure. She was not allowed to eat as much as she wanted, as the
strength which she might acquire would accrue to the fiends. Her
food was not given to her from hand to hand, but passed to her
from a distance in a long leaden spoon." At childbirth, the
mother was unclean, in spite of the logic of the religion,
according to which she should be pure because she has increased
life. "The strength of old instincts overcame the drift of new
principles." [The old mores were too strong for the new
religion.] A woman who bears a dead child is a grave, and must be
ritually purified as such. Only to save her from death can she
drink water, which she would defile, and if it is given to her
she must undergo a penalty. These views go back to the notion
that she has been near death and has had the death fiend in her.
A great fire is lighted to drive off the demons.[1783] At this
day there is in the house of a Parsee a room for the monthly
seclusion of women. It is bare of all comforts and from it
neither sun, moon, stars, fire, water, or sacred implements, nor
any human being, can be seen. The first ceremony performed on a
newborn child is washing its hands, to purify it, since it also
is unclean.[1784]
+562. Uncleanness amongst the Jews.+ Ritual uncleanness is
represented in the Old Testament as due to contact with carcasses
of unclean cattle and other unclean things;[1785] to contact with
a woman in childbirth, with a longer period if the infant is a
girl than a boy.[1786] Care about clean and unclean things was
praised as a high religious virtue,[1787] and the prophets used
the distinction for the difference between virtue and vice.[1788]
The food taboo is expressed by declaring forbidden animals
unclean.[1789] Plague and leprosy are cases of ritual
uncleanness, also issues.[1790] Distinctions of this kind
(cleanness and uncleanness), enforced by ritual, depend on clear
facts of observation and prescribe simple acts. They include no
dogmas. They prescribe things to be done. They produce notions
and habits. They enter so deeply into ways of living that it
takes long counter-education to eradicate them. The strength of
the adherence to this distinction, in the rabbinical period, is
well shown in the New Testament.
+563. Uncleanness amongst Greeks.+ The Greeks had similar
conceptions of uncleanness. Marriage was surrounded by rites of
purification and precaution, the marriage bath being one of the
most essential acts in the wedding rites.[1791] Death and the
dead produced uncleanness, and purification by water, fire, or
smoke was required.[1792]
+564. These mores produced modesty and subordination of women.+ Two
things of great social importance in respect to women are traceable to
these mores: (_a_) The sex modesty of women. The usages of
Zoroastrianism are cruel. They treat women as base, not on the same
plane with men, affected by a natural inferiority, and therefore as
having something to be ashamed of. Inasmuch as these usages were all in
the mores, the women accepted them as true and right, and probably never
rebelled against them even in thought. The mores therefore taught them
sex modesty, and especial shame of the sex function. (_b_) The
subordination of women. They never were subordinated because they are
weaker, because in savagery and barbarism they often are not so, but
because of their feminine disabilities and the correlative
inferiorities. They accepted the facts and the interpretation which the
mores put on them. Then they acquiesced in the treatment they received
which was reasonable upon that state of facts.
+565. Uncleanness, holiness, devotedness.+ Uncleanness was an
application of taboo. It had a double aspect. It was at once repelling
and protective. If corpses were unclean they were put out of contact
with the living as far as possible, and this was done to protect the
living. The things which were excluded by taboo because they were bad
came into parallelism with the things which were tabooed because they
were holy and were not to be treated carelessly as common and
insignificant. The holy things were in contrast with the profane things;
unclean things were in contrast with all which concerned the cult.[1793]
Nelson says of the Eskimo that at a feast the "wiping motion followed by
the stamping and the slapping on the thighs indicated that the
feast-makers thus cast off all uncleanness that might be offensive to
the shades, and thus render their offerings acceptable."[1794] This
purification was ritual and produced ritual or cult cleanness. Any one
who touched a holy thing was raised to a disagreeable amount of
holiness, which he must maintain or undergo the ritual uncleanness of a
profaned holy thing. Special offerings and atonements were necessary to
remove the danger from being holy, which might prove fatal.[1795] The
Jewish Scriptures which were canonical were distinguished as "those
which defile the hands." This shows the original identity of "unclean"
and "holy." Both are under taboo, devoted to higher powers. Whatever
touches the devoted thing becomes likewise devoted. The high priest has
to wash, on the day of atonement, after he has worn the holy
vestment.[1796] The Sadducees scoffed at the saying of the Pharisees
that the Holy Scriptures defile the hands.[1797]
+566. The evil eye. _Jettatura._+ Another direct and immediate product
of primitive demonism is the notion of the evil eye. This is a concrete
dogma and a primary inference from demonism. It is often confounded with
the _jettatura_ of the Italians. The evil eye is an affliction which
befalls the fortunate and prosperous in their prosperity. It is the
demons who are irritated by human luck and prosperity who inflict
calamity, pain, and loss, at the height of good luck. The _jettatura_ is
a spell of evil cast either voluntarily or involuntarily by persons who
have the gift of the evil eye and can cast evil spells, perhaps
unconsciously and involuntarily. It follows from the notion of the evil
eye that men should never admire, praise, congratulate, or encourage
those who are rich, successful, prosperous, and lucky. The right thing
to do is to vituperate and scoff at them in their prosperity. That may
offset their good luck, check their pride, and humble them a little.
Then the envy of the superior powers may not be excited against them to
the point of harming them. It is the most probable explanation of the
cloistering and veiling of women that it was intended to protect them,
especially if they were beautiful, from the evil eye. The admiration
which they would attract would be fatal to them. The notion of the evil
eye led to covering some parts of the body and so led to notions of
decency (sec. 459). It is assumed that demons envy human success and
prosperity and so inflict loss and harm on the successful. Hence
admiration and applause excite their malignity.
+567. Ethnographical illustrations.+ Of the following cases many
are cases of jettatura. In the Malagasy language many proper
names of persons are coarse and insulting because a
pleasant-sounding name might cause envy.[1798] In Bornu when a
horse is sold, if it is a fine one, it is delivered by night, for
fear of the evil eye (covetous and envious eyes) of
bystanders.[1799] Schweinfurth[1800] tells an incident of a man
who, going through a Nubian village, noticed that the limb of a
tree was rotten and ready to fall. He warned some people who were
standing under it. Immediately afterwards it did fall, but the
fall was attributed to the evil eye of the person who first
noticed the danger. The Dinka are mentioned as free from this
superstition.[1801] In the Sudan food is usually covered by a
conical straw cover to prevent the evil eye [viz. of the hungry
people who might admire and long for it].[1802] Customs of eating
and drinking in private, and of covering the mouth when eating or
drinking, belong here. All along the north coast of Africa the
belief in the evil eye prevails. A hen's-egg shell upon which
three small leaden horseshoes have been riveted is an amulet
against it.[1803] At Katanga, Central Africa, only the initiated
may watch the smelting of copper, for fear of the evil eye, which
would spoil the process.[1804] In the Caroline Islands a canoe,
while being built, is enclosed in a building for fear of the evil
eye.[1805] This represents a class of cases in which a high and
refined art is being practiced. In parts of Melanesia, and often
elsewhere, a shell or leaf is fastened on the end of the
masculine organ to ward off the evil eye. The same is the purpose
of hanging strips of leather, etc., which catch attention, to
divert it from the organ which is sensitive to the evil eye.
Hence arose the taboo on parts of the body. In some groups in
India, at weddings, women of the bride's and bridegroom's parties
sing songs, each deriding and decrying the other. This is for
luck. "Praise is risky; abuse and blame are safe."[1806] In
Behar, on a certain day, sisters abuse brothers, in the belief
that this will cause them long life and good luck.[1807] In the
Horn of Africa magicians who want to get rid of a man stupefy him
with drugs and sell him into slavery as having the evil eye
(jettatura).[1808] Amongst the Kabyles a husband left alone with
his bride first strikes her three light blows on the shoulder
with the back of his knife to ward off from her the evil
eye.[1809] In India a small object of iron is hung on a cradle
because iron wards off the evil eye.[1810] The jettatura belongs
to persons born at certain periods in the year, or a woman's
behavior during pregnancy may cause her child to have it.[1811]
People are held to be in danger of the evil eye in prosperity and
on festive occasions when they put on fine dress and ornaments.
Witches, beggars, and people of the lowest class have the evil
eye. Diseases of decline are attributed to the jettatura. Cattle
cease to give milk and trees lose leaves on account of it.
Flowers and fruit wither untimely. Gems break or lose
brilliancy.[1812]
+568. Amulets against the evil eye.+ In the Dutch East Indies the
phallus, or the symbol of it, is a charm against the evil eye
which is cast in quarrels.[1813] Roman boys wore a symbol of this
kind. Obscene gestures were supposed to ward off the evil
eye.[1814] In some parts of India a tiger's tooth or claw is an
amulet for the same purpose, also obscene symbols or strings of
cowries. Whatever dangles and flutters attracts attention to
itself and away from the thing to be protected.[1815] Hindoo
parents give their children ugly and inauspicious names,
especially if they have lost some children.[1816] The notion of
the evil eye was very strong amongst the Arabs, with the notion
that beauty attracted it.[1817] Mohammed himself believed in the
evil eye. The superstition came down from the heathen period when
rags and dirty things were hung on children to protect them from
the evil eye.[1818] The veiling of women amongst the Arabs was
probably due to it. Beautiful women also painted black spots on
their cheeks.[1819] Children, horses, and asses are now
disfigured amongst Moslems to protect them from the risk they
would run if beautiful. To save a child from the evil eye they
say "God be good to thee" and spit in its face.[1820] Amongst the
Bedouins, whenever one utters praises he must add: "Mashallah,"
that is, God avert ill! The only other way to avert ill is to
give the praised object to him who praised it.[1821] Glittering
and waving objects are much used by Moslems on dress and horse
caparisons to distract attention. They put texts of the Koran on
streamers on their houses for the same purpose.
+569. Devices against the evil eye.+ Homer has the idea that the
gods curb the pride of prosperity and are jealous of it. His
heroes are taught as a life policy to avert envy.
Self-disparagement is an approved pose.[1822] Plutarch[1823]
explains the efficiency of objects set up to avert witchcraft on
the theory that by their oddity they draw the evil eye from
persons and objects. Fescennine verses of the Romans, which were
used at weddings and triumphs, were intended to ward off ill
luck. Soldiers followed the chariot of the triumphing general and
shouted to him derisive and sarcastic verses to avert the ill to
which he was then most liable. The Greeks used coarse jests at
festivals for the same purpose.[1824] Modern Egyptians have
inherited this superstition. Mothers leave their children ragged
and dirty, especially when they take them out of doors, for fear
of admiration and envy. Boys are greatly envied. They are kept
long in the harem and dressed in girl's clothes for the same
protection.[1825] Amongst the richer classes at Cairo chandeliers
are hung before a bridegroom's house. If a crowd collects to look
at a fine chandelier, a jar is purposely broken to distract
attention from it, lest an envious eye should cause it to
fall.[1826] When the Pasha gave up his monopoly of meat, butchers
hung up carcasses in full view on the street. This was complained
of, since every beggar could see the meat and envy it, "and one
might, therefore, as well eat poison as such meat."[1827] An
antidote is to burn a bit of alum, with the recital of the first
and the last three chapters of the Koran.[1828] The Jews of
Southern Russia do not allow their children to be admired or
caressed. If it is done, the mother will order the child to "make
a fig gesture" behind the back of the one who did it.[1829]
The evil eye is mentioned in Proverbs xxiii. 6 and xxviii. 22,
and perhaps in Matt. xx. 15. The emphasis in Proverbs seems to be
on envy and covetousness, not on magical evil.
In China children are often named "dog," "hog," "flea," etc., to
ward off the evil eye.[1830]
+570. Insult and vituperation for luck and against evil eye.+
Amongst the southern Slavs the evil eye acts by bringing evil
spirits into action as the agents, and they "decry" the person or
thing. No doubt this mode of operation is to be generally
understood when not mentioned. The beautiful suffer most. One may
unwittingly do the harm by admiration. One should never say,
"What a beautiful child!" but "What an ugly child!" if one
admires it. The language has become inverted by this usage.[1831]
The superstition is popular in Hungary. A child is never to be
praised or admired. If one looks at a child for a while in
admiration, he should then spit on it three times.[1832] Possibly
the custom of throwing an old shoe after a bride is to be traced
to the same superstition. It is a contemptible and derisory gift
for luck, like vituperative outcries. The fear of the evil eye
and the _jettatura_ is now very strong in southern Italy.[1833]
+571. Interaction of the mores and the evil eye.+ The doctrine of the
evil eye is plainly an immediate deduction from demonism. If the
atmosphere is full of demons, surrounding us all, agents of all things
which happen and affect our interests, human welfare depends either on
their uncontrollable caprice, or on devices by which they can be
controlled. In the former case human beings need to have omens, oracles,
rites of divination, etc., to find out what is to be. In the latter case
all devices of magic and sorcery are of the highest value to men. This
is why magic is so ultimate and original in the history of civilization.
It teaches men _not_ to look for any rational causation in the order of
things, and to believe in the efficacy of ritual proceedings which
contain no rational relation of means to ends. Then it costs no effort
to believe that one person can bewitch another, and do it unconsciously.
Any relation of responsibility can be invented and believed, since there
are no tests of agency. It follows that a new function is opened for the
mores. They have to select and establish those relations of agency and
responsibility which are to be believed in; that is, they define crimes
and criminal responsibility. Ordeals as tests fall in with the same
system. They touch no actual relations and therefore prove nothing. It
is the mores which establish faith in them and give them the sanction of
the society. As to the evil eye, as the evil result of envy and of
prosperity, it is an _a posteriori_ inference from observed facts,
exaggerated into a dogma. Cases of disaster in the hour of triumph
occur, both as consequences of overweening self-confidence and by pure
chance (Cæsar, Cæsar Borgia, Napoleon). The aleatory interest always
averages up, but the successful, who have enjoyed good fortune for a
time, believe that it must last for them, and forget that the balance
requires bad luck. The lookers-on, however, form their philosophy from
what they see. They believe in Nemesis, or other doctrine of offsets,
and try by vituperation to make artificial offsets which will avert
greater and more real calamities. In all steps of these doctrines and
acts the mores are called into play. They are the only limits to the
applications of the doctrines. They are of little use. They are afloat
in and with the faiths and doctrines. They never can make definitions or
set limits. They only enthuse customs, which may change from day to day
in their definitions and limits and carry the mores with them. No doubt
primitive religion here had excellent effect, for as it arose out of
demonism it brought in authority and fixed dogma, which, although
erroneous and in itself bad, was a great deal better than the floating
superstitions of demonism.
[1767] Levit. xii.
[1768] _Ibid._, xiii, xiv, xv.
[1769] Schomburgk, _Brit. Guiana_, II, 316.
[1770] _Globus_, LXXXI, 337.
[1771] Sibree, _Great Afr. Island_, 290.
[1772] Ellis, _Tshi-speaking Peoples_, 94.
[1773] Ellis, _Ewe-speaking Peoples_, 153.
[1774] Fritsch, _Eingeb. Süd-Afr._, 201.
[1775] Powers, _Calif. Indians_, 31.
[1776] Gehring, _Süd-Indien_, 96.
[1777] Pliny, _Hist. Nat._, VII, 64.
[1778] W. R. Smith, _Relig. of the Semites_, 448.
[1779] _Ibid._, 133.
[1780] _Bur. Eth._, XVIII, Part I, 371.
[1781] _U. S. Nat. Mus._, 1895, 393.
[1782] Darmsteter, _Zend-Avesta_, I, xxxiv.
[1783] Darmsteter, _Zend-Avesta_, xcii.
[1784] Geiger, _Ostiran. Kultur_, 236, 259.
[1785] Levit. v. 2; xi. 26.
[1786] _Ibid._ xii.
[1787] _Ibid._ x. 10; xi. 47
[1788] Isaiah. vi. 5; Ezek. xxxiii. 17.
[1789] Levit. xi.
[1790] _Ibid._ xiv, xv.
[1791] Rohde, _Psyche_, II, 72.
[1792] Guhl und Koner, _Leben der Griechen und Römer_, 367.
[1793] Maurer, _Völkerkunde, Bibel, und Christenthum_, I, 105.
[1794] _Bur. Ethnol._, XVIII, Part I, 371.
[1795] Hastings, _Dict. Bible_, "Relig. of Israel."
[1796] Levit., xvi. 4, 24.
[1797] Bousset, _Relig. des Judenthums_, 124.
[1798] Sibree, _Great Afr. Island_, 167.
[1799] Nachtigal, _Sahara und Sudan_, I, 607.
[1800] _Heart of Africa_, II, 406.
[1801] _Ibid._, I, 157.
[1802] Junker, _Afrika_, I, 69.
[1803] _Globus_, LXXV, 19.
[1804] _Ibid._, LXXII, 164.
[1805] Kubary, _Karolinenarchipel._, 292.
[1806] JASB, IV, 63.
[1807] _Ibid._, II, 598.
[1808] Paulitschke, _Ethnog. N.O. Afr._, II, 140.
[1809] Hanoteau et Letourneux, _La Kabylie_, II, 219.
[1810] JASB, II, 170.
[1811] _Ibid._, I, 120.
[1812] _Ibid._
[1813] Wilken in _Bijdragen tot T. L. en V.-kunde_, XXXV, 399.
[1814] _Jewish Encyc._, s.v. "Evil Eye."
[1815] Monier-Williams, _Brahmanism and Hinduism_, 254.
[1816] _Ibid._, 371.
[1817] Lane, _Arabian Nights_, I, 67.
[1818] W. R. Smith, _Relig. of the Semites_, 448.
[1819] Von Kremer, _Kulturgesch. des Orients_, II, 212, 253.
[1820] Pischon, _Einfluss des Islam_, 110.
[1821] _Globus_, LXXV, 193.
[1822] Keller, _Hom. Soc._, 114.
[1823] _Symposium_, V, 9.
[1824] Smith, _Antiq._, I, 839; II, 831.
[1825] Lane, _Mod. Egypt._, I, 77.
[1826] _Ibid._, 384
[1827] _Ibid._, 385.
[1828] _Ibid._, 381.
[1829] _Globus_, LXXXIII, 316.
[1830] Williams, _Middle Kingdom_, I, 797.
[1831] Krauss, _Volksglaube der Südslaven_, 41-43.
[1832] Temesvary, _Aberglaube in der Geburtshilfe_, 75.
[1833] _Bur. Ethnol._, III, 297.