celestial globe on which appears the following legend, "Faciebant Gemma
Frisius medicus ac mathematicus, Gaspar a Myrica & Gerardus Mercator
Rupelmundanus anno a partu virgineo 1537." "Gemma Frisius physician and
mathematician, Gaspar Myrica and Gerhard Mercator of Rupelmunde made
this globe in the year 1537." A comparison of this legend with that of
the terrestrial globe leads to the somewhat ingenious argument that the
latter, though undated, is the older of the two. We know that Mercator
was a pupil of Gemma Frisius,[221] and that after leaving his university
studies he found employment with the master in draughting maps and in
the construction of mathematical instruments. In the dated legend of
1537 Mercator and Myrica appear to have advanced in importance, seeing
that in the undated legend they are merely referred to as the engravers,
while Frisius alone is mentioned as the maker of the map. Since this
discovery we are better informed as to the source of Mercator's
information which he gives in his map of 1538; the evidence being
conclusive that in the main he followed the records of Frisius, adapting
his map, however, to the double cordiform projection.[222]
Harrisse describes a gilded copper globe, belonging to the collection of
the Bibliothèque Nationale, having a diameter of 14 cm. and bearing the
author and date legend reading "Robertus de Bailly 1530."[223] It is
composed of two parts rather insecurely joined on the line of the
equator, and is entirely without mountings. The engraving of the names,
all in small capitals, has been remarkably well done. In outlining the
contour of the New World the draughtsman of the map has been influenced
by the Verrazanian data, and although exhibiting minor differences in
details there is a striking resemblance to the map of Maiollo of
1527,[224] to that of Verrazano of 1529,[225] and to that of Ulpius of
1541.[226] The region called by Maiollo "Francesca," by Verrazano
"Verrazana sive Gallia nova," by Ulpius "Verrazana sive Nova Gallia,"
Robertus calls "Verrazana." In addition we find such names as "TERRA
LABORATORIS," "BACHALIAO," "LA FLORIDA," "TENUSTITAN," "PARIAS," "MUNDUS
NOVUS," "AMERICA," "ST. CRUSIS," "TERRA MAGELLANICA."
A second globe by Robertus de Bailly may be found in the library of Mr.
J. P. Morgan of New York City (Fig. 52). This example, signed and dated
"Robertus de Bailly 1530," and acquired a few years since, may be
counted one of the finest metal globes of the period. None can be
referred to which is in a better state of preservation, if we can accept
its mounting as the original.[227] In Rosenthal's catalogue No. 100 it
is referred to as a "Verrazzano-Globus," which is clearly an error, if
there was thought of ascribing it to Giovanni Verrazano, the explorer,
or to his brother Hieronimus, the chart maker. The outlines of its map
of the New World are clearly of Verrazanian origin (Fig. 53), which
therefore give to it a particular interest and value.
[Illustration: Fig. 52. Terrestrial Globe of Robertas de Bailly, 1530.
Nine of twelve gores exhibiting the map.]
[Illustration: Fig. 53. Terrestrial Globe of Robertus de Bailly, 1530.]
Harrisse, in 1896, called attention to his discovery of two globes
apparently of the early fourth decade of the sixteenth century.
The first of these he refers to as a gilded copper sphere about 12 cm.
in diameter, and fashioned to contain the mechanism by means of which it
is made to revolve. It is neither signed nor dated. At the extremity of
the rod passing through the sphere is an arrangement apparently for
attachment to a second piece of mechanism, probably a planetarium. It is
surrounded by a disc on which the hours are engraved in Roman numerals.
The geographical outlines are clearly of Verrazanian origin,
representing the New World relatively long and narrow and having no
Asiatic connection. With few exceptions the nomenclature is in the Latin
language, but we read for instance "El pasaie de S. Michel" and "Rio de
las Amazonas". The name "America" appears only on the southern continent,
where we also find such legends as "Francisi Pizarri hoc m(onticu?) lo
contra indos insignis victoria anno 1533," and off the coast of Peru
"Ulterius incognitum."
The second of these globes is likewise of copper, having a diameter of
21 cm. and carries the inscription "Christoff Schiepp sculpsit.
Augusta," which is placed around a cartouch especially designed for a
representation of the coat of arms of the Welser family. This family, it
will be remembered, figured conspicuously in connection with the German
attempt at the colonization of Venezuela. The engraved title of the map
is practically the same as that to be found on the Paris gilt globe and
reads "Nova et integra universi orbis descriptio." It omits, however,
the legend "Francesca" and "Verrazana sive nova Gallia," which fact may
be due to its German origin. The nomenclature in Mexico and in South
America is very detailed. The La Plata River, for example, as in the
Gilt globe and in the Wooden globe, is called "Sinus Juliani"; the
Pacific is called "Oceanus Magnus Gelanicus." The austral land is
referred to as "Terra australis nuper inventa, sed nondum plene
examinata."
While the first of these globes is unmounted, Scheipp's globe is
furnished with gilded meridian and horizon circle, the whole being
supported by a dolphin on a plinth of ebony.
In the year 1533 Johann Schöner issued a small tract bearing the title
'Joannis Schoneri Carolostadii Opusculum Geographicum ex diversorum
libris ac cartis summa cura & diligentia collectum, accomodatum ad
recenter elaboratum ab eodem globum descriptiones terrenae.' 'A
geographical tract of John Schöner of Carlstadt, extracted from various
books and maps with much care and diligence and arranged for a recently
elaborated globe, being a description of the earth.'[228] This little
book was dedicated to John Frederick of Saxony "Ex urbe Norica Id.
Novembris Anno MDXXXIII." To it more than usual interest attaches. As
the title states, it was issued as an explanatory text for a new
globe,[229] while in referring to the geography of the New World it
clearly sets forth a reason for the changed notion concerning that
geography, to which allusion has already been made,[230] a change from a
belief in the independent position of the new lands to a belief that
these lands were but a part of the continent of Asia. With reference to
this point Schöner says, "Unde longissimo tractu occidentem versus ab
Hispani terra est, quae Mexico et Temistitan vocatur superiori India,
quam priores vocavere Quinsay id est civitatem coeli eorum lingui." "By
a very long circuit westward, starting from Spain, there is a land
called Mexico and Temistitan in Upper India, which in former times was
called Quinsay, that is the city of Heaven, in the language of the
country." He adds the statement, "Americus tamen Vesputius maritima loca
Indiae superioris ex Hispaniis navigio ad occidentem palustrans, eam
partem que superiore Indiae est, credidit esse insulam, quam a suo
nomine vocari institituit. Alii vero nunc recentiores Hydrographi eam
terram ulterius ex alia parte invenerunt esse continentem Asiae nam sic
etiam ad Moluccas insulas superioris Indiae pervenerunt." "Americus
Vespuccius, sailing along the coasts of Upper India, from Spain to the
west, thought that the said part which is connected with Upper India,
was an island which he had caused to be called after his own name. But
now other hydrographers of more recent date have found that that land
(South America) and others beyond constitute a continent, which is Asia,
and so they reached as far as the Molucca Islands in Upper India." A
later passage in this tract is likewise interesting in this connection.
After noting that America had been called the fourth part of the world
he adds, "Modo vero per novissimas navigationes, factas anno post
Christum 1519 per Magellanum ducem navium invictissimi Caesaris divi
Caroli etc. versus Moluccas insulas, quas alii Moluquas vocant, in
supremo oriente positas, eam terram invenerunt esse continentem
superioris Indiae, quae pars est Asiae." "But very lately, thanks to the
very recent navigations accomplished in the year 1519 A. C. by Magellan,
the commander of the expedition of the invincible, the divine Charles
etc. towards the Molucca Islands, which some call Maluquas which are
situated in the extreme east, it has been ascertained that the said
country (America) was the continent of Upper India, which is a part of
Asia."
It seems very probable that the globe referred to in this tract is one
of those (Figs. 54, 54a), bearing neither date nor name of maker, to be
found in the Grand Ducal Library of Weimar.[231] This conclusion, it may
be stated, is based upon the fact of a striking agreement between the
configurations on the globe and the descriptions to be found in
Schöner's tract. The date 1534, which appears on the support, is
doubtless of later origin than the globe itself, just as the date 1510
inscribed on the horizon circle of the Behaim globe is known not to
indicate the year in which that work was completed. Wieser expresses the
conviction that this globe is an improved reproduction of the one
constructed in the year 1523, and he notes the interesting fact of its
configurations resembling closely those of the Orontius Finaeus map of
1531, believing that it was the latter, however, who was the borrower.
[Illustration: Fig. 54. Schöner's Terrestrial Globe, 1533 (Probable).]
[Illustration: Fig. 54a. Schöner's Celestial Globe, 1533 (Probable).]
The Schiepp globe, referred to above, appears to have been constructed
for a member of the Welser family, a rich patrician of South Germany. To
Raymond Fugger, likewise a South German patrician, a member of a rich
banker family of Augsburg, one Martin Furtembach dedicated a terrestrial
globe which he had constructed in the year 1535.[232] This date and the
wording of the dedication we get from a record of the year 1565. "Viro
Magnifico Dn. Raymundo Fuggero, Invictissimorum Caroli V. Imperatoris,
Ferdinandi primi Regis Romanorum a Consilijs, prudentissimo,
studiosorum Mecaenasi, pauperum Christi asylo cantatissimo, Martinus
Furtenbachius Abusiacus, Astrophilus typum hunc Cosmographicum
universalem composuit atque dedicavit Anno a nato Christo M.D.XXXV." "To
the Magnificent Dn. Raymond Fugger, most competent counselor of the most
invincible Prince Charles V Emperor, and Ferdinand the First King of the
Romans, a Maecenas of scholars, a most provident supporter of the poor
in Christ, Martin Furtembach lover of astronomy, composed and dedicated
this universal cosmographical figure, in the year of Christ 1535." This
globe, which we learn was taken from the Fugger castle of Kirchbay to
the Vienna Imperial Library, in what year we do not know, seems to have
disappeared some time after 1734, since, as Harrisse notes, no reference
to it can be found after that date. It is described as a gilt copper
ball of large size and an object of real art, being "ornamented on all
sides with various figures of exquisite engraving, and is supported by a
figure of Atlas with his right hand holding a compass, but with the rest
of his body supported by his left hand, in a stooping posture."
In addition to the globes previously referred to as belonging to the
Bibliothèque Nationale, there is one supposed to have been constructed
about the year 1535. It is neither signed nor dated, but is usually
referred to as the Paris Wooden globe.[233] The diameter of the sphere
is 20 cm. It is without the usual mountings of meridian and horizon
circles but is supported by an iron rod attached to a wooden base (Fig.
55), which rod serves as an axis about which it may be revolved. A thick
layer of paint covers the surface of the ball, on which the geographical
names, legends, and configurations have been inscribed with a pen in a
running hand. The poor calligraphy suggests that it is not the work of
an expert cartographer, but of one who somewhat hastily and carelessly
had undertaken to copy a globe map of the type represented in the work
of Franciscus, of the maker of the Paris Gilt globe, or of Schöner in
his globe of 1533. Meridians are represented at intervals of ten
degrees commencing at a prime meridian which passes through the Cape
Verde Islands, while the parallels are similarly marked, the graduation
being indicated on the prime meridian. The globe maker has retained in
his representations the old climatic idea, of which climates there are
nine specifically designated. We find on this globe such inscriptions as
"Baccalarum Regio," with its neighboring "Pelagus Baccalarum," "Terra
Francesca," "Hispania Major," "Terra Florida," with the Gulf of Mexico
bearing the name "M. Cathayum" as in the Nancy globe. The South American
continent is conspicuously marked as "America Nova Orbis Pars," and
contains in addition many regional names. The western ocean, beginning
with that part which washes the coast of Mexico, thence southward, is
called "Mare di Sur," "Mare Culuacanum," "Mare Indicum Australe," "Mare
Pacificum," and "Oceanus Magellanicus." The location of the colony which
was planted by Pizarro in 1532, and which is called "S. Michaelis," is
made prominent.
[Illustration: Fig. 55. Paris Wooden Globe, 1535.]
Caspar Vopel,[234] born at Medebach near Cologne, in the year 1511, was
of that group of German cartographers and globe makers active in the
second quarter of the sixteenth century in giving to the general public
a knowledge of the great geographical discoveries of the day. Though
much of the information through the maps which they constructed was
strikingly inaccurate, their work is none the less interesting to the
student of historical geography. It appears that Vopel entered the
University of Cologne in the year 1526, that at a later date he became a
professor of mathematics in a Cologne gymnasium, and that he continued
to reside in this city until his death in the year 1561. During these
years he became well known as a maker of maps and globes. Of his very
large and important world map, issued in the year 1558, and which so
admirably sets forth his geographical notion of an Asiatic connection of
the New World, an original copy may be found in the collection of
Prince Liechtenstein, which is reproduced, after Giriva's redraughting,
in Nordenskiöld's 'Facsimile Atlas.'[235] In the history of cartography
his map of Europe and his Rhine map especially merit a place of
prominence.
Nine of his globes are known, most of which are constructed as armillary
spheres, having within the numerous armillae or circles a small
terrestrial globe, or at least that which passes as a representation of
the same. His first work of which we have knowledge, now belonging to
the city of Cologne, and to be found in the collection of its archives,
is inscribed "Caspar Medebach opus hoc astronomicum fecit 1532 Martii."
It is a credit to the youthful artist and cosmographer, suggesting, says
Korth,[236] the possession of a technic resembling that of Dürer. This
is a celestial globe 28 cm. in diameter, having its star map drawn by
hand, which is now somewhat discolored with age.
Four years later Vopel constructed a second celestial globe, apparently
a reproduction of the first but having its map printed on gores which he
pasted on the surface of the sphere. It bears the inscription "Caspar
Vopel, Medebach, hanc Cosmogr. faciebat sphaeram Coloniae Ao 1536," has
the same diameter as the one of 1532, and is now its companion in the
city archives of Cologne.[237]
The National Museum of Washington possesses a fine example of Vopel's
work (Fig. 9), concerning which Mr. Maynard, curator of Mechanical
Technology, writes that "the globe in this Museum is an armillary sphere
of eleven metal rings, 4½ inches in diameter, with a very small globe
in the center. The rings are elaborately inscribed with astronomical
signs and scales, with names in Latin. On one of the rings is the
inscription, 'Caspar Vopel, Artium Professor, Hanc Sphaeram Faciebat
Colonia, 1541.'"[238]
In 1542 he constructed his first terrestrial globe, a copy of which is
to be found in the Cologne archives.[239] It has a diameter of 28 cm.,
its map gores, as in the case of the celestial globe of 1536, being
printed from an engraved plate. Excepting the discoloration of age and a
slight indentation near the north pole, it is well preserved. The title
legend reads "Nova et integra universi orbis descriptio." "A new and
complete description of the entire globe." A second legend, placed in
the middle Atlantic, reads "Caspar Vopel Medebach geographicam sphaeram
hanc faciebat Coloniae A. 1542." "Caspar Vopel of Medebach made this
globe in 1542 at Cologne." His terrestrial map assures us of his
acceptance of the idea that the American continent could be but an
extension of the continent of Asia; that is, like his predecessor
Schöner and others of the second quarter of the sixteenth century,
referred to above, he had concluded after Magellan had found a
termination of the newly found transatlantic region at the south, and no
passageway from the Atlantic to the Pacific north of the equator had
been found though search had frequently been made for the same, this
country could therefore no longer be considered as an independent
continent. The river "Cham," which on his map he made to empty into the
Gulf of Mexico, he gives as the dividing line between "Hispania Nova"
and "Cathay." There is striking evidence that Vopel was acquainted with
Orontius Finaeus' map of 1531 or its source, as, for example, he writes
across the great austral continent, "Terra Australis recenter inventa,
sed nondum plene cognita," adding the words "Anno 1499," which also
appear on the Paris Wooden globe of 1535.
In the Old Nordiske Museum of Copenhagen is an armillary sphere of
Vopel, composed of eleven brass rings representing the equator, the
ecliptic, the tropics, the polar circles, etc., within which is a small
terrestrial globe, on the surface of which is a manuscript world map.
Quad refers to this globe in the following words: "Item ein Astrolabium
novum varium ac plenum das auff alle Landschafften (kann) dirigiert
werden beide den Mathematicis unnd Medicis sehr nutz, in funffzehen
Stöck und auff acht bogen gedruckt, darunder auch ein kleine artige
Mappa Mundi ins runde gelegt ist."[240]
On the circle representing the Tropic of Cancer is engraved the legend
"Caspar Vopell Medebach hanc sphaeram faciebat Coloniae 1543." "Caspar
Vopel of Medebach made this globe in Cologne in the year 1543." On the
bottom of the box in which the globe is kept is a modern label reading
"Nocolaus Copernicus 1543 ... ty ... Brah." Copernicus died in the year
designated, and Tycho Brahe was born in the year 1546. It appears,
therefore, that this globe once belonged to the great Danish astronomer.
In the Library of Congress, acquired from L. Friedrichsen of Hamburg, is
a fine example of the work of Vopel.[241] This armillary sphere of
eleven rings, encircling a terrestrial globe 7.2 cm. in diameter, is
mounted on a copper base. On the circle representing the Tropic of
Cancer is the inscription "Caspar Vopel arti[=v] profes. hanc sphaeram
faciebat Coloniae 1543." "Caspar Vopel professor of arts made this globe
in Cologne in the year 1543," while on the remaining circles are
engraved numerous cosmographical signs and names. The terrestrial globe
is covered with a manuscript map in colors, and bears the title legend
"Nova ac generalis orbis descriptio," and the author legend "Caspar
Vopel mathe. faciebat." Most of the regional names on the map are in
red, and a red dot is employed to indicate the location of certain
important cities, the names in general being omitted. The globe is
remarkably well preserved (Fig. 56).
[Illustration: Fig. 56. Vopel Globe, 1543.]
[Illustration: Fig. 56a. Western Hemisphere of Vopel Terrestrial Globe.]
In the collection of Jodoco del Badia, state archivist of Florence, is a
Vopel armillary sphere of the year 1544.[242] The engraved inscription
on the Tropic of Cancer reads "Caspar Vopel Me. Matem. hanc sphaeram
faciebat coloniae 1544." Within the eleven armillae is a very small
wooden sphere intended to represent a terrestrial globe of wood, about 3
cm. in diameter, on which the equator and the tropics are represented,
but no geographical details of any value appear because of the small
size of the ball.
A Vopel armillary sphere, apparently like the preceding, bearing the
same date and legends, is reported as belonging to the city museum of
Salzburg.[243]
A somewhat detailed description, by J. H. Graf, of a Vopel armillary
sphere in the possession of the Herr Forstinspector Frey of Bern,
appeared in the year 1894, in the Jahresbericht of the Geographical
Society of Munich.[244] It is composed of twelve instead of eleven
armillae, and at the common center is a small terrestrial ball. The
inscriptions appearing on each of the several rings are given by Graf,
and the work of Vopel is compared with that of other map makers of the
time. On circle 3, for example, counting from the outermost, is a
citation from Ovid (Amores I. 6. 59), "Night, love, and wine are not
counselors of moderation." On circle 5, which represents the Tropic of
Cancer, is the author and date legend, reading "Caspar Vopellius Mathe.
Profes. hanc sphaeram faciebat Coloniae 1545." On circle 7 we read "Fate
rules the world, all stands secure according to unchangeable law, and
the long lapse of time is marked by certain course." On one of the
circles movable about the pole of the ecliptic is the inscription "The
sun, called Helios, moves through the entire circle of the zodiac in 365
days and about 6 hours." Graf notes the striking similarity of this
sphere to that belonging to the Old Nordiske Museum of Copenhagen, and
adds to his paper a reproduction of the terrestrial globe map in plane
projection.[245] The feature common to all of the Vopel maps, viz., the
connection of the New and the Old Worlds, is particularly emphasized.
The name "America" appears only on South America, and rightly so, if at
all, in keeping with his geographical ideas.
Günther reports that there may be found in the Hof- und Staatsbibliothek
of Munich (Sig. Math. A 41, fol.), a volume of drawings and engravings
once belonging to the Nürnberg mathematician, George Hartmann.[246] In
this collection there are two sets of celestial globe gores, the one
containing nine, originally ten parts, dated February, 1535, the other
containing ten undated parts. It is thought by Günther that we have
here, in all probability, the earliest example of engraved celestial
globe gores, a second example in date being that by Vopel of 1536, and
referred to above.
In the year 1859 Mr. Buckingham Smith obtained in the city of Madrid an
engraved copper globe of striking scientific value and interest. On the
death of Mr. Smith this globe, now known as the Ulpius globe (Fig. 57),
was purchased by Mr. John David Wolf and later was presented to the
Library of the New York Historical Society, where it may now be found
among that society's rich collection of historical treasures.[247] It is
of large size, having a diameter of 39 cm., rests upon an oak base, and
measuring from the bottom of the base to the top of the iron cross which
tips the north polar axis, its entire height is 111 cm. The hollow
hemispheres of which the ball is composed are made to join at the line
of the equator, the parts being held together by iron pins. In addition
to its copper equatorial circle, which is neatly graduated and engraved
with signs of the zodiac, it has a meridian and an hour circle of brass.
On the surface of the globe itself the principal parallels are drawn,
and meridians at intervals of thirty degrees, the line of the ecliptic
being very prominent, and the boundary line proposed by Pope Alexander
VI, marking a terminus for the claims of Spain and Portugal to newly
discovered regions, is strikingly conspicuous, with its legend reaching
from pole to pole, "Terminus Hispanis et Lusitanis ab Alexandro VI P. M.
assignatus."[248] "Limit to Spain and Portugal set by Pope Alexander
VI."
[Illustration: Fig. 57. Terrestrial Globe of Euphrosynus Ulpius, 1541.]
That a globe of such large dimensions, and of date so early, should come
down to our day scarcely injured in the slightest degree, is a source of
much delight to students of early cartography and of early discovery and
exploration.
In a neat cartouch we read the following inscription: "Regiones orbis
terrae quae aut aveterib traditae aut nostra patr[=u]q memoria compertae
sint. Euphrosynus Ulpius describebat anno salutis M.D.XLII." "Regions of
the terrestrial globe which are handed down by the ancients or have been
discovered in our memory or that of our fathers. Delineated by
Euphrosynus Ulpius in the year of salvation 1542." The work is dedicated
to "Marcello Cervino S. R. E. Presbitero Cardinali D. D. Rome,"
"Marcellus Cervino, Cardinal Presbyter and Doctor of Divinity of the
Holy Roman Church, Rome,"[249] the dedication being inscribed in a
cartouch ornamented with wheat or barley heads, a device to be found in
the coat of arms of the Cervino family, and with the deer which may be
taken as an allusion to the name.
Not the least interesting feature of its geographical record in the New
World is that wherein testimony is given to the voyage of Verrazano in
the year 1524. The outline of the North American continent is strikingly
like that given in the Verrazano map of 1529 (Fig. 58), showing an
isthmus in the vicinity of Chesapeake Bay, beyond which stretches a
great unnamed sea to the west, called in some of the early maps the Sea
of Verrazano. Ulpius attests the discovery in the following legend,
"Verrazana sive Nova Gallia a Verrazano Florentino comperta anno Sal.
M.D." "Verrazana or New France discovered by Verrazano a Florentine in
the year of salvation 1500." The date in this legend is taken to be an
incomplete rather than an erroneous record, the correct date being
obtainable from the following legend appearing on the map of Hieronimus
Verrazano, brother of the explorer, "Verrazana sive nova gallia quale
discopri 5 anni fa giovanni di verrazano fiorentino per ordine et
commandamento del Christianissimo re di francia." "Verrazana or New
France discovered five years since by Giovanni Verrazano a Florentine by
order and command of the Most Christian King of France."[250] Ulpius
must have made use of this Verrazano map in drawing the outline of
North America, though he did not copy slavishly, as we find that he
greatly improved on that map in the trend he has given the Atlantic
coast line of North America, and in the numerous details he has
inscribed. In very many of the Atlantic coast names, however, there is a
practical agreement between those on the globe and those on the map.
[Illustration: Fig. 58. Western Hemisphere of Ulpius Globe, 1541.]
To the continent of South America is given both the name "America" and
"Mundus Novus," while numerous provincial names appear, as "Peru,"
"Bresilia," "Terra de giganti." The land areas of both the New and the
Old World are liberally ornamented with representations of the local
animal life, the traditional belief in the existence of cannibals in
Mundus Novus being especially prominent. The oceans are made to abound
in sea monsters, and vessels sail hither and thither over the courses
then followed by navigators. Though South America has the entire coast
line represented, that section stretching southward from Peru is marked
as "terra incognita." Separated from the mainland by the Strait of
Magellan, marked by the legend, "initium freti magellanici," is an
extensive land area, that part lying to the southwest of the strait
being called "Regio Patalis," that to the southeast as "Terra Australis
adhuc incomperta," while from this particular region there stretches
away to the east, as far as the meridian passing through the southern
point of Africa, a peninsula across which is the legend "Lusitani ultra
promotorium bone spei i Calicutium tendentes hanc terra viderut, veru
non accesserunt, quamobrem neq nos certi quidq[z] afferre potuimus." "The
Portuguese sailing beyond the Cape of Good Hope to Calicut, saw this
land but did not reach it, wherefore neither have we been able to assert
anything with certainty concerning it."
In the main Ptolemy served as a source of information for the regions of
the East, although much of the information which the earlier years of
the century had contributed to a knowledge of that far-away country is
recorded.
The large size of the globe gave opportunity for the inscription of
numerous geographical details, and of this opportunity the engraver
fully availed himself. It may well be referred to as one of the most
interesting of the early globes, and its map records as possessing great
scientific value.
Tiraboschi alludes to a globe possessed by Cardinal Pietro Bembo
(1470-1547), citing a letter written by Giacomo Faletti at Venice, June
3, 1561, to Alfonso II D'Este of Ferrara, in which mention is made of
the same. "I have bought," says Faletti, "the globe of Cardinal Bembo
for fifteen scudi which is the price of the metal composing it, and I
have given it out to be decorated hoping to make of it the most
beautiful globe which is possessed by any Prince in the world. It will
cost altogether 25 scudi."[251] This globe must have been made before
the year 1547, in which year occurred the death of the cardinal. Fiorini
expresses the opinion that it probably was owned by him while making his
residence at Padua, when, free from care, he was giving himself to study
and to the collection of scientific and artistic objects.[252]
One of Spain's distinguished chart makers of the middle of the sixteenth
century was Alonso de Santa Cruz (1500-1572).[253] Although but few of
his cartographical productions are known, there is to be found in the
survivals abundant evidence of his marked ability. We learn concerning
him that by royal order of July 7, 1536, he was created cosmographer of
the Casa de Contratacion at a salary of 30,000 maravedis, that in this
capacity it was his duty to examine and pass upon sailing charts, that
shortly after the above-named date he became Cosmografo Major, and that
some time before his death, which occurred in the year 1572, Philip II
appointed him to the office of Royal Historian.[254] His best-known work
is his 'Yslario general del mondo,' of which three signed manuscript
copies are known, no one of which, however, appears to be complete. Two
of these copies are to be found in the Royal Library of Vienna;[255] the
third, now belonging to the City Library of Besançon, was at one time in
the possession of Cardinal Granvella.[256] The National Library of
Madrid possesses a fine manuscript atlas, which has been generally
attributed to Garcia Cespedes, since his name appears on the
frontispiece, but which now is thought by those who have most carefully
examined it to be the work of Santa Cruz. There are evidences that it
has been somewhat altered in parts, which alterations may have been the
work of Cespedes.[257]
In addition to his 'Yslario' we still have his remarkable map of the
city of Mexico, belonging to the University Library of Upsala,[258] and
one copy of his world map in gores (Fig. 59), preserved in the Royal
Library of Stockholm. It is this last-named map which especially
interests us here.[259]
[Illustration: Fig. 59. Gore Map of Alonso de Santa Cruz, 1542.]
Though the form of the map suggests that it had been the author's
intention to paste it on the surface of a prepared sphere, there appears
to be good reason for thinking that this particular copy was not
intended to serve him in a terrestrial globe construction. It is
surrounded with an ornamental border finely executed in gold and white,
and stretching across the top is a waving scroll in which has been
written the inscription "Nova verior et integra totius orbis descriptio
nunc primum in lucem edita per Alfonsum de Sancta Cruz Caesaris Charoli
V. archicosmographum. A.D. M.D.XLII." "A very new and complete
description of the whole world now first prepared by Alfonso de Santa
Cruz Cosmographer Major of the Emperor Charles V. 1542." The original
map is drawn on three connected sheets of parchment, as Dahlgren states
in his excellent monograph, the total dimensions of which are 79 by 144
cm. In the lower corner on the left is the dedication: "Potentiss. Caes.
Carlo V. Usi sumus et hic ad terrae, marisque simul, demonstractionem,
sectione alia, Augustiss. Caesar, per equinotialem lineam Polum quemque,
dividui ipsius globi, singula medietas obtinens, depressoque utroque in
planum Polo, equinotialem ipsam secantes, rationem prospectivam
servavimus, quemadmodum et in alia, veluti solutis Polis, itidem in
planum discisis meridianis propalavimus, neque pretermissis hic
longitudinum latitudinumque graduum parallelorum climatumque
dimensionibus. Vale." "O powerful Caesar! we have, here also in this map
of land and sea, made use of a new division of the globe; namely, at the
equator, so that each half of the globe thus divided has one of the
poles as its center. By depressing the pole to the plane of the equator
and by making incisions from the equator to the pole, we have made a
projection similar to that presented to the public on the other map with
detached poles and with the meridians separated on the same plane,
without disregarding the correct dimensions of the longitude, latitudes,
degrees, parallels, and climates. Farewell."
The map represents the world in two hemispheres, a northern and a
southern, each drawn on thirty-six half gores or sectors. The following
appears to have been the method of construction. With the poles as
centers, and with a radius equal to one fourth of the length of a
meridian circle of the globe he drew his large circle or circles
representing the equator and forming the bases of each of the half
gores. Each of the large or equatorial circles he divided into
thirty-six equal arcs, and from the points establishing such divisions
he drew a meridian line extending in each hemisphere to the pole or
center of his circle. These meridian lines were graduated and lines or
arcs representing parallels of latitude were drawn intersecting them at
intervals of ten degrees, having the pole as the common center in each
hemisphere. Marking off on each of these parallels or arcs both to right
and left a distance representing five degrees of the earth's longitude,
he thus established the points through which to draw his meridians which
marked the boundaries of each sector, leaving between the sectors equal
spaces to be cut away should the sectors be used for pasting on the
surface of a sphere. Every fifth meridian and every tenth parallel is
drawn in black; the equator, the tropics, the polar circles, and the
prime meridian are gilded. The prime meridian runs somewhat to the west
of the Island of Fayal. At longitude 20 degrees west is the papal line
of demarcation which is called "Meridianus particionis," crossing South
America south of the mouth of the Amazon. On the one side of this line
in the southern hemisphere appears the flag of Spain, on the other that
of Portugal, thus designating specifically the "Hemisperium Regis
Castelle," and the "Hemisperium Regis Portugalie." California is
referred to as "y^a [=q] descubrio el marq's del valle," "island
discovered by the Marquis del Valle," and the coast north of this point
is called "te[=r]a [=q] cnbio(?) a descubrio d[=e] ant^o d' m[=e]doca,"
"land to discover which Don Antonio de Mendoza sent out an expedition."
In drawing the outlines of his continents he seems to have made use of
the best available sources. The New World follows the Sevillan type, as
represented in the Ribeiro maps, particularly the eastern or Atlantic
coast regions, including, though in somewhat abbreviated form, the
references to Gomez, Ayllon, and Narvaez. There is no distinct coast
line north of California, which line follows the meridian of 105 degrees
as far north as the Arctic circle, hence there is no positive
representation of an Asiatic connection, but rather the indication of a
doubt, as was indicated on maps of the type.
If Santa Cruz intended his peculiar gores to serve in the construction
of a terrestrial globe, we cannot find that he impressed his method on
the globe makers of the period. We seem to have but one striking
imitation of his work, viz., in the gore map of Florianas, to which
reference is made below.[260]
To that striking feature of many of the globe maps of the second quarter
of the sixteenth century, in which an Asiatic connection of the New
World is represented, attention has been called in the preceding pages;
there likewise has been noted the fact that not a few of the map makers
of the period expressed a certain degree of doubt as to whether the
prevailing idea of the first quarter of the century (that the lands
discovered in the west constituted a veritable New World) should be
given over, preferring to omit altogether the west and northwest coast
line of North America, or to make very indefinite allusion to the
geography of the region.
We now come to the consideration of a map and globe maker who carries us
back to the geographical notion of the earlier years of the century,
namely, to the idea that the New World was nothing less than an
independent continent. The activities of Gerhard Mercator (1512-1594)
(Fig. 60) were epoch making, and a reference to him more detailed than
has been accorded his predecessors is fitting.[261] He was a native of
Rupelmunde, a small town situated in the Pays de Waes in East
Flanders, not far from the city of Antwerp. His parents died while he
was still a mere lad, but in a great-uncle he found a faithful guardian
and a generous benefactor, who took care that his education should be
the best that was afforded by the schools of the Netherlands. In 1527,
at the age of fifteen, he entered the College of Bois-le-Duc in Brabant,
where he studied for three and one half years, and in 1530 he was
matriculated as a student in the University of Louvain, famous
throughout Europe at that early date as a center of learning.[262]
During his university career he appears to have given much thought to
the problems of science, including the "origin, nature, and destiny" of
the physical universe. While these studies did not bear directly upon
that branch of science in which he was to win for himself such marked
distinction in later years, they indicate the early existence of a
desire for knowledge scientific rather than for knowledge theological,
notwithstanding the fact that his guardian and patron was an
ecclesiastic.
[Illustration: Fig. 60. Portraits of Gerhard Mercator and Jodocus
Hondius.]
In Gemma Frisius, an eminent professor of mathematics in the University
of Louvain, and at one time a pupil of Apianus, he appears, as before
noted, to have found a sympathetic friend and counselor.[263] It
probably was Frisius who suggested a career for the young scientist,
since we find him, shortly after graduation, turning his attention to
the manufacture of mathematical instruments, to the drawing, engraving,
and coloring of maps and charts, wherein he found a vocation for the
remainder of his life. In 1537 his first publication, a map of
Palestine, appeared, to which he gave the title "Amplissima Terrae
Sanctae descriptio."[264] Immediately thereafter, at the instance of a
certain Flemish merchant, he undertook the preparation of a map of
Flanders, making for the same extensive original surveys. This map was
issued in the year 1540.[265] Mercator's first published map of the
world bears the date 1538. This map was drawn in the double cordiform
projection which seems first to have been employed by Orontius Finaeus
in his world map of 1531.[266] In this map Mercator departed from the
geographical notions generally entertained at this particular period
which made America an extension of Asia. He represented the continent of
Asia separated from the continent of America by a narrow sea, an idea
which increased in favor with geographers and cartographers long before
actual discovery proved this to be a fact. This map is one to which
great importance attaches, but it is not the first world map on which
there was an attempt to fasten the name America upon both the northern
and the southern continents of the New World, although it frequently has
been referred to as such; this honor, so far as we at present know,
belongs to a globe map referred to and briefly described above.[267] His
large map of Europe, the draughting of which appears to have claimed
much of his time for a number of years, was published in the year 1554,
and contributed greatly to his fame as a cartographer.[268] In 1564
appeared his large map of England,[269] and in the same year his map of
Lorraine based upon his own original surveys.[270] In the year 1569 a
master work was issued, this being his nautical chart, "ad usum
navigantium," as he said of it, based upon a new projection which he had
invented.[271] It is the original chart setting forth the Mercator
projection which is now so extensively employed in map making. In the
year 1578 he issued his revised edition of the so-called Ptolemy maps,
and eight years later these same maps again, revised with the complete
text of Ptolemy's work on geography. Mercator expressly stated it to be
his purpose, in this last work, not to revise the text in order to make
it conform to the most recent discoveries and geographical ideas, but
the rather to have a text conforming, as nearly as possible, to
Ptolemy's original work. This edition still ranks as one of the best
which has ever been issued. His great work, usually referred to as his
'Atlas of Modern Geography,' the first part of which appeared in 1585,
and a second part in 1590, was not completed during his lifetime,
though but four months after his death, in the year 1594, Rumold
Mercator published his father's collection of maps, adding a third part
to those which previously had been issued. It was this publication which
bore the title 'Atlas sive cosmographicae meditationes de fabrica mundi
et fabricati figura.' Apparently for the first time the term "atlas" had
here been employed for a collection of maps, a term which we know had
its origin with Gerhard Mercator himself. A reference to his general
cartographical work more detailed than the above cannot here find place.
It is his globes which call for special consideration.
There is reason for thinking it was Nicolás Perrenot, father of Cardinal
Granvella, who suggested to Mercator the construction of a globe; it at
least was to this great Prime Minister of the Emperor Charles V that he
dedicated his first work of this character, a terrestrial globe dated
1541.[272] That Mercator had constructed such a globe had long been
known through a reference in Ghymmius' biography, yet it had been
thought, until 1868, that none of the copies of this work had come down
to us. In that year there was offered for sale, in the city of Ghent,
the library of M. Benoni-Verelst and among its treasures was a copy of
Mercator's engraved globe gores of the year 1541, which were acquired by
the Royal Library of Brussels, where they may still be found. Soon
thereafter other copies of these gores, mounted and unmounted, came to
light in Paris, in Vienna, in Weimar, in Nürnberg, and later yet other
copies in Italy, until at present no less than twelve copies are known.
These gores were constructed to cover a sphere 41 cm. in diameter, and
the map represents the entire world, with its seas, its continents, and
its islands. The names of the various regions of the earth, of the
several empires, and of the oceans are inscribed in Roman capital
letters; the names of the kingdoms, of the provinces, of the rivers, are
inscribed in cursive Italic letters, while for the names of the several
peoples he employed a different form of letter. The gores, twelve in
number, were engraved and printed in groups of threes (Fig. 61), each
gore having an equatorial diameter of thirty degrees. Mercator worked
out mathematically the problem dealing with the proper relation of the
length of each of the gores to its width, or of its longer diameter to
its shorter, in his endeavor to devise a map as nearly perfect as
possible in shape for covering a ball, knowing full well the difficulty
of fitting a flat surface to one that is curved. Each of the gores he
truncated twenty degrees from the poles, and for the polar areas he
prepared a circular section drawn according to the rule applicable to an
equidistant polar projection. It appears, as before noted, that he was
the first to apply this method in globe construction.
[Illustration: Fig. 61. Six of Twelve Terrestrial Globe Gores by Gerhard
Mercator, 1541.]
The ecliptic, the tropics, and the polar circles are represented at
their proper intervals, with other parallels at intervals of ten
degrees, and meridians at intervals of fifteen degrees. As in his double
cordiform map of 1538, his prime meridian passes through the island of
"Forte Ventura," one of the Fortunate Islands of the ancients, but which
had long been known as the Canary Islands. To his globe map he added a
feature of special value to seamen. From the numerous compass or wind
roses, distributed with some regularity over its surface, he drew
loxodromic lines, or curved lines cutting the meridians at equal
angles.[273] This feature could not have failed to win the approval of
navigators, since they well knew that the previous attempts to represent
these rhumbs as straight lines on maps drawn on a cylindrical
projection, led to numerous errors in navigation. A second somewhat
curious and interesting feature of his globe, a feature which I do not
recall to have noticed in any other, is the representation in various
localities on land and on sea of certain stars, his idea being that he
could thus assist the traveler to orient himself at night. In his list
of stars on his globe map, we find, for example, "Sinister humerus
Boötes" near latitude 40 degrees north, longitude 210 degrees; "Corona
septentrionalis" near latitude 29 degrees north, longitude 227 degrees;
"Cauda Cygni" near latitude 44 degrees north, longitude 305 degrees;
"Humerus Pegasus" near latitude 12 degrees north, longitude 340 degrees;
"Crus Pegasi" near latitude 26 degrees north, longitude 339 degrees; six
of the important stars in "Ursa Major," including "Stella Polaris," and
in the present California, somewhat strangely prophetic, "Caput
Draconis."
On the ninth gore, counting from the prime meridian eastward, is a
legend giving the author's name, the date of issue, and a reference to
the publication privilege, reading "Edebat Gerardus Mercator
Rupelmundanus cum privilegio Ces Maiestatis ad an sex Lovanii an 1541."
"Published by Gerard Mercator of Rupelmunde under the patent of His
Imperial Majesty for six years at Louvain in the year 1541." In a
corresponding position on the seventh gore is the dedication "Illustris:
Dn[=o] Nicolao Perrenoto Domino à Granvella Sac. Caesaree Ma^{ti} à
consiliis primo dedecat[~u]." "Dedicated to the very distinguished
Seigneur Nicholás Perrenot, Seigneur de Granvella; first counselor of
His Imperial Majesty," over which is the coat of arms of the Prime
Minister. On gore six we read "Ubi & quibus argumentis Lector ab aliorum
descriverimus editione libellus noster indicabit." "Reader, where and in
what subjects we have copied from the publications of other men will be
pointed out in our booklet," in which there appears to be a reference to
an intended publication wherein his globe was to be described and its
uses indicated. No such work by Mercator is known to exist, although we
find that in the year 1552 he issued a small pamphlet bearing the title
'Declaratio insigniorum utilitatum quae sunt in globo terrestri,
caelesti et anulo astronomico. Ad invictissimum Romanum Imperatorus
Carolum Quintum.' 'A presentation of the particular advantages of the
terrestrial, celestial, and armillary spheres. Dedicated to the
invincible Roman Emperor Charles Fifth.'[274]
He tells us in one of his legends how to find the distance between two
places represented on the globe, observing, "Si quorum voles locor[=u]
distanti[=a] cognoscere ... tr[=a]sferto, hic tibi, [=q] libet particula
[=i]tercepta millaria referet, Hisp: 18, Gal: 20, Germ: 15, Milia pass;
60, Stadia 500," from which it appears that he gives as the value of an
equatorial degree 60 Italian miles or 500 stadia, equivalent to 18
Spanish miles, to 20 French miles, and to 15 German miles. Finding
numerous errors in Ptolemy's geography of the Old World, he tells us
that he undertook to correct these errors from the accounts of Marco
Polo, whom he calls "M. Paulo Veneto," and from the accounts of Vartema,
whom he calls "Ludovico, Rom Patricii." Between parallels 50 degrees and
60 degrees south latitude and meridians 60 degrees and 70 degrees east
longitude is the inscription "Psitacorum regio a Lusitanis anno 1500 ad
millia passum bis mille praetervectis, sic appellata quod psitacos elat
inaudite magnitudinis, ut qui ternos cubitos aequent longitudine."
"Region of parrots discovered by the Portuguese in 1500 who sailed along
2000 miles; so called because it has parrots of unheard-of size,
measuring three cubits in length." America, he notes, is called New
India, "America a multis hodie Noua India dicta." In the Antarctic
region an inscription tells of the notion entertained by many
geographers of his day and by some in an earlier day, that in addition
to the four known parts of the world, Europe, Asia, Africa, and America,
there is here a fifth part of large size stretching for a number of
degrees from the pole, which region is called "terra Australe." Mercator
undertook, in Chapter X of his 'Atlas,' to demonstrate that a large
Antarctic continent must of necessity exist as a balance to the weight
of the other four continents or parts of the world lying in the northern
hemisphere.[275]
In 1551 he issued his copper engraved gores for a celestial globe,
dedicating the same to Prince George of Austria, natural son of the
Emperor Maximilian, who was Bishop of Brixen, Archbishop of Valencia,
and Bishop of Liège in the year 1544. A set of these gores was likewise
acquired by the Royal Library of Brussels at the same time it acquired
the terrestrial globe gores referred to above.[276] The dedication reads
"Ampliss: Preculi Principiq[z] Ill^{mo} Georgio ab Austria Dei
dispositione Episcopo Leodiensi, Duci Bullonensi, Marchioni
Francimotensi, Comiti Lossensi &[~c] mecaenati optime merito dd.
Gerardus Mercator Rupelmundanus." "To the Magnificent Protector and
Prince, the very distinguished George of Austria, by the Grace of God,
Bishop of Liège, Duke of Bouillon, Marquis of Francimontensi, Count of
Lossensi, the very splendid patron of arts and science, dedicated by
Gerard Mercator of Rupelmunde." Near the above inscription we find the
date and place of issue given as follows, "Lovanii anno Domini 1551
mense Aprili," and a reference to his privilege "Inhibitum est ne quis
hoc opus imitetur, aut alibi factum vendat, intra fines Imperii, vel
provinciarum inferiorum Caes: M[=t]is an: te decennium, sub poenis &
mulctis in diplomatibus cotentis. Oberburger & Soete subscrib." "All
persons are forbidden to reproduce this work or to sell it when made
elsewhere within the Empire or the Low Countries of His Imperial Majesty
until after ten years, under the penalties and fines prescribed in the
patent. Signed by Oberburger and Soete." It clearly was the intention
that this should serve as the companion of his terrestrial globe of
1541, described above, since the gores are of the same size, each of the
twelve being truncated in the same manner, and the circular section
being prepared for the polar areas. Mercator's merits as an astronomer
by no means equaled his merits as a geographer. However, his celestial
globe, by reason of the exactness of the composition, by reason of its
simplicity, and by reason of the artistic skill exhibited in the
workmanship, is a most worthy work of that great scientist. On this
globe are represented the forty-eight constellations of Ptolemy, to
which have been added three which he calls Antinous, Lepus and
Cincinnus, the first formed of six stars and located on the equator
below the constellation Aquila, the second in the southern hemisphere
under the feet of Orion, and the third in the northern hemisphere near
the tail of Ursa Major.[277] His constellations, as well as the
principal stars in the same, have, in the majority of instances, Greek,
Latin, and Arabic names. It does not appear that Mercator felt himself
bound to a strictly scientific representation and interpretation of the
celestial bodies, for he pays more or less homage to astrology,
inscribing on the horizon circle of his globe the horoscope as used by
astrologists in calculating nativities, perhaps recognizing, from a
business standpoint, the advantage of an appeal to certain superstitions
which he found still lingering among both the learned and the unlearned.
By reason of their size and the great care with which they had been
prepared, his globes must have found general favor, not only with those
of rank and distinction, for whom copies _de luxe_ were issued, but with
geographers and scholars in general, who found it possible to obtain at
a comparatively small price the more modest copies. That they found
favor in Germany is assured us by Mercator's correspondence with
Camerarius of Nürnberg, in which mention is made of the sale of six
pairs of his globes in that city, and of others at the Frankfort book
market.[278] Thomas Blundeville tells us in his 'Exercises' that
Mercator's globes were in common use in England until 1592,[279] and the
number of his globes which have become known since 1868 in various parts
of Europe assure us that copies of that master's work must have been
easily obtainable by those interested. Ruscelli, in referring to printed
spheres, notes that they usually were made small, and that those of
large size are not exact, but he adds that he had seen some that were
three and one half palms in diameter, such as that which years ago
Aurelio Porcelaga sent to him to examine, printed in Germany, and given
to him by Monseigneur Granvella, to whom or to whose father, not
recalling which, it had been dedicated, but which he remembered was very
beautiful and very exact, being evidently engraved by one very expert,
judged by the beauty of the design and the artistic quality of the
letters.[280] Fiorini is of the opinion that these globes were
Mercator's, and that they were carried into Italy in the late years of
the sixteenth century when a friendly relationship existed between
certain Italian princes and the Spanish authorities then ruling in
Flanders.[281]
Attention has been called above to the acquisition by the Royal Library
of Brussels of a copy each of the terrestrial and the celestial globe
gores, and that the discovery of the same having created an especial
interest in his work, other examples were soon brought to light in
Italy, in Spain, in France, in Germany, and in Austria. A pair may be
found in the Muséum Astronomique of Paris, a pair in the Royal Library
of Vienna, a pair in the Germanisches National Museum in Nürnberg, a
pair in the archives of the town of St. Nicholas de Waes, a copy of the
terrestrial globe in the Grand Ducal Library of Weimar, a copy of the
celestial in the Convent of Adamont, Istria, and a copy of the
terrestrial in the Convent of Stams, Tyrol. Dr. Buonanno, director of
the Biblioteca Governativa of Cremona, in 1890 briefly described a pair
of Mercator's globes belonging to that library, and what he was able to
learn as a result of their damaged condition of Mercator's method of
construction is not without interest. He found that over a framework
composed of thin, narrow strips of wood had been pasted first a cloth
covering, over this a thin layer of plaster and that to this was added a
covering of a pastelike substance about six or seven millimeters in
thickness, consisting of plaster, wood fiber, or sawdust, and glue. On
this prepared surface had then been pasted the engraved gores. The
learned librarian's conjecture as to the manner in which these globes
found their way into Italy, if correct, is of interest, pointing as it
does to the formation of a great art collection in that period. He
recalls that Caesar Speciano, Bishop of Cremona, had been sent in 1592
as nuncio to Germany, and that he had occasion, during his mission, to
attend to certain matters pertaining to the inheritance of William, Duke
of Cleves, in whose country there must still have existed the workshop
of Mercator. The opinion is expressed that on the return of the Bishop
to Italy he carried with him many books and art objects, which had come
into his hands either through purchase or through gift, and that the
same passed into the possession of the Cremona Library, a library
belonging to the Jesuits until the time of the suppression of that
order.[282]
The Biblioteca Municipale of Urbania possesses a pair of Mercator's
globes of 1541 and 1551, which are reported to be in a fair state of
preservation. It is thought that they may have come into the library's
collection through the last reigning member of the house, Duke Francesco
Maria.
In the Museo Astronomico of Rome two copies of the terrestrial globe of
1541 may be found, and a copy of the celestial of the year 1551. These,
it will be seen from the reproduction (Fig. 62), are not in a good state
of preservation, although a very considerable portion of the map records
can be read.
[Illustration: Fig. 62. Terrestrial Globe of Gerhard Mercator, 1541.]
In addition to the globes of Mercator referred to above, it is known
that after taking up his residence in Duisburg he constructed a small
celestial globe of glass, on the surface of which he engraved with a
diamond the several constellations, and that he likewise constructed a
very small terrestrial globe of wood, apparently such as were later
called pocket globes, having all geographical records given as
accurately presented as on the larger globes.[283]
How great was the direct influence of Mercator on globe making
activities, it may not be easy to trace, but the evidence seems to be
conclusive, as Breusing has noted, that his should be counted the
greatest, among those active within this field, for fifty years and
more, following the issue of his first work in the year 1541. It is
among the Italian globe makers, and those in the peninsula interested in
such instruments, that we seem to find the first and most striking
evidence of his influence, which will be noted in the following pages.
Giovanni Gianelli of Cremona is referred to, by certain early Italian
writers, as a clock and globe maker of remarkable ability,[284] the
justice of which estimate is abundantly supported by the character of
the one example of his handiwork extant, belonging to the Biblioteca
Ambrosiana of Milan, to which it came from the collection of Canon
Manfred Settàla about the middle of the seventeenth century. This is an
armillary sphere of brass, the diameter of its largest or zodiacal
circle being 14 cm. This circle is graduated and has engraved on its
outer surface the names of the twelve constellations. It is likewise
provided with a graduated equatorial circle, with polar circles and
those representing the tropics. At the common center of the several
rings is a small ball, 5 cm. in diameter, which is made to serve as a
terrestrial globe. On one of the circles is the inscription "Janellus
MDXLIX Mediolani fecit," and we further find inscribed the name
"Hermetis Delphini," which perhaps tells us of a one-time possessor. In
a volume describing the museum of Canon Settàla, and issued in the year
1666, Gianelli and his work are thus referred to:
"To that great man Gianelli of Cremona there is due great honor, whose
personal qualities made him an especial favorite of His Catholic Majesty
Philip II. Among the many globes which he constructed our museum
possesses one of surpassing excellence, in that it exhibits, in addition
to other movements, that which astrologers call the movement of
trepidation, and which movement was set forth in theory by Thebit."[285]
The Emperor Charles V, when in Pavia, we are told, had his attention
directed to an armillary sphere constructed by Dondi in the fourteenth
century. On finding this sphere much injured by rust and usage he called
upon Giovanni Gianelli to restore it, but it was reported to be beyond
repair. Thereupon the Emperor gave direction to have the sphere
reproduced, which, when completed, was carried by His Majesty to Spain.
No trace of this work by Gianelli can now be found.
Girolamo Fracastoro, a distinguished Italian physician, a famous man of
letters, and a great philosopher of the first half of the sixteenth
century, was also a skilful globe maker, as we learn from Ramusio,[286]
and from the sketch of his life which usually appears as an introduction
to his collected works.[287]
Vasari also gives us certain information concerning him, noting that he
assisted Francesco dai Libri in the construction of his large
globe,[288] and we are led to believe that he was often consulted as an
expert by globe makers of his day. While none of those he may have
constructed are extant, what is known of his interest in these aids to
geographical and astronomical studies entitles him here to a word of
reference.
Ramusio says[289] that on the occasion of a visit, with the architect
Michele S. Micheli, to the home of their common friend, Girolamo
Fracastoro, at Caffi, they found him in the company of a gentleman, a
very distinguished philosopher and mathematician, who was showing him an
instrument based on a newly found movement of the heavens; that after
they had considered for some time this new movement, they had brought
before them a large and very detailed globe of the entire world, and
about this the distinguished gentleman began to speak. Fiorini argues,
somewhat ingeniously, that this globe may have been one constructed by
Mercator in 1541, if not one by Libri, in the making of which Fracastoro
himself had assisted. The letters of Fracastoro assure us that he made
use of globes in his geographical and astronomical studies, and that
his friends did likewise. January 25, 1533, he wrote Ramusio, "If you
should chance to speak to that master who made your metal spheres, I
should like you to ascertain how much a simple but perfect one, one foot
in diameter, would cost." Writing again to Ramusio January 10, 1534,
concerning the "Southern Cross," he adds: "Just reflect a little, and if
you have not sent away the celestial globe, look at that Centaurus and
you will find all that I am writing to you. You might perhaps write
about these doubts to Mr. Oviedo, or perhaps I might; it would be a good
idea and we might ask him about the very prominent star in the right
foot to ascertain whether it is a separate star or is one of those in
the 'Southern Cross.'" On the twenty-fifth of January, 1548, he again
wrote to Ramusio: "On my globe Zeilan is just below the Cape of Calicut,
on the equinoctial line, and it may be that which Jambolo discovered was
Zeilan or Taprobana; I am inclined to believe it was Taprobana." His
letter of May 10, 1549, also to Ramusio, is of special interest,
indicating, as it does, his estimate of the value of terrestrial and
celestial globes in the study of astrology (astronomy) and geography.
"In regard to what you write me about M. Paolo, I thoroughly approve of
his taking up the sacred study of astrology and geography, subjects of
study for every learned gentleman and nobleman, as he would have as his
guide and teacher the very well-known Piedmontese to whom we owe so many
excellent things, but first I should advise you to have M. Paolo
construct two solid spheres. On one of these should be represented all
the celestial constellations, and the circles should all have their
place, that is to say, not as Ptolemy represents the stars as they were
located in his time, but according to the investigations of our own
times, that is, about twenty degrees further east. The other should be a
terrestrial globe constructed according to modern ideas, which he should
always follow in his studies. He will use the first globe for a thousand
and one things; it will be his guide by day and by night, and by making
use of the quadrant he will be able easily to locate the things to be
seen in the heavens. Then when he shall have been well started I want
that you should have him read that little book of mine on
homocentricity, wherein he will be able to learn what astrology is, but
for the present let him learn ordinary astrology which has been treated
in so barbarous a manner as to lose much of its dignity." Writing again
from Verona January 21, 1550, to Paolo, after telling him what he should
point out to his father, he says: "You will tell him also that M.
Michele di San Michele has seen my globe and that he likes it.... When I
come I will make note of the principal places, for I desire very much to
verify them with the report of navigators telling what they have found,
concerning which matter, I think, no one knows more than you do, or
especially your distinguished father. As to the celestial sphere, I
should like very much to compare one I have with the one your father is
having made, that I may learn how the constellations compare, and how
many more of the fixed stars have been inserted. I have changed their
position twenty degrees. Whether he agrees with me or not I do not
know."
NOTES
[198] Harrisse. Discovery, p. 247.
[199] This is clearly recorded in such important maps as the
Cantino, Canerio, Waldseemüller, Sch[=o]ner globe maps of
1515 and 1520, Boulengier gores, Liechtenstein gores, et al.
[200] Wieser, F. R. v. Die Karte des Bartolomeo Columbo über
die vierte Reise des Admirals. Innsbruck, 1893.
[201] See above, p. 88.
[202] A letter written by Maximilianus Transylvanus to the
Cardinal of Salzburg, dated Valladolid, October, 1522, and
published in Cologne in January, 1523, under the title 'De
Molucca insulis ...,' gave the first printed notice of
Magellan's voyage. See Harrisse. B. A. V. Nos. 122, 123,
124. There are numerous editions of Antonio Pigafetta's
account of the Magellan voyage, which account is the
principal original source of information concerning that
eventful circumnavigation. See J. A. Robertson (Ed.),
Pigafetta, Antonio. Magellan's Voyage around the World.
[203] MacNutt, F. A. Letters of Cortes to Charles V. New
York, 1908. This English edition of the letters of Cortes
contains a brief biographical sketch with valuable notes.
Cortes, to the last, appears to have believed in the
existence of a strait through which one might find a shorter
way from Spain to the Indies of the East than was hitherto
known. Sanuto Livio. Geographia distincta. Venitia, 1588.
Argument against the idea of an Asiatic connection is
advanced by Sanuto on the ground that the natives were
frightened at Cortes's horses. Asiatics were acquainted with
the horse.
[204] Estevan Gomes, who had sailed with Magellan, undertook
in 1524, under a royal commission, "the search for a new
route leading to Cathay between the land of Florida and the
Baccalaos," says Peter Martyr. Decad VI, lib. x.
[205] In this volume, verso of seventh leaf, Franciscus
states that in attempting to prepare his description of a
globe, he had collected all the maps of the world he could
find. He especially commends one attributed to Maximilianus
Transylvanus, and although constructed with much skill, he
could not agree with its geographical representations,
admitting, however, that many did accept the same, but
objecting to the separation of Calvacania (Mexico) from the
eastern country because he believed it to be joined to the
kingdom of the Great Khan. See Harrisse. Discovery. pp. 281,
548.
[206] Stevenson. Maps illustrating early discovery. No. 10
of this series is a reproduction of Maiollo's map in the
size and in the colors of the original.
[207] Harrisse. Discovery. p. 546.
[208] Gallois, L. De Orontio Finaeo. Paris, 1890.
[209] Hakluyt, R. Discourse on Western Planting. Ed. by
Charles Deane, with introduction by Leonard Wood. (In: Maine
Historical Society, Collections, second series, ii, and
printed as Documentary History of the State of Maine. Vol.
II. Cambridge, 1877. Chap. XVII, §11, p. 116.)
In chapter 10 of the Discourse Hakluyt refers to the Locke
map and its configurations, which map clearly is a modified
reproduction of Verrazano's map of 1529.
[210] Harrisse. Discovery. pp. 562-568.
[211] Nordenskiöld. Facsimile Atlas. p. 89. The author
reproduces the Finaeus map from a 1566 reprint, observing
that he was unable to locate a copy of the 1536 edition.
[212] Schefer, C. H. A. Le discours de la navigation de Jean
et Raoul Parmentier. Paris, 1883. p. ix. The citation is
from a contemporary source.
[213] Vasari, G. Lives of the painters. Tr. by Mrs. J.
Foster. London, 1850-1885. (In: Bohn Library, Vol. III, pp.
449-450.)
[214] Blau, M. Mémoires de la Société Royal de Nancy. Nancy,
1836. pp. xi-xiv, 107. An excellent reproduction of the
globe in hemispheres accompanies this article; Vincent, R.
P. Histoire de l'ancienne image miraculeuse de Nôtre-Dame de
Sion. Nancy, 1698. This work contains the first description
of the globe; De Costa, B. F. The Nancy Globe. (In: The
Magazine of American History. New York, 1881. pp. 183-187.)
A representation of the globe in hemispheres is presented
with this article, being a slightly reduced copy of the Blau
illustration; Nordenskiöld. Facsimile Atlas. p. 82; same,
Periplus, p. 159; Winsor. Narrative and Critical History.
Vol. II, p. 433, also Vol. III, p. 214; Compt-Rendu,
Congrès des Americanistes. Paris, 1877. p. 359.
[215] The probability is it was not originally constructed
for this purpose, although globe goblets were not uncommon
in this century. See below, p. 199.
[216] Quetelet, L. A. J. Histoire des sciences mathématiques
et physiques chez les Belges. Brussel, 1871, pp. 78 ff.;
Ruscelli, G. La Geografia di Claudio Tolomeo. p. 32, there
is reference to a "Globo, grande"; Kästner, Vol. II, pp. 579
ff.; Breusing, A. Leitfaden durch das Wiegenalter der
Kartographie bis zum Jahre 1600. Frankfurt, 1883. p. 32.
[217] This book appears to be one of the earliest works
treating of the scientific construction of globes, and of
the use of trigonometry in the preparation of the globe
gores.
[218] The representation closely resembles that given by
Schöner. See Fig. 54.
[219] Ruge, W. Ein Globus von Gemma Frisius. (In:
Internationaler Amerikanisten-Kongress, vierzehnte Tagung.
Stuttgart, 1904. pp. 3-10.)
[220] See below, p. 128, for the novelty introduced by
Mercator, in which he truncated the gores near the poles.
[221] Raemdonck, J. van. Gérard Mercator, sa vie et ses
oeuvres. St. Nicolas, 1869. p. 38.
[222] Nordenskiöld. Facsimile Atlas, pp. 87-90. On map
projection in general, see Wagner, H. Lehrbuch, der
Geographie. Leipzig, 1903. Chap. iv; Zondervan, H.
Allgemeine Kartenkunde. Leipzig, 1901. Chap. iii. See also
references below to Mercator's world map of the year 1538,
p. 125.
[223] Harrisse, H. Un nouveau globe Verrazanien. (In: Revue
de Géographie. Paris, 1895. pp. 175-177.) An extensive
Verrazanian bibliography may be found in Phillips, P. L.
Descriptive list of maps of Spanish possessions in the
United States. Washington, 1912. pp. 39-40.
[224] See Stevenson reproduction, n. 9, above.
[225] See Stevenson reproduction, n. 9, above.
[226] See references to Ulpius below, p. 117.
[227] Compare this mounting with that of Schöner as seen in
Fig. 26.
[228] This is a tract of 44 pages.
[229] Schöner, J. Opera Mathematica. Norimbergae, 1551. See
p. 127 for what has been thought to be a representation of
Schöner's terrestrial and celestial globes of 1533. It will
be noted that the maps in each of these globe pictures have
been reversed.
[230] See above, p. 96.
[231] Wieser. Magalhâes-Strasse. p. 76, and Tab. V, which is
a copy of the southern hemisphere; Harrisse. Discovery. pp.
592-594, and pl. XVII, which is a copy of the western
hemisphere; Santarem, V. de. Notice sur plusieurs monuments
géographiques inedits.... (In: Bulletin de la Société de
Géographie. Paris, 1847. p. 322.); Stevens, H. Notes. New
Haven, 1869. p. 19; Nordenskiöld. Facsimile Atlas, pp. 80,
83; Winsor. Narrative and Critical History. Vol. VIII, p.
388.
[232] Harrisse. Discovery. p. 610.
[233] Harrisse. Discovery. p. 613, and pl. XXII, which is a
representation of the western hemisphere.
[234] Michow, H. Caspar Vopell ein Kölner Kartenzeichner des
16 Jahrhunderts mit 2 Tafeln und 4 Figuren. (In:
Hamburgische Festschrift zur Erinnerung an die Entdeckung
von Amerika. Hamburg, 1892. Vol. I, pt. 4.); Graf, J. H. Ein
Astrolabium mit Erdkugel aus dem Jahre 1545, von Kaspar
Volpellius. (In: Jahresbericht d. Geographischen
Gesellschaft zu München. 15 Heft, p. 228); Nordenskiöld, op.
cit., p. 83, and pl. XL, which gives a representation of the
globe of 1543, twelve gores in colors; Merlo, J. J.
Nachrichten vom Leben und den Werken Kölner Künstler, Köln,
1850. p. 493.
[235] Nordenskiöld, op. cit., pl. XLV.
[236] Korth, L. Die Kölner Globen des Kaspar Vopelius. (In:
Globus. Braunschweig, 1883. Vol. XLIV, pp. 62-63.)
[237] Described briefly by Michow, op. cit., p. 12.
[238] Letter of August 12, 1913.
[239] Described briefly by Michow, op. cit., p. 13.
[240] Described by Michow, op. cit., p. 14. Michow cites a
letter written by Postell to Abr. Ortelius, April 9, 1567,
in which the accusation is made against Vopel that merely to
please the Emperor Charles V he had joined America and Asia
in his globe map. In this letter the New World is called
Atlantis.
[241] Such globes, it will be noted, represent the Ptolemaic
system.
[242] Fiorini. Sfere terrestri e celesti. p. 214.
[243] Wieser, F. R. v. A. E. Nordenskiöld's Facsimile Atlas.
(In: Petermanns Geographischen Mitteilungen. Gotha, 1890. p.
275.)
[244] Graf, op. cit., n. 37.
[245] Compare with that reproduced by Nordenskiöld, n. 38
above.
[246] Günther. Erd- und Himmelsgloben. p. 57; Doppelmayr,
op. cit., p. 56. Hartmann was a noted manufacturer of globes
and mathematical instruments in Nürnberg. In his youth he
spent several years in Italy, probably in Venice.
[247] De Costa, B. F. The Globe of Ulpius. (In: Magazine of
American History. New York, 1879. pp. 17-35.) Accompanying
the article is a re-draughted representation of the western
hemisphere; same author. Verrazano the Explorer. New York,
1881. (In: Magazine of American History. New York, 1881. p.
64.); Winsor, op. cit., Vol. III, p. 214; Harrisse, H. Notes
sur la Nouvelle France. Paris, 1872. p. 222; Murphy, H. C.
Inquiry into the authenticity of Verrazano's claims. New
York, 1903. p. 114.
[248] Thatcher, J. B. Christopher Columbus. New York, 1903.
Vol. II, pp. 93-209. In these pages may be found a critical
consideration of questions relating to the subject of the
Line of Demarcation. Linden, H. V. Alexander VI and the
demarcation of the maritime and colonial domains of Spain
and Portugal, 1493-1494. (In: American Historical Review.
1916. pp. 1-21.)
[249] Polidori, P. De vita gestis et moribus Marceli II,
Pontificis Maximi commentarius. Romae, 1744; Cordella, L.
Memorie storiche dei Cardinali della Sancta Romana Chiesa.
Roma, 1792. Vol. IV, p. 225.
Marcello Cervino was born in the year 1501. For his
attainments in the field of literature, Italian, Latin, and
Greek, in philosophy, jurisprudence, and mathematics he held
a place of great distinction among his contemporaries. In
the year 1539 he was made a cardinal prefect of the Vatican,
and the year 1555 he was elevated to the Papacy, but died
twenty-one days thereafter.
[250] Hall, E. H. Giovanni da Verrazano and his Discoveries
in North America. (In: Fifteenth Annual Report of the
American Scenic and Historical Preservation Society. New
York, 1910.)
There is an extensive Verrazano literature. The original
letter written by the explorer to Francis I of France, under
whose auspices he had sailed on his voyage of discovery in
the year 1524, seems to have been lost, but copies of the
same, it may have been with alterations, were sent to
Verrazano's relatives and friends in Italy. Ramusio, in the
year 1556, and Hakluyt, in the year 1582, published one of
these copies, and it has since been frequently printed.
In addition to the above, there exists a manuscript copy,
sometimes referred to as the Florentine or Magliabechian
codex, a fragmentary copy in the Academy of Cimento, and a
manuscript copy recently discovered, which from the name of
its present owner may be called the Cellere codex. Hall has
printed the original document and has given an excellent
translation of the same.
[251] Tiraboschi. Storia. Tom. VII, pt. i, p. 205.
[252] Fiorini, op. cit., p. 117.
[253] Navarrete, M. F. de. Noticia biografia de Alonso de
Santa Cruz. Madrid, 1835. Reprinted in his Opúsculos. Tom.
II; Nicolao, A. Biblioteca Hispana. Romae, 1672. Tom, I, p.
37; Harrisse. Discovery, p. 736; also in his Jean et
Sébastian Cabot, p. 173; Espada, J. de la. Relaciones
geograficas de Indias, publicalas el Ministerio de Fomento
Perú. Madrid, 1885. Tom. II, p. xxi; pp. xxx-xxxvi.
In the second reference is a reprint of an inventory, made
at the time of the death of Santa Cruz, of his collection of
maps, pictures, and manuscripts and especially referred to
in the receipt given by Juan Lopez, his successor as Royal
Cosmographer, mention being made of no less than
eighty-seven items.
[254] He seems to have produced nothing of special
importance in his capacity as "Historicus Regius," giving,
however, some attention to the subjects of heraldry, and
genealogy. The question of the determination of longitude
interested him, and there is still preserved, in the Royal
Library of Madrid, his manuscript bearing the title "Libro
de las longitudes y manera que hasta ago se ha tenido en el
arte de navegar con sus demonstraciones y examplos." At the
time of his death there was also left a paper in manuscript,
treating of the subject of longitude, which probably
contains a summary of suggestions made to the Junta in
Sevilla in the year 1536 "sobre la orden que se ha tenido en
el dar de la longitud."
[255] Wieser, F. R. v. Die Karten von Amerika in den Islario
General des Alonso de Santa Cruz Cosmografo Mayor des
Kaisers Karl V, mit der spanischen original Texte und einer
Kritischen Einleitung. Innsbruck, 1908. This work was
reviewed by Stevenson, E. L. (In: American Historical
Review. 1910. pp. 392-394.)
[256] Catalogue Général des Manuscrits des Bibliothèques
Publiques de France. Department Tom. XXXII. Paris, 1897. p.
399; Harrisse. Discovery. p. 621.
[257] Schuller, R. R. Arcerca del "Yslario General" de
Alonso de Santa Cruz. London, 1913. (In: Proceedings of the
XVIII Session of the International Congress of Americanists.
London, 1913. Vol. II, pp. 415-432.); Islario general de
todas las islas del mundo dirigido á la S. C. R. M. del rey
don Phelipe miestro Señor por Al^o de Santa Cruz su
cosmographo mayor, con grabados en el texto y varias
láminas. (In: Boletin de la Sociedad Geografica de Madrid.
Madrid, 1918, 1919.)
[258] Harrisse. Discovery. p. 624; Nordenskiöld, Facsimile
Atlas, p. 109, gives an excellent reproduction of this map.
[259] Dahlgren, E. W. Map of the World by Alonzo de Santa
Cruz, 1542. Stockholm, 1892. Dahlgren has given us an
excellent facsimile of this map, with critical text
including a summary of the work of Santa Cruz and a list of
the names on the map.
[260] See p. 150.
[261] Raemdonck, J. v. Gérard Mercator, sa vie et ses
oeuvres. St. Nicolas, 1869; Wauvermans, H. E. Histoire de
l'école cartographique belge et anveroise au XVI siècle.
Anvers, 1895. Vol. II, pp. 37-109; 174-213; Breusing, A.
Gerhard Kremer, genannt Mercator, der deutsche Geograph.
Duisbourg, 1869; Raemdonck, J. van. Gérard de Cremer ou
Mercator, Géographe Flamand. Réponse à la Conférence du Dr.
Breusing, tenue à Duisbourg le 30 mars, 1869. St. Nicolas,
1870; Hall, E. H. Gérard Mercator, his Life and Work. New
York, 1878. pp. 163-196.
[262] The University Library is reported to have possessed
many of the original Mercator manuscripts. One cannot at
present tell the fate of these manuscripts. They may have
been destroyed at the time of the recent German invasion, or
have been carried away with other material by the
booty-loving invaders.
[263] See p. 102.
[264] Raemdonck, J. v. La Géographie ancienne de la
Palestine. Lettre de Gérard Mercator, mai 22, 1567. St.
Nicolas, 1884. This map of Palestine, published in large
folio size, was dedicated to François Craneveld, Counseiller
to the Grand-Conseil of Malines, and published at Louvain in
the year 1537. A copy of this cannot now be located.
[265] Raemdonck, J. v. De groote kaart van Vlaanderen
vervaardidg in 1540 door G. Mercator, bij middel van
lichtdruk weergeg, naar het ex. behoorende aan het Museum
Plantin-Moretus ... en voorzien met eens verklarende
inleiding. Antwerp, 1882. This map, in four sheets,
measuring 110 by 80.6 cm., was dedicated to Charles V and
published at Louvain.
[266] Raemdonck, J. v. Orbis Imago. Mappemonde de Gérard
Mercator. St. Nicolas, 1882. (In: Annales du Cercle
Archéologique du Pays de Waes. St. Nicolas, 1882. Tom. X,
4^{me} Livr.)
On the title-page of a separate of this article we read
"Notice publiée à l'occasion de la reproduction par la
phototypie du seul exemplaire connu de la susdite mappemonde
conserve par la Société de géographie d'Amérique, à
New-York, reproduction due à la sollicitude éclairée et
généreuse de cette même société." "Seul exemplaire connu" is
not correct. A fine example of the original 1538 edition may
be found in the New York Public Library.
In addition to the reproduction prepared by The American
Geographical Society a fine facsimile may be found in
Nordenskiöld. Facsimile Atlas. pl. XLIII; also by Lafrere
about 1560.
A comparison with the Orontius Finaeus double cordiform map
of the year 1531 is interesting. It has been stated that
Mercator copied the work of Finaeus. The projections appear
to be practically identical, but it will be noted that
Mercator represents the New World as independent of the Old
World, whereas Finaeus represents the Asiatic connection.
Fiorini, M. Le projezioni cordiformi nella cartografia.
Rome, 1889. (In: Boll. della Società Geografica Italiana.
Roma, 1889.)
[267] See p. 76.
[268] Heyer, A. Drei Mercatorkarten in der Breslauer
Stadtbibliothek. (In: Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche
Geographie. Weimar, 1890. pp. 379-389; 474-487; 507-528.);
Drei Karten von Gerhard Mercator, Europa, Britische Inseln,
Weltkarte. Facsimile-Lichtdruck nach den Originalen der
Stadtbibliothek zu Breslau. Herausgegeben von der
Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin. 41 Tafeln. Berlin,
1891. With title "Europae descriptio."
The map of Europe in six sheets, four of which were engraved
at Louvain and two at Duisbourg, was dedicated to Antoine
Perrenot, Bishop of Arras, and published at Duisbourg in the
year 1554. The only original example now known is that
belonging to the Breslau Library.
[269] This map with title "Britannicarum insularum
descriptio" was published at Duisbourg in the year 1564.
Reproduction of the only known original example noted in n.
71.
[270] This was prepared with great care and offered in
person by Mercator to Duke Charles of Lorraine at Nancy.
Apparently no original copy is in existence.
[271] Raemdonck. Orbis Imago; Breusing, A. Das Verebnen der
Kugeloberfläche. Bremen, 1893. pp. 31-48; Steinhauser, A.
Stabius redivivus, eine Reliquie aus dem 16 Jahrhundert.
(In: Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche Geographie. Wien,
1885. pp. 289-291.); D'Avezac, M. A. P. de. Coup d'oeil
historique sur la projection des cartes de géographie.
Paris, 1875. (In: Bulletin de la Société de Géographie de
Paris. Paris, 1865. Tom. V.); Wright, E. The correction of
certain errors in navigation. London, 1599.
There may be found numerous references to the principle
underlying the Mercator projection. See in addition to above
references Wagner, op. cit.; Zondervand, op. cit.; Hall, op.
cit., each with noted citations.
This map, with title "Nova et aucta orbis terrae descriptio
ad usum navigantium emendate accommodata," was dedicated to
Duke William of Cleves, and was published at Duisbourg in
the year 1569. Original copies may be found in the
Bibliothèque Nationale, and in the Stadtbibliothek of
Breslau, the former reproduced by Jomard, the latter as
noted in n. 71. A long inscription on the map explains the
principle of the new projection and its use for navigation.
[272] Raemdonck, J. van. Les sphères terrestre et céleste de
Gérard Mercator (1541-1551). Notice publiée a l'occasion de
la reproduction de ces sphères a l'aide de facsimilé de
leurs fuseaux origineaux, gravés par Mercator et conservés a
la Bibliothèque Royale a Bruxelles. St. Nicolas, 1875;
Fiorini M. Globi di Gerardo Mercatore in Italia. Rome, 1890.
(In: Bollitino della Societe Geografica Italiana. Roma,
1890.); Breusing. Gerhard Kremer, p. 9. Gérard Mercator,
p. 9.
This author writes: "Auch seine mechanischen Arbeiten hatten
bei den Männern der Wissenschaft eine so günstige Aufnahme
gefunden, dass er dadurch ermutigt wurde, sich an ein
grösseres Werk, einen Erdglobus, zu machen, den er nach
anderthalbjähriger Arbeit im Jahre 1541 vollendete und dem
kaiserlichen Geheimrate und Reichssiegelbewahrer Granvella
widmete. Und wenn Ruscelli uns erzähle, er habe mit Staunen
einen herrlichen Globus von drei und halben Palme im
Durchmesser betrachten müssen, der von deutscher Arbeit und
Granvella gewidmet gewesen sei und an Schönheit der
Zeichnung und Schrift alles früher Geleistete übertreffe, so
ist wohl kaum ein Zweifel, dass dies der fragliche Globus
Mercators gewesen ist. Ich will hier gleich hinzufügen, dass
im ganzen XVI Jahrhundert, wenn von ausgezeichneten Globen
die Rede ist, diejenigen Mercators immer als die besten
genannt werden."
[273] Günther, S. Geschichte der loxodromischen Kurve.
Halle, 1879. (In: Studien zur Geschichte der mathematischen
und physikalischen Geographie. Halle, 1879. Heft 6.);
Grünert, J. A. Loxodromische Trigonometrie. Leipzig, 1869;
Hues, R. Tractatus de globis; Markham, Ed. See pp. 127-147.
[274] This was edited by Van Raemdonck and published at St.
Nicolas, 1888.
[275] Ghymmius, op. cit. Caput decimum, Gerardi Mercatoris
De mundi creatione ac fabrica; Raynaud, A. Le Continent
Austral, hypothèses et découvertes. Paris, 1893; Wieser,
Magalhâes-Strasse, Chap. VI, with references.
[276] See references in n. 75.
[277] Baily, F. The Catalogues of Ptolemy, Ulug Beigh, Tycho
Brahe, Halley, Hevelius, deduced from the best authorities.
London, 1843. Consult for lists of the several
constellations.
[278] See a reference to the sale of Mercator globes. (In:
Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche Geographie, I Jahrgang, p.
180.)
[279] Blundeville, T. Exercises, pp. 204-243.
[280] Ruscelli, op. cit., Cap. IV.
[281] Fiorini. Sfere terrestre et celeste, p. 144.
[282] Fiorini. Sfere, etc. p. 140.
[283] Mercator, G. Declaratio insigniorum utilitatum. St.
Nicolas, 1888. Ed. by Raemdonck, J. v.
[284] Sacco, B. De italicarum rerum varietate et elegantia.
Papiae, 1565, lib. x, fol. 76.
[285] Thebit, an Arabic astronomer, to whom reference is
here made, lived in the latter part of the ninth century. He
was chiefly distinguished for his revision of the
'Almagest.'
[286] Ramusio, G. B. Navigationi et Viaggi. Vol. III.
[287] Hieronymi Fracastorii Veronensis opera omnia. The
biography is thought to have been written by Adamo Fumano.
[288] See above, p. 100.
[289] Ramusio, op. cit., Vol. I.
[Illustration: Portuguese Arms]
Chapter VIII
Globes and Globe Makers of the Third Quarter of the Sixteenth Century
Revival of interest in globe making in Italy.--François De
Mongenet of France and the reprint of his globe maps in
Italy.--Gore map of Antonius Florianus.--Globe records
left by Alessandro Piccolomini.--Ruscelli's directions for
globe construction.--Reference to the work of Sanuto and
Gonzaga.--Armillary sphere of Volpaja.--Excellent
workmanship in the celestial-terrestrial globe of
Christian Heyden.--Metal globes of Johannes
Praetorius.--Vasari's reference to the work of Ignazio
Danti.--The iron globe of Francisco Basso.--Armillary
sphere of Giovanni Barrocci.--The work of Hieronymo de
Boncompagni.--Emanuele Filiberto.--Anonymous globe of
1575.--Laurentian armillary spheres.--Small globes of the
Biblioteca Nationale of Florence.--Mario Cartaro.
Among those interested in map and globe making, in the third quarter of
the sixteenth century, none seems to have surpassed the Italians. In the
art of map engraving they attained to a high degree of merit, and much
of the finest work of the middle of the century is the product of the
peninsula. With few exceptions it is the Italians who hold the field in
this line of scientific activity. There can undoubtedly be traced here
the influence of Mercator, but there appear to have been not a few who
worked on what might be called independent lines. The interest of
illustrious personages in the construction and the possession of globes
prompted activity in this field. While the number extant, of those
manufactured in this period, is not large, there are not a few
references in letters and in scientific works assuring us of the
construction of many which cannot now be traced.
We may call attention first to François De Mongenet, who appears to have
been a native of Franche-Comté and well known in his day as a globe
maker. He was, however, quite forgotten until a few years since, when a
copy each of his terrestrial and celestial globe gores was purchased by
the antiquarian Rosenthal of Munich,[290] and sold to Mr. Kalbfleisch of
New York, from whose collection they passed into the possession of the
New York Public Library. Since this discovery of De Mongenet's
interesting work, a number of copies of the same or of subsequent
editions have come to light, both of the terrestrial and of the
celestial globe, some of which copies are mounted, some remain
unmounted, some are of his first edition of the year 1552, others are of
the second edition, undated, somewhat altered, and printed in Italy. All
of his globes are of small size, having each a diameter of about 85 mm.
De Mongenet was born at Vesoul in France, and in the university of his
town he studied medicine, mathematics, and probably geography or
cosmography. There seems to be but little known concerning the family to
which François belonged, but such details as it was possible to gather
Marcel brought together in a carefully prepared paper.[291] This author
thinks it probable that he could be counted among the circle of learned
and distinguished men whom Granvella was accustomed to bring together in
his palace at Besançon on frequent occasions during the five years he
passed in that city after he had given over his administration of the
Netherlands. If true, there may here be found a connecting link between
De Mongenet and Mercator, remembering that the latter dedicated his
globe of 1541 to the father of the distinguished cardinal
statesman.[292] The suggestion of Mercator's influence on De Mongenet
appears quite evident on a comparison of the outlines of their globe
maps.
The Lenox copy of the terrestrial gores (Fig. 63) is dedicated to
"Eximio Viro: D:I:P:A Monte Maiore," while the celestial gores (Fig. 64)
carry the dedication "Eximio Viro D. Gabrieli a Tiesbach." Marcel is of
the opinion that the dedication of the first to "Monte Maiore" refers to
a prelate of the illustrious house of Granmont, whose name in the
sixteenth century was often spelled Grandmont, and that Gabrieli
Tiesbach (Diesbach) belonged to a family of Besançon, originally from
Freiburg, and that he was a knight of St. George. The author and date
legend of the first reads "Faciebat Franciscus De Mongenet anno 1552,"
while that of the second reads "Elaborabat Franciscus De Mongenet. Anno
1552." The gores of each map as printed measure from pole to pole 13.7
cm., the length of the equatorial line being 27.5 cm. Around each set
there is a narrow black border. A zodiacal circle is likewise printed on
the first sheet 5 cm. in width, and of sufficient length to encompass
the gores when mounted, being divided into twelve parts, in which, in
regular order, are the figures of the twelve zodiacal constellations.
With but few exceptions the several inscriptions are in small capitals,
and are well executed.
[Illustration: Fig. 63. Terrestrial Globe Gores of François de Mongenet,
1552.]
[Illustration: Fig. 64. Celestial Globe Gores of François de Mongenet,
1552.]
The draughtsmanship which the terrestrial map exhibits in all parts, as
well as that exhibited by the celestial, displays skill of very
considerable merit. The general outline of the New World's coasts is
quite as well done as on any of the maps of the day, the Pacific coast
line of North America sweeping in a great curve northward and
northeastward, while a great broad stretch of ocean separates the
continent from Asia. In North America we find only the inscriptions
"Hispania maior" and "baccalea." South America bears the inscription
"America," so extended as to cover the continent. The names of
geographical localities are comparatively few, the size of the globe
making it impossible to insert many details.
On a second pair of De Mongenet's globes, referred to by Marcel, the
dedications and inscriptions differ slightly from those given above.
On the terrestrial gores we find "Illustr. Ac Rever. D. D. CL. A. Bauma
Arch. Bis.," and the signature, "Elaborabat Francis. De Mongenet. V. E.
V." On the celestial gores we read "Illustr. Ac Rever. D. D. CL. A.
Bauma Arch. Bis. E. V.," the signature "Elaborabat Franciscus De.
Mongenet. V.," and the privilege "Cum privilegio Pont. Max. Sqe. Ven."
Citing again Marcel's opinion, the Claudio de la Baume referred to was
Archbishop of Besançon, and the letter "V" placed after the name of the
globe maker doubtless refers to Vesoul, his birthplace; the letters "E.
V." may stand either for "Excusum Venetiis," indicating the city in
which the work was done, or for "Enea Vico," the name of the actual
engraver of the gores, who is known as having been at that time an
engraver of medals, being now especially remembered for his medals of
the first twelve Emperors of Rome.[293]
The gores of the first edition were printed from engraved wooden blocks;
the second were printed from engraved copper plates which exhibit a very
superior workmanship, and it is to be noted that many more names appear
on the terrestrial gores than on those of the first edition. Ruscelli,
in his edition of Ptolemy of 1561, makes mention of "a little globe,
published lately by Francesco Mongonetto Borgonone,"[294] which allusion
would seem to indicate a reference to the second edition and to its
issue near 1561. Although this second edition contains more names than
does the first, it gives little indication that the author had knowledge
of discoveries subsequent to the first edition. Like Mercator he
represents North America as separated from Asia, as before noted, by a
wide expanse of ocean, to which no name has been given, and like
Mercator he lays down a large austral continent. His globes could hardly
have been received with as much favor as were those by his Flemish
contemporary, since they were so small as to appear like mere
playthings.
Of the first edition, other than those gores to be found in the New
York Public Library, a set of the terrestrial and the celestial gores is
in the British Museum, and of the terrestrial in the Germanisches
Nationalmuseum of Nürnberg.
Of the second edition, copies of the unmounted gores may be found in the
Bibliothèque Nationale, in the British Museum, in the private library of
Prince Trivulzio of Milan. A mounted pair of the second edition may be
found in the Osservatorio Astronomico of Rome (Fig. 65), and in addition
a second example of the celestial globe, which is described as having
excellent mountings of brass, so arranged as to make possible a
revolution of the globe both on an equatorial axis and an axis of the
ecliptic. Its horizon circle is supported by two brass semicircles, the
whole resting on four wooden columns of modern construction, and these
in turn resting on representations of lion's paws in bronze. An example
of the mounted terrestrial globe is said to belong to the collection of
Sr. Bazolle of Belluno, which example once belonged to the Counts of
Pilloni.
[Illustration: Fig. 65. Globes of François de Mongenet, 1560, and of
Gian Francesco Costa, 1784.]
Attention has been called to the peculiar gore map of Santa Cruz,[295]
and to the fact that his method of construction seems not to have won
favor. We, however, find among the map makers of Italy, in the period of
which we are now speaking, one Antonius Florianus,[296] who, if not
copying the plan of Santa Cruz, followed closely his scheme. His map, of
which numerous copies are known (Fig. 66), seems to have been prepared
for mounting on a ball, although no such mounted example can now be
located. With the poles as centers, and with a radius equal to one
quarter of the circumference of the sphere he proposed to construct, he
drew his equatorial circles, which thus gave him two hemispheres,
respectively, a northern and a southern; in the same manner he drew his
parallels at intervals of ten degrees, using for each the common polar
centers. In each of the hemispheres he drew thirty-six sectors, each
sector being made to represent ten degrees of longitude, and they were
so shaped mathematically that their combined width at the equator
would equal the circumference of the sphere of which the selected
radius, referred to above, represented one quarter of that
circumference. When prepared for mounting, the vacant space between the
several sectors could be cut away, leaving the thirty-six engraved
sectors, on which the world map appeared, to be pasted on the surface of
the sphere. The scheme which Florianus devised was practically that
employed by Werner in his equivalent cordiform projection, and likewise
that of Finaeus and Mercator.[297]
[Illustration: Fig. 66. Globe Gores of Antonius Florianus, 1555.]
It was the eighteenth of January, in the year 1555, that Florianus
obtained a copyright from the Venetian senate for his map,[298] but it
is probable he died before the map appeared in print, since there is
evidence of incompleteness in the known copies. In the spaces, with
artistic borders, which had been designed for inscriptions, nothing
appears, and in but two of the four cartouches evidently intended for
portraits do such portraits appear, viz., that of Ptolemy and of the
author himself.
The geographical outlines of the map closely resemble those of De
Mongenet, as well as those of Mercator. North America is given
practically the same shape. The great expanse of ocean lying between
this continent and Asia is called "Oceanus orientalis indicus," and
midway between the continents, in latitude 45 degrees, is "Sipango."
North America is called "Americae," also "Hispania maior," while South
America is likewise called "Americae." The great austral land is
represented but is unnamed. The whole is indeed a fine example of
Italian copper engraving.
Numerous copies of Florianus' map are known. It usually appears in the
Lafreri collection, and Fiorini notes that copies may be found in the
Archivo di State of Turin, in the Marciana of Venice, in the Biblioteca
Vittorio Emanuele of Rome, in the Biblioteca Comunale of Treviso, in the
private library of Professor Marinelli of Florence, in the British
Museum, in the private library of Nordenskiöld. To the above may be
added the New York Public Library, the Library of Congress, and the
Harvard Library, which likewise possess copies.
Among the numerous references appearing here and there in the literature
of Italy, assuring us of the interest in that country in globe
construction, reference may be made to the record left by Alessandro
Piccolomini, a native of Siena, and author of a work on the extent of
the land and water,[299] who, in the preparation of his work, made
extensive study of the records to be found in plane maps and globes. In
his work published in Venice in the year 1558, though his dedication to
M. Jacomo Cocco, Archbishop of Corfu, reads August 28, 1557, "Della mia
casa di S. Giorgio, di Siena, il di XXVIII di Agosto MDLVII," he tells
of several globes which it had been his privilege to examine. "I have
zealously examined geographical maps, both plain and spherical, and
especially those which are reputed to be most faithful, for example,
among others, a solid terrestrial sphere shown me by Cardinal
Viseo.[300] Another I saw at the home of the Cardinal of Carpi,[301]
exhibiting mountain elevations in a new and excellent manner, and still
another much larger kept at present at the home of Cardinal of
Urbino.[302] There is also a globe having a diameter of about an arm's
length, which I saw two years since at the home of the Archbishop of
Corfu, and still another I have recently seen about the same size or
about one arm's length in diameter, which had been presented to His
Excellency the Duke of Paliano." He adds that he had made careful
geographical computations in his investigations, employing the
last-named sphere. As to his method of procedure in his studies he
states that "first of all having placed before me a solid sphere of
about three feet in diameter, the most exact I have been able to find
among those referred to above, namely, the one with the equinoctial
circle and with the meridian passing through the Canaries of the
Fortunate islands where Ptolemy located the prime meridian, I have
divided it into four equal parts--two northern and two southern." It
seems probable that the globe here referred to is that which he stated
belonged to the Cardinal of Urbino, and which he noted was larger than
was that belonging to Cardinal Viseo or to the Cardinal of Carpi, the
diameter of which he stated to be an arm's length. Piccolomini gives us
no intimation as to the authorship of the five globes he says he
examined. He adds an interesting word concerning the character of the
globe of Cardinal Carpi, seeming to imply that it was not a printed
globe, since it represented "mountain elevations." We perhaps are
justified, says Fiorini, in concluding from this and other evidence that
the maps on these globes were not printed, since they were of very large
size, and we know that Mercator's globes 41 cm. in diameter were then
considered to have special value because larger than others constructed
in a similar manner, that is, having their maps engraved or printed.
We may here again refer to Ruscelli's directions for globe
construction,[303] to which he added certain suggestions for globe
adornment, that they might appeal to princes and nobles. "Globes of
copper, bronze or silver," he says, "such as princes would desire to
possess, to be fine, durable and rare should be plated, that is, the
circles, the letters, the outlines of the countries should first be
engraved and then there should be added gold or silver plating." "A
generous prince," he adds, "could have them made in Asimino or Tausia
style, as they say, that is, have the copper surface engraved, and the
grooves filled with silver or gold thread. By forcing this in the work
can be made very strong." He states in one of his chapters that globes
so constructed are usually small, but he adds that he had seen globes
three and a half palms in diameter, such as that sent to him by Zurelio
Porcelaga. Of this last he speaks in words of praise, passing on to
refer to two large ones then under construction in Venice. "One of
these," he says, "is of copper being made by Giulio Sanuto, which it is
hoped will be one of the best as one of the most beautiful of any
constructed up to the present time." The implication seems to be, from
the words of Ruscelli, that at least some part of the printing was to be
made directly on the surface of the sphere. Further information given by
Ruscelli touching Sanuto and Gonzaga in this connection is here of
interest. He states "besides the fact that Giulio Sanuto is very skilful
in drawing and engraving, especially in geographical maps of the world
and its parts, he is, in this task, being aided by Livio Sanuto,[304] a
Venetian nobleman, his brother, among whose many good qualities he
possesses to a degree above the ordinary, are his attainments in the
profession of geography. Both are giving so much attention to this globe
that it is expected, in both matter and form, it will be perfect.
Another globe three arm's length in diameter has, since last year, been
begun by Curtio Gonzaga, which he intends shall contain all of those
things that Taisnero has included in his globe as well as many other
things that the said gentleman intends to add, hoping to make one of the
most beautiful and perfect spheres to be seen for many years to come.
This can easily be believed, for he will do everything himself, and as
the greater diligence will thus be exercised we will have all of the
advantages of his great knowledge of geography, to which subject as
ever, he is giving all of his attention, and the advantage of his great
skill in lettering and designing."[305]
Ruscelli maintained that globes are preferable to ordinary maps in
geographical studies, stating that "although maps of three or four arm's
length and width are to be found they are not numerous and are not of
great value, and furthermore we have globes, which, in extent of space
exhibited, surpass them. Granting that some Princes and certain others
do have maps very large, as for example, such as Pope Paul II had made
for the palace of S. Marco in Rome, there are also Princes and private
persons who have globes which in size much surpass the plane maps that
I have ever seen or heard of." "Until a few years since no one knew how
to print such globes, and all were made with pen and brush, ... later
geniuses have found a way for printing globe maps very accurately,
which, in a wonderful way they can place over the surface of a sphere; a
way has also been found for making the spheres round and exact, and a
method for computing measurements for the coverings to fit the sphere,
and for the construction of such other things as belong thereto."[306]
The Volpaja family of Florence achieved considerable distinction in the
late fifteenth and in the sixteenth century, through those members who
were interested in the construction of astronomical instruments and
particularly in armillary spheres. Vasari tells us that "in the chapel
of Santa Trinita, in fresco, is a picture of the Magnificent Lorenzo de'
Medici, father of Pope Leo X.... In the same picture is Lorenzo della
Volpaja, a most excellent master in the art of making watches, and a
distinguished astrologer, by whom a most beautiful clock was made for
Lorenzo de' Medici, which the most illustrious Duke Cosimo now has in
his palace, and wherein all of the movements of the planets are
perpetually shown by means of wheels, a very rare thing, and the first
that was made in that manner."[307]
At the time of its founding there came to the Museo di Strumenti Antichi
di Astronomia e di Fisica of Florence a fine armillary sphere inscribed
"Hieronimus Camilli Vulpariae Florent: fe: 1557." It is of gilded metal,
having five spheres or rings ranging from 60 to 75 mm. in diameter, and
in addition eighteen circles, including polar, tropical, and equatorial
circles with meridian and horizon, the latter having a diameter of 144
mm. Further information recorded by Fiorini tells us that it is mounted
on a wooden base.[308] On the equatorial circle of the smallest sphere
is engraved "Deferens Augiem," on the next, "Deferens Epiciculum," on
the third, "Deferens Augiem," on the fourth, "Deferens Dragonem." The
fifth sphere is composed of six large circles and four small ones. The
circles which represent the meridians, the equator, the ecliptic, and
the horizon are graduated, while on the ecliptic appear the names of the
twelve zodiacal constellations, and on the horizon the names of the
principal winds or directions. This globe is referred to as one of
special interest because of its peculiar and somewhat complicated
construction; it is mounted on a wooden base, which is more modern than
the globe proper, and in many parts gives evidence of restoration.
In the same museum there is a second armillary sphere constructed by a
member of the Volpaja family, perhaps by the same one who constructed
the preceding. It is inscribed "Hieronimus Vulpariae Florentius Fe.
A.D.MDLXIIII" and was a gift to the museum by the Grand Duke Leopold I.
The diameter of its horizon circle, including the attached parts, is 41
cm., and its height, including its base, 76 cm. It has been described as
follows: "An armillary sphere, the armillae of which are of gilded
brass. The small globe within the circles representing the earth is of
the clearest crystal. The horizon is of gilded brass and rests on a
branched support ornamented with human heads in relief. The lower part
of the branches is attached to a base resting on three lion's paws. The
branches, the heads, the base, and the paws are all of brass. In the
northern and southern sections of the horizon there are attachments
containing receptacles for holding the magnetic needle, but which needle
in both places is wanting. The equator, the tropics, and the polar
circles are not zones but are triangular prisms bent in the form of
circles. Furthermore a part of the ecliptic, that is to say, one of its
zones, is of gilded brass and is graduated, and shows the names of the
months and the signs of the zodiac. The diameter of the sphere is 12.6
pollici (inches?)."[309]
There is to be found in the Mathematical Salon of Dresden a fine example
of the work of Christian Heyden (1525-1576), son of a rector of the St.
Sebaldus School of Nürnberg. Doppelmayr[310] tells us that after years
of study in Leipzig and Wittenberg, he returned to his native city,
became interested in making mathematical instruments, and in 1564 he was
appointed to a professorship of mathematics in the famous Nürnberg
gymnasium. His biographer does not refer to his activity as a globe
maker, but tells us that about the year 1570 he constructed for the
Emperor Maximilian II a mechanical device for illustrating the movement
of the sun and the moon, which instrument, he notes, especially
interested the noted Frenchman, Petrus Ramus, who carefully examined it
on the occasion of a visit to Nürnberg. The Dresden example of his work
(Fig. 67), the only example known, consists of a brass celestial globe
encased in a covering of brass, on the surface of which is engraved a
terrestrial map. It has a diameter of 72 cm., the whole being furnished
with a horizon, a meridian, and an hour circle. This is indeed a choice
specimen of a sixteenth-century engraved metal globe, of which we have
numerous examples, but it is rather an ornamental piece than one of
great scientific value.
[Illustration: Fig. 67. Globe of Christian Heyden, 1560.]
Doppelmayr likewise gives us a brief biographical note referring to one
Johannes Praetorius, a globe maker, born at Joachimsthal in the year
1537.[311] After a considerable period of study, chiefly at Wittenberg,
where he turned his attention to the philosophical and mathematical
sciences, he took up a residence in Nürnberg in the year 1562. Here he
became interested in the construction of mechanical and astronomical
instruments, and soon won the favor of the Emperor Maximilian II, which
favor he enjoyed to the end of that Emperor's reign. It was about the
year 1576 that he became a professor of mathematics at Altdorf, where he
died in the year 1616. Doppelmayr refers to a number of the mathematical
and astronomical instruments constructed by him, noting that in the year
1566 he completed two globes of metal richly gilded, each having a
diameter of 11¼ inches, that each was furnished with an hour circle,
a movable quadrant and semicircles, and that a compass was set in the
base of each. We learn also from the same biographer that in the year
1568 he completed a brass astrolabe having a diameter of "one schuh"
(foot?), three and one half inches, and that it was supplied with all
parts essential to a complete apparatus of its character. We are further
informed that shortly after the beginning of his career in Altdorf he
undertook the construction of a large celestial globe of wood and paper,
having a diameter of four Nürnberg feet, that he was assisted in this
work by the artist and draughtsman, Christopher Heinrichs, and that on
the surface of the sphere one thousand six hundred and fifty stars were
indicated with appropriate accompanying inscriptions.
Two pairs of Praetorius' globes are now known, one pair in the
Mathematical Salon of Dresden (Fig. 68),[312] and the other in the
Germanisches National Museum of Nürnberg. These globes are of brass,
each having a diameter of 28 cm.; each is supplied with meridian,
horizon, and hour circles and rests on a tripod base. They are richly
engraved pieces, the terrestrial example being remarkably well
preserved, the celestial being slightly injured, through rubbing which
has removed parts of certain figures of the constellations.
[Illustration: Fig. 68. Globe of Johannes Praetorius, 1566.]
Among those Italians who, in the sixteenth century, acquired
well-merited fame as globe makers may be mentioned Ignazio Danti
(1536-1586),[313] known as Pellegrino before he entered the order of the
preaching friars in his nineteenth year. The name Danti appears to have
been given him chiefly on account of his great learning, particularly in
the field of mathematics and astronomy. In the same branches of science
his father had achieved distinction, and likewise his grandfather,
Vicenzo de Rinaldi, who, in the year 1571, issued a translation of the
'Sfera' of Sacrobosco, and who constructed, as we are told, an astrolabe
and an armillary sphere.[314] It seems to have been early in the year
1563 that Danti was called to Florence by Duke Cosimo for the purpose
of constructing, under his patronage, nautical and astronomical
instruments and geographical maps. Of his work which is still known to
us there may be first mentioned an astronomical quadrant placed on the
façade of the church of Santa Maria Novella, and an equinoctial armilla
placed within the same church. We have first mention in Vasari's 'Lives'
of the globe and map work of his which especially concerns us here. It
is an interesting account of his activity in this field, an account
worthy of citation. "Fra Ignazio Danti is very learned in cosmography
and a man of distinguished ability in letters, in so much that the Duke
Cosimo has committed to his care a work than which none more perfect in
design, or more important in the results to be expected from it, has
ever been executed in that kind. His excellency has caused a room of
considerable extent to be prepared on the second floor of his palace, as
a continuation of, and an addition to the guardaroba; around this room
he has had cabinets arranged seven braccia high, and richly carved in
walnut wood, intending to place within them the most valuable and
beautiful works of art in his possession; and on the doors of the same
he has caused fifty-seven pictures, about two braccia in height and of
proportionate width, to be painted in oil on wood in the manner of
miniatures. The subjects delineated are the Ptolemaic Tables, measured
by Don Ignazio with the most exact perfection, and corrected according
to the latest authorities; sea-charts of the utmost accuracy are added,
the scale and the degrees being adjusted with all possible care, and all
having the ancient, as well as the modern, names; the division made of
these works being as follows. At the principal entrance into the room
are seen four pictures executed on the sides of the cabinets, and
representing in perspective the halves of four spheres, those below
showing the earth, and those above the heavens with all their signs and
celestial figures. Proceeding toward the right we have all Europe
depicted in fourteen compartments, the pictures succeeding each other
to the center of the wall which is at the head of the room, and opposite
to the principal door, that namely whereon is placed the horologue with
its wheels, and the daily motions made by the planets in their spheres;
I mean that so much renowned clock made by the Florentine Lorenzo della
Volpaja. Above the compartments representing Europe, are those of Africa
in eleven divisions; these extend to the horologue itself, beyond which
and on the lower part is Asia, which occupies a consecutive range of
four compartments, extending to the principal door. There are besides
the West Indies, which commence from the clock, and continue to the
principal door; the whole series forming the fifty-seven divisions
before mentioned. On the lower part of the walls and immediately beneath
the geographical delineations, in an equal number of compartments will
be the various plants and animals produced by the respective countries,
all depicted from nature. Over the cornice of the said cabinets, which
completes the decorations, there are to be niches dividing the pictures,
and in these will be placed certain antique busts in marble,
representing the Emperors and Princes by whom these lands have been
possessed, so far as those portraits are known to exist or can be
procured. The ceiling is entirely in carved wood-work, and within the
compartments of the same are twelve large pictures, in each of which are
to be four celestial signs, making in the whole forty-eight; the figures
are to be but little less than life size, each accompanied by its stars.
On the walls beneath are three hundred portraits of distinguished
persons belonging to the last five centuries, or somewhat more; they are
painted in oil; but, that I may not make too long a story, I refer the
mention of their names to the tables of my work. All have frames of
similar size, very richly carved in oak, and producing an exceedingly
fine effect."