[1] Attempts have been made to discover dialectic variations in the
Veda itself, and, as originally composed in various parts of the
Punjab widely distant from each other, the hymns probably did contain
many such. But they have been edited by compilers whose home was in
the Midland, and now their language is fairly uniform throughout. In
the time of Asoka (250 B.C.) there were at least two dialects, an
eastern and a western, as well as another in the extreme north-west.
The grammarian Patañjali (150 B.C.) mentions the existence of several
dialects.
[2] The Nagari (see SANSKRIT) and allied alphabets, when employed for
modern Indo-Aryan languages or for Prakrit, are transliterated in
this work according to the following system:--
a a i i u u r r e e ai ai o o au au m (_anusvara_) [infinity]
(anunasika) h (_visarga_).
k kh g gh rc
c (ts) ch (tsh) j (dz) jh (dzh) ñ
t th d (r) dh (rh) l lh n
t th d dh n
p ph b bh m
y r l v (w)
s s s h.
Special sounds employed by particular languages are described in the
articles in which reference is made to them. Here we may mention _å_,
sounded like the _aw_ in "law," and _ä_, _ö_, _ü_, pronounced as in
German.
[3] The origin of the postpositions is discussed in the article
HINDOSTANI.
[4] See P. W. Schmidt in _Mitteilungen der Wiener Anthropologischen
Gesellschaft_, xxxiii. 381.
INDO-CHINA, FRENCH.[1] The geographical denomination of French
Indo-China includes the protectorates of Annam, Tongking and Cambodia,
the colony of Cochin-China and part of the Laos country. In 1900 the
newly-acquired territory of Kwang-Chow Bay, on the coast of China, was
placed under the authority of the governor-general of Indo-China.
Cochin-China, a geographical definition which formerly included all the
countries in the Annamese empire--Tongking, Annam and Cochin-China--now
signifies only the French colony, consisting of the "southern provinces"
originally conquered from Annam, having Saigon as its capital. In its
entirety French Indo-China, the eastern portion of the Indo-Chinese
peninsula, lies between 8° 30´ and 230 25´ N. and 100° and 109° 20´ E.
It is bounded N. by China, on which side the frontiers have been
delimited; E. and S.E. by the Gulf of Tongking and the China Sea; W. by
the Gulf of Siam and Siam, and N.W. by Burma. The area is estimated at
about 290,000 sq. m., with a population of 17¼ millions, of whom 75 or
80% are Annamese. The French inhabitants number about 13,000.
The configuration of the country is determined by two rivers of unequal
importance--the Mekong and the Song-Koi--and a continuous chain of
mountains, an offshoot of the great Chinese group of Yun-nan, which,
making a double curve, forms an immense S. South and west of this
mountain chain the country forms part of the Mekong basin. To the north
and north-east of the chain the valley of the Song-Koi, or Red river,
constitutes almost the whole of Tongking, of which its delta represents
the most fertile and populous if not the largest portion. The small
mountainous provinces of Lang-Son, That-Ke and Kao-Bang, however, belong
geographically to the Si-Kiang basin. On the east the small province of
Mon-Kay, on the borders of Kwang-Tung, forms a little basin enclosed
between the mountains and the sea; on the south the province of
Thanh-Hoa, although crossed by the small river Song-Ma, forms the
extremity of the Red river delta and belongs to it, the two rivers being
united at some distance from the sea by a natural channel formed by the
junction of a northern branch of the Song-Ma with a southern branch of
the Song-Koi. The Red river descends from the mountains of Yun-nan,
rising near Tali-fu between deep and inaccessible gorges, and becomes
navigable only on its entry into Tongking. Means have been taken to
render it available to steam launches, and in consequence of an
agreement between the state and the Compagnie des Correspondances
Fluviales a service of steamers is provided from its mouth to Lao-Kay.
Near Hung-Hoa the Red river receives its two chief tributaries, the
Black river from the plateaus of the west--the land pf the Muongs--and
the Clear river, one of the largest of whose tributaries issues from the
Ba-Be lakes. The Black river is navigable for a considerable distance,
the Clear river only from Tuyen-Kwang. Between the basins of the
Song-Koi and the Mekong the chain of mountains, crowned by tolerably
extensive plateaus, covers, with its ramifications and transverse spurs,
a vast extent of country little known, although several trade-routes
traverse it, thus placing the Laos country in communication with
Tongking and Annam. In about 19° N. the mountain-ridge approaches the
sea and runs parallel to the coast, presenting on its eastern side a
steep declivity which encloses a narrow littoral, in places only a mile
or two broad, between the base of its cliffs and the shore. This
coast-belt constitutes the habitable and cultivable portion of Annam
proper, and consists of alluvial matter accumulated at the mouths of
mountain streams, and marshes and swamps enclosed between land and sea
by sand ridges heaped up by wind and tide. The high valleys and plateaus
originally belonged to the empire, the limits of which, although invaded
and occupied by Siamese, formerly extended to the banks of the Mekong.
The western slopes form part of the French Laos possessions. The Mekong
valley includes Laos, Cambodia and the greater part of Cochin-China. The
Mekong (q.v.) is one of the largest rivers of south-eastern Asia, having
a course 1900 m. in length. Its mouths, six in number, communicate by
means of a navigable canal with the Saigon river (fed by the Don-Nai and
the two Vaico rivers), which is navigable by the largest warships,
rendering Saigon the most important natural port of Indo-China.
_Geology._--The deltaic tracts of the Mekong and Red river are
composed of alluvium (generally silicious clay) deposited by the
rivers. The mountains from which this soil is derived are granitic in
formation, the framework being almost always schists of ancient date,
dislocated, folded and occasionally rounded into hills 1000 to 1300
ft. in height, belonging to the Devonian period. Above these schists
lie--more especially in the north and south of Tongking--marbles and
other highly crystalline limestones, upon which rest, unconformably in
places (Nong-Son, Ke-Bao, Hon-Gáy), Carboniferous formations. In the
upper part of the Red river valley rich deposits of coal have been
found between Yen-Bay and Hai-Duong, in a considerable tract of
Tertiary rock. Limestone occurs also in the valley of the Mekong,
forming an extensive _massif_ in the district of Lakhon and in the
basins of the Nam-Ka-Dinh and Nam-Hin-Bun. These limestones appear to
be Carboniferous. In the region south of Lakhon the rock is Triassic,
and gold has been found in several districts. The natives collect it
in very small quantities by a washing process. In the lateral valleys
of the Mekong copper and tin are found. On the course of the
Nam-Paton, a tributary of the Nam-Hin-Bun, the natives work a
moderately productive tin-mine. Layers of spiegeleisen, limonite and
other iron ores are numerous in the Laos states, in which also
antimony occurs.
_Climate._--The climate of Indo-China is that of an inter-tropical
country, damp and hot. But the difference between the southern and
northern regions is marked, as regards both temperature and
meteorology. Cochin-China and Cambodia have very regular seasons,
corresponding with the monsoons. The north-easterly monsoon blows from
about the 15th of October to the 15th of April, within a day or so.
The temperature remains almost steady during this time, varying but
slightly from 78.8° to 80.6° F. by day to 68° by night. This is the
dry season. From the 15th of April to the 15th of October the monsoon
reverses, and blows from the south-west. The season of daily rains and
tornadoes commences. The temperature rises from 80.6° to 84.2°, at
which it remains day and night. April and May are the hottest months
(from 86° to 93.2°). The damp unwholesome heat sometimes produces
dysentery and cholera. The climate of Annam is less regular. The
north-easterly monsoon, which is "the ocean-wind," brings the rains in
September. The north-easterly gales lower the temperature below 59°.
September is the month in which the typhoon blows. During the dry
season--June, July and August--the thermometer oscillates between 86°
and 95°. The nights, however, are comparatively cool. Tongking has a
winter season--October to May. The temperature, lowered by fog and the
rains, does not rise above 75.2° and descends to 50° over the delta,
and to 44.6° and even 42.8° in the highlands, where white frost is
occasionally seen. The summer, on the other hand, is scorching. The
wind veers to the south-east and remains there until October. The
temperature rises to over 83°; often it reaches and continues for
several days at 95° or even more. The nights are distressingly
airless. The Laos country in the interior and lying at a high altitude
is cooler and drier. Its deep valleys and high hills vary its climate.
_Fauna and Flora._--From the populous cultivated districts wild
animals, once plentiful, have retired towards the wooded and
mountainous districts. The wild life of Laos includes fairly numerous
herds of elephants, the rhinoceros (one- and two-horned rhinoceros
horn is employed as a "medicine"), tiger, panther, brown bear,
tree-bear, monkeys and rats, among which are the musk rat, the palm
rat and the _nu-khi_, or rat found in the rice-fields of the
highlands, in which its ravages are considerable. In mountain
districts the leopard, wild boar and deer are found, and in the
neighbourhood of habitations the tiger-cat and ichneumon. The buffalo
is commonly found wild in Laos as a domesticated animal it also holds
a prominent place. The zebu bull is used for transport purposes.
Attempts to acclimatize the Arab horse and to introduce sheep from
Aden and China have failed. There is, however, an indigenous race of
horses, excellent in spite of their small size--the horses of Phu-Yen.
Among birds the woodcock, peacock and numerous species of duck inhabit
the woods and marshes. The goose and guinea-fowl appear, as also the
turkey, to have become easily acclimatized. Reptiles (apart from the
caimans of the Mekong, which attain a length of over 30 ft., and are
much appreciated by the Annamese as food) are extremely numerous and
varied in species. The rivers are rich in fish. The sole is found in
the rivers of Tongking. The Mekong is fished for two species peculiar
to it--the _pa-beuk_ and the _pa-leun_, which attain a length of
nearly 6 ft. All varieties of mosquitoes, ants and leeches combine to
render the forests bordering the Mekong impracticable. Peculiar
species of grubs and caterpillars destroy the cotton and coffee
plantations of Cochin-China. The silkworm may be said to be indigenous
in Tongking, where there are several thousand acres of mulberry trees.
The flora is inter-tropical, and comprises nearly all the trees known
in China and Japan. The bamboo is utilized in building and a variety
of other ways. Formerly the teak was believed not to exist in the
forests of Indo-China, but it was found some years ago in considerable
abundance, and plantations of it have been made. Certain hard woods
are used for marqueterie and other ornamental work. Rubber is also
exploited. Cotton, previously cultivated in Cochin-China and Cambodia,
gives excellent results in Laos. Tea, of which there are a certain
number of plantations in the highlands of Tongking and Annam, grows
wild in Upper Laos, and in quality closely resembles the Pou-eurl or
Pueul variety noted in Yun-nan. Cocoa, coffee and cotton are
cultivated in Tongking and Cambodia. Cinnamon and cardamoms are
gathered in Laos and Annam. Ground nuts, sesame, sugar canes, pepper,
jute, tobacco and indigo are also grown. The area under rice, which is
incomparably the most important crop, is approximately 1,750,000
acres. All European fruits and vegetables have been introduced into
Tongking, and with certain exceptions--the grape, for example--succeed
perfectly. Measures taken to secure the monopoly of opium have notably
increased the cultivation of the poppy.
_People._--The population of French Indo-China falls into five chief
divisions--the Annamese, forming the bulk of the population in Annam,
Tongking and Cochin-China and four-fifths of that of the whole country;
the Khmers or Cambodians; the Chains of southern Annam; the Thais,
including the Laotians; and the autochthonous tribes classed by the
other inhabitants as Mois or Khas ("savages"). Driven into the interior
by the now dominant races, these older people have mixed and blended
with the peoples whom they found there, and new tribes have arisen,
intermingled with fugitives from China, Annam and even Siam. In the
north of Tongking people of Laos origin occur--the Thos round Kaobang,
the Muongs in the mountains bordering the Red river. When mixed, with
Chinese the Muongs and the Thos are known as the Hung-dans, Mans and
Miens. The Muongs are bigger and stronger than the Annamese, their eyes
often almost straight. They have square foreheads, large faces and
prominent cheek-bones. In the centre and south of the Indo-Chinese
mountain chain are found, under a multiplicity of names--Phon-tays,
Souis, Bah-nan, Bolovens, Stiengs, Mors, Kongs, &c.--people of Malayan
origin mixed with all the races of Indo-China. Laos is inhabited by an
essentially miscellaneous population--falling into three main
groups--the Thais; various aboriginal peoples classed as Khas; and the
Moos and Yaos, tribes of Chinese origin.
_Religions._--The Annamese religion is a somewhat vague and very
tolerant Buddhism, which in practice resolves itself chiefly into the
worship of ancestors. Certain ceremonies performed in Cambodia resemble
distantly the Brahminical cult. The Roman Catholic religion has been
introduced by missionaries. The course of its history has not been free
from catastrophes and accidents. There is an apostolical vicariate in
Cochin-China, one in Cambodia and several mission stations in Tongking.
Two of these missions are mainly conducted by Spanish priests.
_Administration._--Before taking its present form the governmental
organization of Indo-China underwent many changes. Originally
Cochin-China, the only French possession in the peninsula, was a colony
directly administered, like other colonies, by the ministry of marine,
and its earliest governors were admirals. Later, as further conquests
were effected, Tongking and Cambodia were subjected to the régime of a
protectorate somewhat ill-defined, and placed under the authority of
residents-general. The seat of the resident-general of Tongking was at
Hanoi; of Cambodia, at Pnom-Penh. The government of the colonies having
been transferred (1889) from the ministry of marine to the ministry of
commerce, and in 1894 to the newly created ministry of the colonies, the
control of the residencies passed gradually into the hands of civil
agents. Cochin-China, which already by the decree of the 8th of February
1880 had been endowed with a colonial council, had a municipality, a
chamber of commerce, and even a deputy in the French parliament. There
had thus been three distinct states, each with its own ruler and
government. But by the decrees of the 17th of October and the 3rd of
November 1887 the unity of Indo-China was determined. By decree of
October the post of director of the interior of Cochin-China was done
away with and replaced by that of lieutenant-governor under the
immediate authority of a governor-general. The functions and powers of
the latter official were, however, but vaguely defined before the decree
of the 21st of April 1891, which conferred on M J. M. A. de Lanessan,
appointed governor-general, the most extensive powers. The
residents-general of Tongking, Annam and Cambodia, and the
lieutenant-governor of Cochin-China, as well as the military
authorities, were placed under him. But this change of policy, which put
an end to the system of expeditions and minor military operations, and
restricted the power of the residents whilst restoring to the mandarins
a share of authority, was unwelcome to numerous interests, which,
combining, secured the abrupt recall of M de Lanessan on the 29th of
December 1894. The decree of the 21st of April 1891 was not, however,
revoked, but the powers it conferred were restricted. After the
appointment of M Doumer, successor to M Rousseau, who died on the 10th
of December 1896, this decree was again put in force on the former
scale, and in 1898 it was supplemented by the decrees of the 3rd and
31st of July, which definitely established the political and financial
unity of Indo-China. The governor-general is the sole intermediary
between the Indo-Chinese Union and the home government, the powers of
which, with few restrictions, are delegated to him. As supreme
administrative and military authority, he directly controls the civil
services, and, though prohibited from commanding in the field, disposes
of the land and sea forces in the country. His diplomatic negotiations
with foreign powers must be carried on under the authorization and
surveillance of the home authorities. The governor-general is assisted
by the Superior Council of Indo-China, which meets monthly, and as
reorganized by the decree of the 8th of August 1898 is composed as
follows: the governor-general (president); the general commanding as
head of the troops; the rear-admiral commanding the naval squadron of
the Far East; the lieutenant-governor of Cochin-China; the residents
superior of Tongking, Annam, Cambodia and Laos; the director-general of
finances; the director of the _contrôle financier_; the head of the
judicial service of Indo-China; the director-general of the customs and
excise of Indo-China; the directors-general of agriculture, forests and
commerce; of public works; of posts and telegraphs; of health; and of
public instruction; the treasurer-general of Indo-China; the director of
the school of medicine at Hanoi; the president of the colonial council
of Cochin-China; the presidents of the chambers of commerce of Saigon,
Hanoi and Hai-Phong; the presidents of the united chambers of commerce
and agriculture of Annam and Cambodia; the presidents of the chambers of
agriculture of Tongking and Cochin-China; four influential natives; the
chief of the cabinet and the governor-general's secretary. This list
sufficiently indicates the departmental services, by means of which the
general government is carried on. The Superior Council meets not only at
Hanoi, the seat of the government, but also at Saigon, Hué and
Pnom-Penh. It delegates its powers to a "permanent commission"
consisting of thirteen of its members, and dispensing with the
attendance of the local authorities of regions other than those in which
the place of meeting is situated. The Superior Council meets annually to
receive the general budget and the local budgets which "must be accepted
by the governor-general at a session of the Superior Council."[2] It
must also be consulted on the distribution of military credits, and on
the credits to be devoted to public works. The _contrôle financier_,
which scrutinizes and sanctions all measures of the public services
involving outlay of money, is dependent on the ministry of the colonies.
Its returns have to be communicated to the governor-general.
The governor-general is also assisted by a "council of defence,"
comprising the chief military and naval authorities.
_Justice._--The whole of Indo-China is, in principle, subject to
French justice, represented by a court of appeal and a certain number
of tribunals. Before 1898 the administration of justice was not
centralized. There was a court of appeal at Hanoi, and another at
Saigon. But the decree of the 8th of August 1898 established one court
of appeal for French Indo-China: two chambers sitting at Saigon and
the other two at Hanoi. Three tribunals of commerce are established at
Saigon, Hanoi and Hai-Phong. There are courts of first instance at
Saigon, My-Tho, Vinh-Long, Ben-Tre, Chau-Doc, Kantho, Soc-Trang,
Tra-vinh, Long-Xuyen for Cochin-China, at Pnom-Penh for Cambodia, and
at Hanoi and Hai-Phong for Tongking. These courts are supplemented by
_juges de paix_ in Cochin-China, and there are _juges de paix_ at
Nam-Dinh (Tongking) and Tourane; elsewhere in the protectorates the
residents perform judicial functions. There are criminal courts at
Saigon, My-Tho, Vinh-Long and Long-Xuyen in Cochin-China, at Hanoi in
Tongking and at Pnom-Penh in Cambodia. In Cochin-China Annamese law is
administered in the French courts in suits between natives, but native
tribunals have been superseded. In Annam-Tongking, outside the sphere
of the French tribunals, the natives are subject to Annamese justice,
represented in each province by a mandarin, called the _An Sat_, and
in Cambodia the natives are subject to the native tribunals. At the
same time, whenever a French subject or European or other foreigner is
a party in an affair, French justice only is competent.
_Public Works._--The order of the 9th of September 1898 placed the
public works of Indo-China under the "direct authority of the
governor-general as regards works entered to the general budget
account." There is a director of public works in Indo-China at Saigon,
a director of engineering in the other countries. In 1895 a "special
service" was created in Tongking to consider railway business.
_Posts and Telegraphs._--The country is divided into two sections for
the purposes of this service, the one comprising Annam, Tongking and
Upper Laos, the other Cochin-China, Cambodia and Lower Laos. The post
and telegraph offices in Indo-China number about three hundred.
Tourane communicates by submarine cable with Amoy in China, thence
with Vladivostok and Europe.
_The Army--Land Force._--The military services are under the authority
of a general of division commanding in chief. The European troops in
1907 comprised four regiments of colonial infantry with 22 batteries
of artillery (10 in Tongking and 12 in Cochin-China). The native
troops, numbering over 18,000, comprised four regiments of Tongkingese
_tirailleurs_ (sharp-shooters), two of Annamese, a battalion of
Cambodian and a battalion of Chinese _tirailleurs_, a squadron of
Annamese _chasseurs_ or light horse and two companies of engineers.
_Sea Force._--Indo-China is protected by the naval division of the Far
East. In addition five gunboats are stationed at Saigon and a
third-class cruiser and some minor vessels at Hai-Phong.
The _Policing_ of the country is performed by natives (the _garde
indigène_) under European officers and by the _gendarmerie coloniale_,
which is reinforced by native auxiliaries.
_Money, &c._--The monetary unit is the _piastre_, which is of variable
value, having fallen from 4.50 francs to 2.40 francs and fluctuating
round that figure. The chief native coin is the _sapek_ of zinc or
tin, six hundred of which strung together form a _ligature_, a tenth
of which is called a _tien_. The piastre is worth 2700 sapeks. The
unit of weight, the _picul_, equals 60.4 kilos. (about 133 lb.); the
_thuoc-moe_ equals .425 metre (about 17 in.).
_Education._--The Annamese are intelligent and have old intellectual
and artistic traditions. In consequence the promotion of education has
been assigned to a special council (_Conseil de perfectionnement de
l'enseignement_) selected from Frenchmen and Asiatics particularly
qualified for membership. Among its preoccupations are the
reconstitution of the schools of Chinese characters in Cochin-China,
the remodelling of the programmes of the triennial examinations in
Annam and Tongking (see ANNAM) with a view to completing them with a
summary knowledge of French and science, the improvement of the
teaching given in the pagodas in Cambodia and Laos, and the foundation
of a university comprising classes for natives. In 1906, in
Cochin-China, where the largest sum (£45,000 in 1906) is devoted to
instruction, 22,500 children received a French education.
_Finance._--The unification of the budget brought about by M Doumer
(decree of the 31st of July 1898) specially contributed to that of the
government. The financial scheme is based on the political. Just as a
single central government directs the various local governments, so in
addition to the general budget, comprising the revenue and expenditure
of the supreme government, there are several local budgets, including
the revenue and expenditure incidental to the individual provinces.